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Steel Stacks
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A N A M E R I C A N N AT I O N A L STA N DA R D
Steel Stacks
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A N A M E R I C A N N AT I O N A L S TA N D A R D
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The 2006 edition of this Standard is being issued with an automatic addenda subscription service.
The use of addenda allows revisions made in response to public review comments or committee
actions to be published as necessary. This Standard will be revised when the Society approves the
issuance of a new edition.
ASME issues written replies to inquiries concerning interpretations of technical aspects of this
Standard. The interpretations will be included with the above addenda service.
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This code or standard was developed under procedures accredited as meeting the criteria for American National
Standards. The Standards Committee that approved the code or standard was balanced to assure that individuals from
competent and concerned interests have had an opportunity to participate. The proposed code or standard was made
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regulatory agencies, and the public-at-large.
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ASME does not take any position with respect to the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any
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Copyright © 2006 by
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
All Rights Reserved
Printed in U.S.A.
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
Committee Roster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Correspondence with the Steel Stacks Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1 Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Linings and Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 Dynamic Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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6 Access and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7 Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8 Fabrication and Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9 Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Figures
6.2.6-1 Example of the General Construction of Cages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.2.6-2 Minimum Ladder Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3.6 Ladder Dimensions, Support Spacing, and Side Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.3.8 Landing Platform Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tables
4.4.6 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.4.7 Minimum Structural Plate Thickness and Maximum Stiffener Spacing . . . . . . . . 16
4.10.1.3 Cable Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2.1 Representative Structural Damping Values (s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Mandatory Appendix
I Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Nonmandatory Appendices
A Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
B Materials for Ambient and Elevated Temperature Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
C Linings and Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
D Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
E Example Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
F Conversion Factors: U.S. Customary to SI (Metric) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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FOREWORD
In early 1978, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers was approached by a group
interested in formulating a standard for the design, fabrication, and erection of steel stacks and
their appurtenances. They felt there was a need for such a code to establish a better level of
standardization in the industry and for safeguarding the community. Because of the particular
nature of stacks and their susceptibility to failures due to wind and seismic-induced vibrations,
along with corrosion and erosion, the design process is a complex one. Additionally, recent
regulations by the Environmental Protection Agency concerning emissions have placed a strong
emphasis on the mechanical design of stacks. In the last several decades, much research has been
done and many papers written on the subject. While investigation and research continued, it
was the feeling of these persons that some formal guidelines needed to be established. Therefore,
in April of 1979, a group comprised of stack users, researchers, designers, fabricators, and erectors
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convened at the United Engineering Center in New York City under the auspices of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers to formulate such a code.
With the above in mind, the group subdivided and began gathering information to formulate
guidelines for mechanical design, material selection, the use of linings and coatings, structural
design, vibration considerations, access and safety, electrical requirements, and fabrication and
construction. When these were established, a section on maintenance and inspection was added.
The following is a result of their work and investigation. The initial document was approved as
an American National Standard in August 1986 and published as ASME/ANSI STS-1-1986 in
May 1988.
During the next three years, the committee received comments from the public at large and
from its own membership regarding the Standard’s content. Several formulas needed correction
and some of the symbols needed clarification. Section 6.3.3 regarding Earthquake Response was
also reviewed and revised to allow for static rather than dynamic analysis in certain cases, and
to correlate it with ASCE STD-7-88 (formerly ANSI A58-1). These changes were then submitted
to the general membership and approved.
In 1994, the committee was reorganized to further review and update this steel stack Standard.
Emphasis was given to the Structural Design and Vibrations chapters. Chapter 4, “Structural
Design,” was rewritten to be more compatible with the nomenclature, formulae, and symbols
used in the Manual of Steel Construction - Allowable Stress Design (ASD), 9th Edition and Load
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and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 1st Edition. Chapter 5, “Vibrations,” was revised to be
more “user friendly.” These and other chapters were updated to include the latest recognized
applicable codes and standards.
This edition includes changes and improvements to the Environmental Protection Agency
regulation concerning emissions that have created a strong emphasis on the mechanical design
of steel stacks, makes necessary changes found through practical experience with the previous
edition, expands formulas as necessary, and provides both revised and new sections for steel
stack design, fabrication, and erection. It revises sections on appurtenances to meet today’s
requirements for these items. A new section provides the fundamental concepts for guyed stacks.
Revisions to the section on the physical properties of steel at elevated temperatures have been
made to match information available through a comprehensive review of current technical litera-
ture. Sections on vibration include minor changes but will yield a more workable standard. Also,
a detailed example is included to provide a method for determining the magnitude of across
wind loads. One method is included to address fatigue due to vibration. Fatigue can be a significant
issue in steel stack design and needs to be considered in the design. Methods to determine across
wind load and seismic loads are provided in the nonmandatory appendices. If fatigue requires
close examination, the engineer is cautioned to review this issue with other design standards if
necessary. There are several standards among them: AISC, CICIND, or ASME that can be helpful.
