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Aug. 2011, Volume 5, No. 8 (Serial No. 45), pp. 723-731
Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Vehicle Operating, Accident and User Time Costs in Pavement

Management Systems: Approach for Portuguese Conditions
Bertha Maria Batista dos Santos1, Luís Guilherme de Picado Santos2 and Victor Manuel Pissarra Cavaleiro1
1. Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Beira Interior, Covilha 6200-001, Portugal
2. Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, IST, Technical University of Lisbon, Lisbon 1049-001, Portugal
Abstract: This paper presents a description and analysis of the most important models to predict each of the Road User Costs components
Costs, Accident Costs and Value of Time) and proposes a model for estimating RUC components suitable for the Portuguese road network. These results
research which aimed to obtain a Road User Cost Model to be used as a tool in road management systems. This model is different from other models by
includes a simple formulation that allows calibration and calculation of cost parameters, for any year, in a simple and fast way, providing trustworthy res
data is already available in Portuguese institutions, allowing periodic revision of cost parameters to insure accuracy.
Key words: Costs, pavement management systems, time, traffic accidents, vehicle operations.

1. Introduction1.1 Review of the Most Important RUC ModelsSeveral models are availablea for
considered estimating
good exampleRoad Userapplication
of an Costs (RUC).
and
existing model.
The COst Benefit Analysis (COBA) [4] is used in th
Trunk Road schemes in England, Wales and North
presents a simple RUC formulation. Nevertheless, it
careful definition of the constants and selected parame
adaptation to local characteristics, especially in the
fuel, accidents and value of time costs.
In the USA, The Manual “Techniques for Manually E
User Costs Associated with Construction Proje
[5, 6] is used in Texas Transportation Institute and u
tables that provide RUC values in terms of value
according to project type. A “before versus after”
used for added capacity projects, and a “during
versus after” approach for rehabilitation projects. T
only component considered according to the principle
variations of operating speed will lead
to a decrease in travel time and therefore a decrease o
 D
DAVID PUBLISHING

me Costs in Pavement
uguese Conditions
nuel Pissarra Cavaleiro1
001, Portugal
1049-001, Portugal
predict each of the Road User Costs components (Vehicle Operating
suitable for the Portuguese road network. These results are part of a
systems. This model is different from other models by the fact that it
ear, in a simple and fast way, providing trustworthy results. The required
o insure accuracy.

