THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

(6hrs)
 Overview of Machining Technology
 Introduction to cutting tools
 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
 Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
 Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
 Cutting Temperature

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 METAL MACHINING

Definitions;

 Machining: term applied to all material-removal processes.

 It is the manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away

some material in form of chips to leave the desired part shape/surface.

 Metal cutting: the process in which a thin layer of excess metal (chip) is
removed by a wedge-shaped single-point or multipoint cutting tool with defined
geometry from a work piece, through a process of extensive plastic deformation

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 MACHINING
 Machining operations are capable of producing more precise
dimensions and smooth surface finishes than all other manufacturing
processes.

 Performed after other processes, e.g. casting, forging, etc. which create
the general shape of the parts.

 Machining then provides the final geometry, dimensions and finish.

 They are necessary where tight tolerances on dimensions and finishes

are required.

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 Material Removal Processes
 A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal
of material from a starting work part so the remaining part has the
desired shape.

 The family tree is shown here;

 The most common being;

 Conventional machining processes

 Abrasive processes branch

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 Categories of Machining
• Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling,
drilling etc.

• Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g.,

grinding that are usually in the form of a bonded wheel.

- Abrasive processes are referred to as “machining with geometrically

undefined tools” since the particular geometry of a particle is not known.

- Each single particle acts like a single-point cutting tool.

• Non-traditional processes – Uses energy forms other than sharp cutting

tool or abrasive particles to remove material e.g. machining with Mechanical,
Electromechanical, thermal or chemical sources of energy.

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 Machining
 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip.

 To achieve the cutting, relative motion is required; cutting speed provides the
primary motion and the secondary motion is provided by the feed
 As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

Figure (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a)

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 Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be machined
- Most frequently applied to metals
 Variety of part shapes and special geometry features possible, such
as:
- Screw threads

- Accurate round holes

- Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Only way to get high precision, sharp corners
 Indispensible for creating complex surfaces

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 Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material

 Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in

the unit operation

Time consuming

 A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a

given part than alternative shaping processes, e.g. casting,

powder metallurgy, forming

Can mess up properties and surface finish is not done properly.

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 Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence
 Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, forming, rolling and drawing

- Other processes create the general shape of the starting work part

- Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special

geometric details that other processes cannot create

 The three most important dimensions of machining (often referred to as

cutting conditions) are;
- Cutting speed, v
- Feed, f and
- Depth of cut, d

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Cutting tool Classification;
1.Single-Point Tools
 One cutting edge
 Turning uses single point tools
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work usually achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools.

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Single-point cutting tool

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 Single point cutting tool Signature
Face or rake surface, flank, cutting edges and the corner
 Face or rake is the surface of the cutting tool along which the chips flow out.

 Flank surfaces are those facing the work piece.

 There are two flank surfaces, principal and auxiliary flank surfaces;
 Principal cutting edge performs the major portion of cutting and is formed by
the intersecting line of the face with the principal flank surface.
 Auxiliary cutting edge (often called end cutting edge) is formed by the
intersection of the rake surface with the auxiliary flank surface.
 Corner or cutting point is the meeting point of the principal cutting edge with the
auxiliary cutting edge.

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Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA):
•Also known as the lead angle is the angle enclosed between the side cutting edge and the
longitudinal direction of the tool.
•Its value varies between 0° and 90°, depending upon the machinability, rigidity and some times, the
shape of the work piece.
•As this angle increases from 0° to 15°, the power consumption during cutting decreases.
•However, there is a limit for increasing the SCEA, beyond which excessive vibrations take place
because of the large tool-work piece interface.
•The recommended value for the lead angle should range between15° and 30°.
Auxiliary or End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA):
•Serves to eliminate rubbing between the end cutting edge and the machined surface of the work
piece.
•Although this angle takes values in the range of 5° to 30°, commonly recommended values are 8° to
15°.
Side and End Relief/Clearance Angle:
• Side and end clearance (relief) angles serve to eliminate rubbing between the work piece and the
side and end flank, respectively.
•Usually, the value of each of these angles ranges between 5° and 15°.
 Nomenclature
Back Rake Angle and Side Rake Angle:
 Back and side rake angles determine the direction of flow of the chips onto the face
of the tool.
 Rake angles can be positive, negative, or zero.
 The side rake angle has the dominant influence on cutting.
 Its value usually varies between 0° and 15°,
 whereas the back rake angle is usually taken as 0° in common machining practices.
Nose radius:
 Nose radius is favorable to long tool life and good surface finish.
 A sharp point on the end of a tool is highly stressed, short lived and leaves a groove
in the path of cut.
 There is an improvement in surface finish and permissible cutting speed as nose
radius is increased from zero value.
 Too large a nose radius will induce chatter.

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 Methods of Machining
 In metal cutting operation, the tool is wedge-shaped and has a
straight cutting edge.