This revised standard was approved as an American National Standard on March 21, 2006
and reissued as STS-1-2006.
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ASME STS COMMITTEE
Steel Stacks
(The following is the roster of the Committee at the time of approval of this Standard.)
OFFICERS
J. C. Sowizal, Chair
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COMMITTEE PERSONNEL
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General. ASME Standards are developed and maintained with the intent to represent the
consensus of concerned interests. As such, users of this Standard may interact with the Committee
by requesting interpretations, proposing revisions, and attending Committee meetings. Corre-
spondence should be addressed to:
Secretary, Steel Stacks Standards Committee
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Three Park Avenue
New York, NY 10016
Proposing Revisions. Revisions are made periodically to the Steel Stacks Standard to incorporate
changes that appear necessary or desirable, as demonstrated by the experience gained from the
application of the Standard. Approved revisions will be published periodically.
The Committee welcomes proposals for revisions to this Standard. Such proposals should be
as specific as possible, citing the paragraph number(s), the proposed wording, and a detailed
description of the reasons for the proposals, including any pertinent documentation.
Interpretations. Upon request, the Committee will render an interpretation of any requirement
of the Standard. Interpretations can only be rendered in response to a written request sent to the
Secretary of the Steel Stacks Standards Committee.
The request for interpretation should be clear and unambiguous. It is further recommended
that the inquirer submit his request in the following format:
Subject: Cite the applicable paragraph number(s) and concise description.
Edition: Cite the applicable edition of the Standard for which the interpretation is
being requested.
Question: Phrase the question as a request for an interpretation of a specific requirement
suitable for general understanding and use, not as a request for an approval
of a proprietary design or situation. The inquirer may also include any plans
or drawings, which are necessary to explain the question; however, they
should not contain proprietary names or information.
Requests that are not in this format will be rewritten in this format by the Committee prior
to being answered, which may inadvertently change the intent of the original request.
ASME procedures provide for reconsideration of any interpretation when or if additional
information that might affect an interpretation is available. Further, persons aggrieved by an
interpretation may appeal to the cognizant ASME Committee or Subcommittee. ASME does not
“approve,” “certify,” “rate,” or “endorse” any item, construction, proprietary device, or activity.
Attending Committee Meetings. The Steel Stacks Standards Committee regularly holds meet-
ings, which are open to the public. Persons wishing to attend any meeting should contact the
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INTRODUCTION
The following Standard applies to steel stacks; that is, those stacks where the primary supporting
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shell is made of steel. It applies to both single- and multiple-walled steel stacks, either of which
can be lined or unlined. It also applies to steel stacks that are guyed, or to certain aspects of
tower stacks. The stack may be supported on a foundation or from another structure.
This Standard covers many facets of the design of steel stacks. It outlines the consideration
which must be made for both the mechanical and structural design. It emphasizes what consider-
ation must be taken for wind- and seismic-induced vibrations. It gives guidelines for the selection
of material, linings, and coatings. It gives the requirements for lighting and lightning protection
based upon existing building and federal codes. It gives the requirements for climbing and
access based upon current Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. It
emphasizes the important areas regarding fabrication and construction. It outlines areas requiring
maintenance and inspection following initial operation.
Although many of the topics within these guidelines may be used for all stacks, this Standard
is intended to provide design guidelines for stacks containing nonflammable gases such as
combustion exhaust gases at low internal pressures. For stacks containing combustible gases
under pressure such as flare stacks and flammable vents, additional design considerations must
be addressed, including design for internal pressure, design for internal deflagration pressure,
and compatibility with adjoining piping design that is in accordance with piping and/or vessel
design codes such as ASME B31.3 and Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(BPVC). In addition, the materials of construction referenced in this Standard may not be allowed
for use with flammable gases under pressure per ASME B31.3 and Section VIII of the ASME
BPVC; materials suitable for pressure containment of flammable gases are listed in these codes.
No attempt is made within this Standard to define the need or the methods to be used to consider
these additional design considerations.
The information presented has been prepared in accordance with established engineering
principles utilizing state-of-the-art information. It is intended for general information. While
every effort has been made to ensure its accuracy, the information should not be relied upon for
any specific application without the consultation of a competent, licensed professional engineer
to determine its suitability. It is therefore recommended that Engineering/Design drawings of
the stack bear the Professional Engineer Seal, signature, and date.
Nothing in the Standard shall be construed to alter or subvert the requirements of any existing
code or authority having jurisdiction over the facility. Furthermore, alternate methods and materi-
als to those herein indicated may be used, provided that the engineer can demonstrate their
suitability to all affected agencies and authorities.
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ASME STS-1–2006
STEEL STACKS
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
unusual and basic engineering design standards should The total of the calculated losses comprises the total
be followed. stack draft loss.