ered a good example of an application and calibration of an

g model.
Ost Benefit Analysis (COBA) [4] is used in the evaluation of
Road schemes in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and
s a simple RUC formulation. Nevertheless, it has a very
definition of the constants and selected parameters to achieve
ion to local characteristics, especially in the appraisal of
ccidents and value of time costs.
USA, The Manual “Techniques for Manually Estimating Road
Costs Associated with Construction Projects” (TxDOT)
is used in Texas Transportation Institute and uses look-up costs
that provide RUC values in terms of value of time (VOT)
ng to project type. A “before versus after” approach is
or added capacity projects, and a “during construction
after” approach for rehabilitation projects. The VOT is the
mponent considered according to the principle that significant
ons of operating speed will lead
crease in travel time and therefore a decrease of
VOT, while vehicle operating costs (VOC) and accident costs
(AC) remain almost the same.
Finally, the Cost Model integrated in the former Pavement
Management System (early 1990s) of the Portuguese Road
Administration (JAE RUC) [7] (designated, at the time, by JAE–
Junta Autónoma de Estradas) relies on the simple relations between
the condition of the pavements (longitudinal roughness) and road
user costs components. This model was based on the Norway
Pavement Management System.
The study revealed that most of these models consider three
main RUC costs components: VOC, AC and VOT. In RUC assessment
VOC is the most studied component, with a very significant role,
and usually includes fuel, engine oil, tyres, maintenance and
depreciation costs. The AC component generally reflects fatal,
non-fatal and property damage only accidents costs; and the VOT
component is often considered as an hourly wage rate function.
1.2 Vehicle Operating Costs
Fuel consumption cost is frequently the most significant
component of VOC (20% to 40%) and the one with the most
research work. Recently fuel consumption has been modelled
using mechanistic principles that relate consumption to the
motion opposing forces.
On the other hand, the engine oil consumption cost represents a very
small contribution to the total VOC, therefore, it has not been studied in
detail as the other components.
As far as tyres are concerned, and although the tyre consumption costs
can represent a significant contribution in the total VOC,
especially in heavy trucks, it has received less attention because of
the large number and hard modelling of factors related to tyre
consumption (tread wear and carcass wear). The modelling results
have lead to unsatisfactory parameters in the use of mechanistic
models, generally developed in controlled experiments that relate
tyre
consumption to fundamental equations of motion.
road improvement scenarios which result in significant
changes in operating vehicle speed.
VOT evaluation is normally made by attributing a monetary value
to user time in travel, usually as a function of an average wage.
Most of the existing models distinguish between two main
purposes of travel: travel in the course of work activities and travel for
non-work purposes.
2. Methodology Applied for Portuguese Conditions
2.1 Road User Costs Approach
The model for Portuguese conditions was developed taking
into account several main aspects, specifically: the recognized
conceptual principles, application to trunk roads, the impact of
each component on the total users’ costs and the
availability of Portuguese official information, moreover, four
vehicle classes were considered,
Empirical models were and can also be developed, usually using
fleet survey data.
Vehicle maintenance and repair costs are usually comprised of part
consumption and labour hours cost. Benefits from roads
improvements can be quantified with this component however few
researches have been conducted because of problems in performing
empirical measures and predictions. The existing relations are
usually based on published data and data surveys. Major differences
in labour costs and improvements in vehicle technology justify
the importance of model calibration.
Finally, the vehicle depreciation costs depend basically on the
use of the vehicle, service life time and technical obsolescence. It is
usually modeled as a function of replacement vehicle price,
using techniques like value-age, capital recovery and optimal
life.
1.3 Accident Costs
The AC assessment is complex (especially accident predictions) but
the increasing cost of road accidents justifies the consideration of
possible accident savings, especially in low-medium design standard
roads, as well as VOC reductions and time saving in economic
appraisals.
Due to the inability to predict accidents based on road design
characteristics, as acknowledged by several published data,
methodologies like the ones adopted by COBA and HDM-4
developed flexile and simple look-up tables to obtain accident
predictions. In these tables accident rates are obtained according to road
category and urban/rural location.
Most of the models allow separate estimation of number of
accidents taking place in intersections, sections and total
(intersection and section), and consider three types of accidents:
fatality, injury and damage only.
1.4 Time Costs
The VOT, related with time savings, is an important variable for
economic analysis varying according to
(with a low impact in total RUC but specially significant for
heavy vehicles that have an important role in the Portuguese
case because most of the national and international transportation
of goods is made by road through trucks).
Consideration of AC and VOT are justified by the reasons already
presented above. The inclusion of AC is also justified because it has
not been used in previous Portuguese RUC despite the importance
of benefits quantification related with road
improvements.
The model still considers the users willing to pay for improved
roads by the addition of tolling costs to VOC, AC and VOT.
The cost basis used is only related to direct costs for the user.
2.2 Portuguese RUC Model Formulation
The model developed for Portuguese conditions has the following
formulation [8, 9]:
passenger car (PC), utility (U), heavy truck (HT) and heavy bus (HB). RUC  VOC  AC  VOT  Toll
The results of these considerations lead to a Portuguese model
with the three main costs components identified above: the vehicle VOC  AADT  VOC  p  i i

operating i1
costs, the accident costs and the value of time.
VOC  Cf  Ct  Cm  Cd
i i i i i

Cf  cf  Cmf
i i i

The RUC formulation was based on the simplification of Ct  nt Cmt ; i i

(5)
HDM-4 equations for VOC; in i
tsl
COBA and HDM-4 approach for AC; and, in JAE i
Cm Cmmt i


