Philo 1: Fallacies (a) (b) one step or action is taken it will invariably lead to similar steps or
actions, the end results of which are negative or undesirable; always
Fallacies are product of incorrect reasoning. (Non Sequitur) 𝑃→𝑄 𝑃→𝑄
The premise set does not lead to the conclusion set. 𝑄______ ~𝑃______
∴𝑃 ∴ ~𝑄
Types:
1. Formal: based on structure; validity is the issue
a. Affirming the Consequent (wrong form of Modus Pollens)
b. Denying the Antecedent (wrong form of Modus Tollens)
2. Informal: based on the content; soundness is the issue
a. Fallacies of Ambiguity: intended meaning is not clear
i. Fallacy of Equivocation: given word or phrase may have more than one
meaning
ii. Fallacy of Amphiboly (Syntactic Ambiguity): meaning of word is
indeterminate because of the loose or awkward way by which its words
are combined
iii. Fallacy of Improper Accent: false conclusion due to misplaced accent
iv. Fallacy of Vicious Abstraction: misleading the people by using vague
or abstract terms
b. Fallacies of Relevance: evidence is of the wrong kind in order to establish a
conclusion.
i. Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument Against the Person)
1. Abusive (Appeal to Personality/Poisoning the Well): attack on the
person’s personality.
2. Circumstantial Argument Against the Person: the circumstance
of the person’s life are such that he/she could be expected to hold
exactly those views.
3. Tu Quoque or “You-Too Argument”: attempt to defend one’s self
by making a counter-charge against the accuser.
ii. Appeal to Emotions
1. Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity): persuading the
people by evoking feelings of compassion and sympathy with such
feelings, however understandable, are not logically relevant to the
arguer’s conclusion
2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force): persuading others
to accept a position by using threat or pressure instead of presenting
evidence for one’s view
3. Appeal to Desire: ignoring the issue by appealing to the desires,
interests or passions of the people to get the conclusion accepted
iii. Straw-Man Fallacy (Straw Person Fallacy): a) one misrepresents the
position that one wishes to oppose and b) one attacks the misrepresented
position as if it were the real position one wishes to oppose
iv. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question/Circular Argument): when a
given statement is offered as evidence that the very statement is true
v. Slippery Slope: an argument that suggests taking a minor action will
lead to major and sometimes ludicrous consequences; suggests that if
assume a chain reaction of cause-effect events which result in some
eventual dire outcome.
c. Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence: premises fail to provide adequate
evidence for the conclusion
i. Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to Popular Sentiment/Appeal to
Popularity/Bandwagon Fallacy): assuming that the conclusion is
proven because people in general believe it to be true
ii. Appeal to Tradition: persuading others of a certain belief by appealing
to their feelings of reverence or respect for some tradition, instead of
giving rational basis for such belief
iii. Argumentum ad Vericundiam (Appeal to Inappropriate
Authority/Appeal to General Eminence/Appeal to a Famous
Person): persuading others by appealing to people who command
respect or authority but do not have legitimate authority in the matter at
hand
iv. Accident: one applies a general rule to exceptional cases
v. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization: the quantity of the evidence is not
commensurate with the scope and the importance of the conclusion
being drawn. (Sometimes associated with Converse Accident)
vi. Fallacy of Division: treating a collective attribute distributively
vii. Fallacy of Composition: treating distributed characteristics as if it were
collective.
viii. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance): a statement is
true because it cannot be proven false and vice-versa
ix. False Cause: when A is identified to cause B with insufficient grounds
to justify the causal relationship.
x. Complex Question asking a question in such a way that if one answers
the question as stated, one is at least assenting to (or dissenting from) at
least one statement assumed by the question.
xi. Black or White Fallacy (Fallacy of False Dilemma): one assumes that
there are only two contrary alternatives available, ignoring the
possibility of other alternatives between contraries.
xii. False Analogy: drawing a comparison between two or more things
where a significant difference exists between them
d. Other Fallacies
i. Fallacy of Contradictory Premises: argues on the basis of premises
that make up a contradiction or a paradox
ii. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact: offers a poorly supported claim about
what might have happened in the past or future, if (the hypothetical part)
circumstances or conditions were different; also entails treating future
hypothetical situations as if they are fact