冢T 冣
1 1 B to stack draft losses caused by stack mounted sound
DRN p 7.57 HE − (1-1)
A TG 30 attenuators, stack dampers, or stack caps.
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
speed of 15 mph is suggested for establishing a maxi- prevent gas temperatures below the dew point in the
mum heat loss unless field data can prove higher or nonactive lower part of the stack. This false bottom
lower average velocities. should be well drained and of a shape to prevent solids
buildup.
1.5.4 Heat Loss Calculations. Heat loss through the
wall(s) of a stack can be calculated with the following (b) Since ambient air winds will enter the top of the
formula: stack, especially at low stack flow velocities, and hence
cause low exit metal temperatures, some provision
Heat transferred through the stack wall should be made to reduce the resulting top-of-stack cor-
rosion problems. The top of the stack may be fabricated
Q p U ⴛ A ⴛ ts (1-6)
of corrosion-resisting alloys or a truncated discharge
Heat loss in flowing gas entering versus leaving cone utilized to increase stack exit velocities.
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
(i) Rain caps are generally not required on full-time U p overall heat transfer coefficient
active stacks. When specified, a diameter of two times V p gas velocity at stack inlet, ft/sec
the stack diameter and a clear height of one stack diame- W p mass flow rate of gas, lb/hr
ter is recommended.
(j) Stack spark-arresting screens of stainless steel 1.9 Mechanical Section Definitions
material a minimum of two stack diameters high may
appurtenances: stack specialty design items apart from
be specified when needed.
shell and structural members.
(k) Metal stacks require no lightning protection other
than proper grounding at the base per NFPA require- cladding: thin metal overlaid over the base metal metal-
ments. See section 7. lurgically and integrally bonded to the base metal.
(l) Stack internal shutoff dampers and stack cap EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (may be Federal,
dampers demand special consideration when specified. State, or local) government regulatory authority.
(m) Straightening vanes to distribute flowing gas for
effective testing should be specified as required. EPRI: Electric Power Research Institute.
(n) Splitter baffles are sometimes used when two false bottom: a cone or plate located just below the
stack inlets enter the stack opposite each other to reduce breeching opening to prevent gases from entering the
back pressure in the event that isolation dampers are lower section of stack.
not used. NFPA: National Fire Protection Association.
(o) Gin pole or davit lifts are sometimes specified for
hoisting instruments to the test platform. test zone: section of stack designed for testing. The loca-
(p) Top of stack roofs for multiple flue stacks and tion of test ports in relationship to upstream and down-
dual wall stacks should provide proper weather protec- stream flow pattern disturbances is well documented in
tion for the inside surfaces, while at the same time pro- Federal and State air quality rules and regulations.
viding for expected differential expansion between flues truncated cone: a converging section reducing the exit
and the stack outer shell. Consideration should be given diameter located at the top of the stack.
to the effect of the buildup of ash on any flat surfaces.
(q) Noise pollution control may require acoustical
suppressing sound attenuators within the stack. 2 MATERIALS
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
(d) This section does not apply to linings and coatings (1) carbon steels conforming to the ASTM A 36,
of stacks. See section 3. A 283, or A 529 Specifications
(e) Corrosion allowances shall be considered (typi- (2) high-strength, low alloy steels conforming to
cally 1⁄16 in. to 1⁄8 in.) where carbon, high-strength, low the ASTM A 242, A 572, or A 588 Specifications
alloy, and alloy steels are used. Experience or the results (3) stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A 240
of tests should be used when selecting an allowance. or A 666 Specifications or nickel-containing alloys hav-
ing compositions similar to those of the shell plate
2.2.2 Shell and Base Plates. For more information
on this subject, see Tables B-1 through B-11 in Nonman- (b) Protection may be required against corrosion for
datory Appendix B. components exterior to the shell and against corrosion
and/or oxidation for components on the shell interior.
(a) Shell and base plates typically may be of one or
Section 3 should be consulted and utilized as appro-
more of the following structural quality materials:
priate.