Cost Model and HDM-4 principles for VOT.  kma
i

v i

Existing vehicles were considered as representative Cd  slCmdt i

of the selected four classes according to national official sales numbers. i

vsl  kma
This assumption simplified i
VOC evaluation and future model calibration.
AC  AADT  AC  CC 3 3 ⎞


j  k


The VOC components considered in this model were: fuel (because of the j1
⎝
high impact in total RUC),
AC  AR ac
j j j

maintenance and repairs (which has a medium impact, CC  ANC k

 cc k
influences other components as fuel consumption, k

vehicle depreciation, AC and VOT, and reflects the EA  365  AADT l

benefits of roads improvements), vehicle depreciation A  ANA j
(with medium impact, reflects capital invested in vehicle acquisition R EA j
versus car optimal life) and tyres
  AC  VOT  Toll (1)
(2)
T  VOC  p  i i
(3)
(4)
Ct  Cm  Cd i i i

f i

; (5)

i
Cmmt i (6)

 kma i

Cmdt i
(7)

 AC  CC 3 3 ⎞
(8)

k

k1
⎠
(9)

AR (10)
 j

j1

5  AADT l (11)

Aj
(12)
 ANC  NC
(13)
k k

ANA
VOT  AADT (VOT  p ) (14)

 i1 i i
1 
TC 
2

VOT  OR (15)

s i,m
m1 m
i

TC  NAW
m1 (16)

TC
m2  0.25 NAW (17)
4

(18)
Toll  AADT  ctoll  p  i i

i1
Where for Eq. (1):
RUC is the road user cost in €/km/day; VOC is the vehicle operating
cost in €/km/day; AC is the accident cost in €/km/day; VOT is
the value of time in
€/km/day; and, Toll is the toll cost in €/km/day.
Where for Eqs. (2)-(7):
i corresponds to vehicle class (i = 1 for PC, i = 2 for U, i = 3 for HT
and i = 4 for HB); AADT is the annual average daily traffic in
vehicles/day; VOCi is the vehicle operating cost for vehicle i in
€/km; Cfi is the fuel cost for vehicle i in €/km; Cti is the tyre cost for
vehicle i in €/km; Cmi is the maintenance cost for vehicle i in
€/km; Cdi is the vehicle depreciation cost for vehicle i in €/km; pi
is the vehicle proportion of each class i for the AADT considered;
cfi is the fuel consumption for vehicle i in L/km; Cmfi is the fuel
market price (gasoline or diesel) in €/L; nti is the number of
tyres for vehicle i; Cmti is the tyre market price for vehicle i in €/tyre;
tsli is the tyre service life for vehicle i in km; Cmmti is the total
maintenance market price for vehicle i in €; vsli is the vehicle i
service life in years; kmai is the annual average kilometreage
for vehicle i in km/year; Cmdti is the total vehicle i depreciation
market price (less tyres) in
€.
Where for Eqs. (8)-(13):
j corresponds to accident class (j = 1 for accidents with slight injury;
j = 2 for accidents with serious injury; j = 3 for accidents
with fatalities); k corresponds to the casualty class (k = 1 for
slight injury; k = 2 for serious injury, k = 3 for fatalities);
ACj is the accident j cost in €/km/vehicle; CCk is the
casualty k cost in €/km/vehicle; EA is the annual

exposure to accidents in sections and intersections

(total) in vehicles×km/year; l is the section length in

km; ARj is the accident j rate in accidents/vehicle/km;

ANAj is the annual number of accidents j in

accidents/year; ANCk is the average number of

casualties k by accident in casualties/accident; NCk is

the number of casualties k in casualties/year; ANA is
the annual number of accidents with casualties in accidents/year;
acj is the accident j cost (police and medical accident assistance
cost) in €/accident; cck is

the casualty k cost in €/casualty.