 Basically, there are two methods of metal cutting, depending upon

the arrangement of the cutting edge with respect to the direction of
relative work-tool motion:
 Orthogonal cutting or two dimensional cutting
 Oblique cutting or three dimensioning cutting.

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Orthogonal Cutting

 The cutting edge of the tool remains at 90 to the direction of feed (of the tool or the work)
 The chip flows in a direction normal to the cutting edge of the tool
 The cutting edge of the tool has zero inclination with the normal to the feed The chip
flows in the plane of the tool face.
 Therefore, it makes no angle with the normal (in the plane of the tool face) to the cutting.
 The shear force acts on a smaller area, so shear force per unit area is more.
 The tool life is smaller than obtained in oblique cutting (for same conditions of cutting)
 There are only two mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces on the tool
 The cutting edge is bigger than the width of cut.

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Oblique Cutting

 The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction of
feed (of the work or tool)
 The direction of the chip flow is not normal to the cutting edge, rather it is at an
angle β to the normal to the cutting edge.
 The cutting edge is inclined at an angle λ to the normal to the feed. This angle is
called inclination angle.
 The shear force acts on a larger area, hence the shear force per area is smaller
 The tool life is higher than obtained in orthogonal cutting
 The cutting edge is smaller than the width of cut.

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 Machining Operations
 Different machining operations are capable of producing different part
geometry and surface texture:

1. Turning:
 Produces cylindrical parts.
 A cutting tool with single cutting edge, moving slowly in a horizontal
plane removes materials from a rotating work piece.
 The cutting tool moves in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of
the work piece to provide the cutting feed.

Figure: Turning process

2. Drilling
 Used to create a round hole.
 A rotating tool, typically with two cutting edges is fed in to the
work part in the direction parallel to its axis of rotation to create
the round hole.
 The axis of the cutting tool coincides with the axis of the hole
created.

Figure: drilling process

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3. Milling
 Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved slowly relative to work
to generate plane or straight surface.
 The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of
rotation.
 The speed motion is provided by the milling cutter
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Figure: (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling

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 Summary of Machining Operations

Operation Machine tool Speed Feed Depth of cut

Turning Lathe Work piece rotates, speed = Tool is fed parallel to Tool penetration
surface speed of work piece work axis beneath original
work surface

Drilling Drill press Tool rotates, work piece Tool feeds in a direction Depth of cut =
remains stationary, drill bit parallel to its axis (axis of depth of hole
diameter determines the hole the hole to be created). created
diameter.

Milling Milling machine Tool rotates, speed = surface Work feeds in direction Tool penetration
speed of work piece perpendicular to the tool beneath original
axis. work surface

• Other machining operations:

 - Shaping and planing
 - Broaching
 - Sawing
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 Cutting Conditions in Machining
 The three dimensions of a machining process:
 Cutting speed v – Is primary motion-the traveling velocity of the tool relative
to the work piece. It is measured in m/s or m/min.
 Feed f – secondary motion-the relative movement of the tool in order to
process the entire surface of the work piece.
 Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original work surface-the
axial projection of the length of the active cutting tool edge, measured in
mm. In orthogonal cutting it is equal to the actual width of cut b .
 For certain operations, material removal rate can be
found as;
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut

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 Cutting Conditions for Turning

Figure - Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning operation

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 Roughing vs. Finishing in Machining
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken on the part,
followed by one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from the starting work part
 Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some material for
finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Feed range from 0.4 - 1.25mm/rev (0.015 - 0.05in/rev)
 Depths range from 2.5 – 20mm (0.1 – 0.75in)
 Finishing - completes part geometry and achieve final dimension,
tolerances and finishes.
 Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds.
 Feed range from 0.125 – 0.4mm/rev (0.005 - 0.015in/rev)
 Depths range from 0.75 – 2.0mm (0.030 – 0.075in)
 Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a machining
operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
 Holds work part
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been
set
 The term is also applied to machines that perform
metal forming operations

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 Theory of chip formation Model
 A simplified 3-D model of machining that describes the mechanics
of machining fairly accurately

Figure - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

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Chip Thickness Ratio (r)

to
r 
tc

 where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip prior to chip

formation; and tc = chip thickness after separation
 Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before, so chip ratio is always
less than 1.0.
 Also

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 Determining Shear Plane Angle

Figure - Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding
relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle
used to derive strain equation

• Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear

plane angle  can be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle
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Shear Strain
 Shear strain in machining can be computed from
the following equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model:

 = tan( - ) + cot 
 where  = shear strain,  = shear plane angle, and 
= rake angle of cutting tool

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 Shear zone

Figure - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear
plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction

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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip or segmented
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip or semi-continous

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 Segmented Chip
 Brittle work materials

 Common in mild steel, aluminum,

cast iron, etc
 Low cutting speeds

 Large feeds and depth of cut

 High tool-chip friction

 Small or negative rake angles

Figure - (a) segmented

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 Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials (e.g.,
low carbon steel)