Where for Eqs. (14)-(17):
VOTi is the value of time for vehicle i in
€/km/vehicle; si is the average operating speed for vehicle i in
km/h; m corresponds to travel purpose (m
= 1 for travel in work time and m = 2 for travel in non-work
time); TCm is the time cost for travel purpose m in
€/h/occupant; ORi,m is the occupancy rate for vehicle i and
travel purpose m in occupant/vehicle; NAW is the national
average wage in €/h/person.
And, where for Eq. (18):
ctolli is the toll cost for vehicle i in €/km/vehicle.
2.3 Application of the Model for Passenger Car Vehicles and
Heavy Trucks
Some preliminary values resulting from the application of the
presented model for passenger car and heavy trucks are provided in
Tables 1-5.
2.4 Model Comparison
Figs. 1-4 provide some information related with the unit cost values
(€/km) resulting from the application of the proposed model (PTRUC)
as well as from the models study, for the passenger car and heavy trucks
vehicles [10]. The contribution of fuel and non-fuel components in
the total vehicle operating cost (VOC) and the contribution of the VOC
and the value of time (VOT) in the total RUC are presented.
The accident costs (AC) are not presented in this comparison
because they usually comprise the characteristic costs and
information from the network or section in analysis so values for
different countries
Table 1 Passenger car vehicle information (base year: 2006).
or even different regions of the same country may be
However, the formulation proposed is flexible, like m
existing ones, allowing the calculation
of this cost for the conditions prevailing in each case.

Representative vehicle RENAULT CLIO III 1.2 16V Dynamique Luxe 5P

Vehicle service life (years) 10
Annual average utilization (km/yr) 20000
Vehicle distribution by gasoline/diesel (%) 50/50
Fuel consumption – gasoline/diesel (L/100km) 5.9/4.8
Nº of tyres and price (€/tyre) 4 – 70€
Tyre service life (km) 40000
Depreciation distribution by time/distance (%) 60/40
Vehicle occupancy (occupants) 1 work driver and 1 not-work passenger; Total = 2
Value of time (€/hour/occupant) 6.00€/h (work time)
Table 2 Passenger car cost values in €/km (base year: 2006).
VOC VOT
Fuel Tyres Maintenance Depreciation EN/ER IC IP
and Repairs 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h
0.065 0.007 0.008 0.083 0.107 0.094 0.083
Note: EN/ER – Portuguese National and Regional Roads with two lanes (one in each direction) and “medium” design standards; IP and IC – Portugue
(Principal and Complementary roads) with two lanes (one in each direction) and “high” design standards; AE – Portuguese Freeways with at least
each direction), median and “high” design standards.
Table 3 Heavy truck vehicle information (base year: 2006).

Representative vehicle DAFT FT 95 430 S 380 with semi-trailer

Vehicle service life (years) 12
Annual average utilization (km/yr) 85000
Vehicle distribution by gasoline/diesel (%) 0/100
Fuel consumption – gasoline/diesel (L/100km) 44.0
Nº of tyres and average price (€/tyre) 12-455€
Tyre service life (km) 200000
Depreciation distribution by time/distance (%) 80/20
Vehicle occupancy (occupants) 1 work driver; Total = 1
Value of time (€/hour/occupant) 9.06€/h (work time)
Table 4 Heavy truck cost values in €/km (base year: 2006).
VOC VOT
Fuel Tyres Maintenance Depreciation EN/ER IC IP AE
and Repairs 50km/h 60km/h 80km/h 100km/h
0.466 0.027 0.027 0.080 0.181 0.151 0.113 0.091
Note: EN/ER – Portuguese National and Regional Roads with two lanes (one in each direction) and “medium” design standards; IP and IC – Portugue
(Principal and Complementary roads) with two lanes (one in each direction) and “high” design
standards; AE – Portuguese Freeways with at least 4 lanes (two in each direction), median and “high” design standards.
ns of the same country may be diverse.
ion proposed is flexible, like most of the
g the calculation
ditions prevailing in each case.

I 1.2 16V Dynamique Luxe 5P

10
20000
50/50
5.9/4.8
4 – 70€
40000
60/40
not-work passenger; Total = 2
€/h (work time)

Toll
AE ctoll
120 km/h
0.063 0.070
n standards; IP and IC – Portuguese Main roads
– Portuguese Freeways with at least 4 lanes (two in

30 S 380 with semi-trailer

12
85000
0/100
44.0
12-455€
200000
80/20
driver; Total = 1
€/h (work time)

Toll
AE ctoll
100km/h
0.091 0.180
n standards; IP and IC – Portuguese Main roads

ds.
 Table 5 Accident cost (base year: 2006).
Accident/Casualty type Light injuries Serious injuries
Police assistance (€/accident) 53.40 148.80
Medical assistance (€/accident) 16.80 96.40
Casualty cost (€/casualty) 40000 90000
Fig. 1 Fuel and non-fuel components distribution in the vehicle operating costs (VOC) for passenger car vehicles.
Fig. 2 Fuel and non-fuel components distribution in the vehicle operation costs (VOC) for heavy trucks.

Although there are some differences in the cost values and in the
representative vehicles used for each model and country, the vehicle
operation costs values are easier to compare even with the different
scenarios considered for each model.
Regarding time cost values and charts; they must be
carefully read. Establishing a value of time is probably
the RUC component that is most difficult to quantify in
appraisal. Regional or national average wage values
for a time cost definition. However, these values can
significantly from country to country or even from reg
Analyzing Fig. 1 it is possible to conclude that the
fuel and non-fuel components contributions in the
 Fatalities
232.80
96.40
500000
senger car vehicles.
vy trucks.

omponent that is most difficult to quantify in an economic

Regional or national average wage values are usually used
ost definition. However, these values can differ
y from country to country or even from region to region.
Fig. 1 it is possible to conclude that the
on-fuel components contributions in the
vehicle operating costs (VOC) for the passenger car (PC) obtained
from PTRUC are similar to the average values and especially to the
ones obtained from the application of the HDM-4 to Portuguese data
and the NZVOC values. However, for heavy trucks (HT) (Fig.
2) some significant differences can be observed. These differences are
essentially caused by the low values found for depreciation, and
especially, by the high values obtained for maintenance when the
HDM-4 model was applied to the available Portuguese data,
resulting in a bigger non-fuel contribution.
Low depreciation values were obtained for heavy trucks in HDM-4
given that the calculations of the annual average utilization
(km/year) for private use ≤ 50% depend on the average number of
the vehicle
working hours (hours/year), being the values

Fig. 3 The vehicle operation costs (VOC) and value of time (VOT) distribution in the RUC for passenger car vehicles.
Fig. 4 The vehicle operation costs (VOC) and value of time (VOT) distribution in the RUC for heavy trucks.
 recommended by the model greater than the typical Portuguese
ones. Multiplying the average number of working hours by the
vehicle’s average speed results in a higher value of annual
average utilization. Therefore, when the total vehicle depreciation cost
is divided by the utilization, the result will be a lower value of
depreciation per kilometer. For a more accurate calculation, a
model calibration with values consistent with the Portuguese
reality, which can be obtained by the use of official Portuguese data
related to the annual utilization (km) instead of the default HDM-4
average annual utilization, must be considered.
The perceptible differences in the maintenance values are the
results of the considerations of the
various models in this cost definition. The HDM-4

) distribution in the RUC for passenger car vehicles.