 High cutting speeds

 Small feeds and depths

 Sharp cutting edge on the tool

 Low tool-chip friction

 Large positive rake angles

Figure - (b) continuous

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 Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting speeds
 Small or negative rake angles
 Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
 BUE formation is cyclical; it forms, then
breaks off
 Common in mild steel, aluminum, cast
iron at above cutting conditions

Figure - (c) continuous with built-up edge

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 Serrated Chip
 Semi-continuous - saw-tooth appearance

 Cyclical chip formation of alternating high

shear strain then low shear strain

 Most closely associated with difficult-to-

machine metals at high cutting speeds

Figure - (d) serrated

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 Chip control
 Discontinuous chips are generally desired because they
 are less dangerous for the operator
 do not cause damage to work piece surface and machine tool
 can be easily removed from the work zone
 can be easily handled and disposed after machining.
 There are three principle methods to produce the favorable discontinuous chip:
 Œproper selection of cutting conditions
 •use of chip breakers
 Žchange in the work material properties
 Proper selection of cutting conditions
 Cutting velocity affects chip type to a great extend.
 productivity of machining and surface finish, working at low speeds may not be desirable.
 If cutting speed is to be kept high, changing the feed and depth of cut is a reasonable solution
for chip control.
 At constant cutting speed, the ‘chip map’ defines the area of desirable chip type as a function
of feed and depth of cut

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 Chip breakers
 Chip break and chip curl may be promoted by use of chip breaker.
 There are two types of chip breakers;
 Œexternal type, an inclined obstruction clamped to the tool face chip breaking bulges
on tool surface.
 •integral type, a groove ground into the tool face or bulges formed onto the tool face

Change in the work material properties

 Some elements, for instance lead, when added to steel make chip type and chip removal more
favorable.
 Such steels are referred to as free-machine steels.
 Increasing the work material hardness (for example by quenching) generally results in production
of discontinuous chips.

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 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure - Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting

on the chip in orthogonal cutting

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 Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

 R' must be equal in magnitude to R

 R’ must be opposite in direction to R

 R’ must be collinear with R

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 Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as
follows:
  tan 

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 Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

to w
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during
cutting
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 Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured are:
 Cutting force Fc and
 Thrust force Ft

Figure - Forces in metal cutting: (b)

forces acting on the tool that can
be measured

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Forces in Metal Cutting
 Equations can be derived to relate the forces that
cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress and
coefficient of friction can be determined

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 The Merchant Equation
 According to Eugene Merchant
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D
machining
 Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation could
occur, the work material will select a shear plane angle 
which minimizes energy, given by
 
  45  
2 2
and

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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
 
  45  
2 2
 To increase shear plane angle
 Increase the rake angle
 Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)

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Effects of shear plane angle
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means
lower shear force
 Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of which mean
easier machining

Figure - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b)
smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a),
which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation

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 Power and Energy Relationships
 A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v = cutting speed

In U.S. customary units, power is traditionally expressed as horsepower

(dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)

Fc v
HPc 
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

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Power and Energy Relationships
Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is
given by

Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  90%

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Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of
metal cut.
 Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc HPc
Pu  or HPg 
MRR E

where MRR = material removal rate

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Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fc v Fc
U  Pu   
MRR vto w to w

Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

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Cutting Temperature
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into
heat.

 This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip

 Most times over 600˚C; This is usually dealt with by use of cutting
fluids that provide cooling and lubrication properties

 The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in

the chip

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Cutting Temperature
 Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
 Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional analysis
using experimental data for various work materials

0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T  
C  K 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip
thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of the
work material

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 Cutting Temperature
 Experimental methods can be used to measure temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple
 Using this method, K. Trigger determined the speed-temperature
relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm

where T = measured tool-chip interface

temperature, v = cutting speed. Parameters K
and M depend on cutting conditions (other
than v) and work material as shown

Figure:
0.182
For titanium; T = 479v
0.361
For stainless steel; T = 135v
0.348
For free machining steel; T = 86.2v
At different temperature ranges as shown

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Example 1
(a) In a machining operation that approximates an orthogonal cutting, the cutting tool has a
rake angle 10˚. The chip thickness before and after cutting are 0.5mm and 1.125mm
respectively. Calculate the share plane angle and the share strain during the operation.
(b)If the cutting force and thrust force are measured to be 1559N and 1271N respectively, the
width being 3mm. Determine the shear strength of the work material.
(c) Using the Marchant equation, compute the shear stress, the friction angle and the
coefficient of friction for this operation.
(d)Determine the cutting power, the gross energy and specific energy required to perform the
machining process if the cutting speed is 100m/mm.
-3 3
(e) Given that, the volumetric specific heat for the work material is 3.0x10 J/mm and its
-6
thermal diffusivity is 50x10 m2/s. Calculate the increase in temperature above the ambient
of 20˚C.

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