) distribution in the RUC for heavy trucks.
allows us to perform calculations of the components and labor costs
for total maintenance operations while the PTRUC model considers
only the preventive maintenance costs. However, another reason
for the high maintenance values obtained may be pointed out, which is
related to the higher HDM-4 values for the number of maintenance
labor hours when compared to the typical Portuguese values.
This is also a consequence of the consideration of preventive
maintenance costs in PTRUC model, which are only part of the total
cost of maintenance, resulting in lower values of labor hours.
Despite the differences (especially for heavy trucks), which can be
reduced with the model calibration in a more accurate Portuguese
HDM-4 application, the results reflect the vehicle operation costs
formulation for Portuguese conditions based on the HDM-4 VOC
equations.
The contributions of the VOT and VOC in the total Portuguese RUC
presented in Fig. 3 for the passenger cars differs from the values
obtained in the existing models under consideration with the exception
of the JAE values, reflecting a consistency among models developed
for Portuguese conditions. The values of the different
contributions are the result of the difficulties in quantifying
this cost, as mentioned above.
For heavy trucks the values obtained are similar, as can be observed in
Fig. 4.
The values shown for NZVOC model and the TxDOT manual
in Figs. 3 and 4 only include one cost component in determining the
road user costs (VOC and VOT, respectively). For this reason, the
average values calculated and shown in the “Average Mod” column
do not include the contribution of the NZVOC model and the TxDOT
manual values.
3. Conclusions
The reduced amount of data, the availability of this
information, a simple and flexible formulation, an easy calibration
and application to yield reliable
results, are the main improvements of the proposed model over
the existing ones, like the World Bank (HDM-4) model. It is
possible to use HDM-4 in a Portuguese reality, as shown above, but
would require careful calibration and a great number of data types
that in most cases are not available.
A first approach to RUC model formulation for the Portuguese
conditions that allows to compute average users’ costs is presented in
this paper however the final model formulation is not already
defined. The consideration of the pavement condition and work
zones will allow the necessary adjustments and refining of the
proposed model.
From the observation of the results obtained from the reference
models and that proposed it is possible to confirm the main role of
the vehicle operating costs (VOC) in total RUC. However, the
value of time (VOT) obtained also present a significant contribution
(approximately 20%).
Thus, knowing that the vehicle operation costs is the most
significant RUC component and is mostly influenced by pavement
conditions, a decrease in RUC is expected when a careful
pavement maintenance program is applied, at the same time
reducing the number of accidents and improving travel time.
Additionally the decrease of the operation speed due to the
implementation of the maintenance actions (work zones) increases
significantly the value of time (VOT) and the fuel
consumption (in congestion situations). Therefore the occurrence
of maintenance actions should also be taken into account. Due to the
flexibility of the model, changes of the pavement condition and the
consequences of work zones can easily be included in the RUC
formulation by considering specific parameters defined for a
particular scenario and pavement quality index, such as operating
speed or fuel consumption. Research about the mentioned
parameters and adjustments to the proposed model will be
developed in the near
future.
 The final model will provide (because at the present moment no RUC
model is being used in Portugal) the needed tool to apply RUC in the
economic analysis of the Portuguese Pavement Management Systems.
References
[1] C. Bennett and I. Greenwood, Modelling road user and environmental
effects in HDM-4, The Highway Development and Management Series,
Vol.7, PIARC, France, 2001.
[2] The World Bank, HDM-4 Road User Costs Model, Version 1.20,
Washington D.C., 2007.
[3] Using the NZVOC Model to Prepare PEM Vehicle Operating Costs,
Transfund, Data Collection Ltd., New Zealand, 2003.
[4] Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 13: Economic
Assessment of Road Schemes, Section 1: The COBA Manual, Department for
Transport, Scottish Executive Development Department, Welsh Assembly
Government/Llywodraeth Cynulliad Cymru, the Department for Regional
Development, Northern Ireland, UK, 2002.
[5] G. Daniels, D. Ellis and Wm. Stockton, Techniques for manually
estimating road user costs associated with

View publication stats

construction projects, Texas Transportation Institute, USA, 1999.
[6] G. Daniels, W. R. Stockton and R. Hundley, Estimating road user costs
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[9] B. Santos, Modelação dos Custos dos Utentes na Gestão da Estrada
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[10] B. Santos, L. Picado-Santos and V. Cavaleiro, Definition, analysis and
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