(1) Carbon steels conforming to the ASTM A 36,
A 283, or A 529 Specifications. 2.2.4 Guy Wires, Cables, or Fittings
(2) High-strength, low alloy steels conforming to (a) Guy wires and cables typically may be of one
the ASTM A 242, A 572, or A 588 Specifications. or more of the following materials, and consideration
(3) Stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A 666 should be given to the initial stretch of the material:
Specification. (1) aluminum-coated steel wire strand conforming
(4) Stainless chromium-nickel steel clad plate con- to the ASTM A 474 Specification
forming to ASTM A 264 and nickel-base alloy clad steel (2) zinc-coated (galvanized) steel wire strand con-
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conforming to ASTM A 265 may be considered for use forming to the ASTM A 475 and A 586 Specifications
as shell plate. (3) zinc-coated (galvanized) steel wire rope con-
(5) Metals listed in Materials Appendix (i.e., Non- forming to the ASTM A 603 Specification
mandatory Appendix B), Table B-9 may be used not (4) stainless steel wire strand conforming to the
only as sheet linings and cladding but also as solid plate ASTM A 368 Specification
for shell plates. (b) Fittings for guys and cables should comply with
(b) Pressure vessel quality carbon steels such as manufacturers’ standards and be of aluminum-coated,
ASTM A 285, A 515, and A 516; alloy steels such as zinc-coated (galvanized), or stainless steel as appro-
ASTM A 387; and stainless steels such as ASTM A 240 priate. Aluminum and zinc coating weights and stain-
may be substituted for structural quality materials as less steel grade should match those of the guys or cables
appropriate. on which they are used.
(c) Carbon steels such as ASTM A 516, Grades 55
through 70 and low alloy steels such as ASTM A 517, 2.2.5 Anchor Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
Grades A through T and ASTM A 537 are usually speci- (a) Anchor bolts may be of threaded bolt and stud
fied for service temperatures as low as −50°F (−46°C). stock normally used as connectors, or of round stock
Nickel-containing alloy steels such as ASTM A 203, of structural material that may be threaded. They are
Grades A and B are usually used for service tempera- typically one of the following specifications:
tures as low as −75°F (−59°C); and ASTM Grades D, E, (1) carbon steel threaded fasteners conforming to
and F are often used for service temperatures of −150°F the ASTM A 307 Specification
(−101°C). Nickel-containing alloy steels and nickel stain- (2) carbon steel bolts for general applications con-
less steels are used for even lower temperatures. Suppli- forming to the ASTM A 449 Specification
ers of structural quality steels will provide data on notch (3) alloy steel bolts, studs, and threaded fasteners
toughness when specified. conforming to the ASTM A 354 Specification
(d) Protection against corrosion and/or oxidation (4) alloy steel bolts and studs with enhanced impact
may be required on interior and/or exterior surfaces properties conforming to the ASTM A 687 Specification
depending on the materials utilized and the conditions (5) carbon steel conforming to the ASTM A 36 Spec-
encountered. Section 3 should be consulted and utilized ification
as appropriate. (6) high-strength, low alloy steels conforming to
(e) Creep rupture tensile stresses for sustained load- the ASTM A 572 or A 588 Specification
ing and high-temperature service conditions must be
(b) Material for washers shall conform to the
considered as given in para. 4.4.8.
ASTM F 436 Specification and correspond to the anchor
2.2.3 Stiffeners and Structural Braces and/or bolt material.
Framework (c) Material for nuts shall conform to the ASTM A 563
(a) Stiffeners and structural braces and/or framework Specification and correspond to the anchor bolt material.
typically may be of one or more of the following mate- (d) Protection against corrosion may be required. Sec-
rials: tion 3 should be consulted and utilized as appropriate.
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
(e) Double nutting or an appropriate locking device (2) Instrument and sampling ports shall be of a
is recommended. material of matching or higher alloy content than the
shell plates.
2.2.6 Bolts, Washers, and Nuts
(e) Painter’s trolley and ring
(a) Unless otherwise specified, carbon and high-
(1) A painter’s trolley and ring may be of carbon
strength steel bolts conforming to the ASTM A 307,
steel or high-strength, low-alloy steels as specified under
A 325, or A 449 Specifications will be utilized.
para. 2.2.3 provided suitable corrosion protection is
(b) High-strength alloy steel bolts may be required applied.
and these should conform to the ASTM A 354 or A 490 (2) Ring also may be of a material such as Type 304
Specifications. or Type 316 stainless steel conforming to the ASTM
(c) For high-temperature applications, bolt material A 240 or A 666 Specifications. Adequate structural sup-
should conform to the ASTM A 193 B7 Specification ports are to be provided.
covering alloy and stainless steels. Stainless steel bolts (f) Stack Rain Caps
are also covered under the ASTM F 593 Specification. (1) Unless otherwise specified, stack rain caps shall
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(d) Unless otherwise specified, nuts should conform be of the same composition as the stack shell.
to the ASTM A 563 Specification. Stainless/heat resisting (2) Because of potential corrosion problems, stain-
nuts shall be of a material corresponding to that of the less steel conforming to the ASTM A 240 Specification
bolt unless galling/seizing considerations dictate or higher alloyed, corrosion-resistant materials should
otherwise. be considered.
(e) Washers shall conform to the ASTM F 436 Specifi- (g) Drain Systems. A system should be provided for
cation. Stainless/heat resisting washers shall be of a collecting and routing rain and condensate from the
material corresponding to that of the bolt. interior of the stack to a single collection point at grade
(f) Protection from corrosion may be required. Section level 2. Drain pipe shall be of corrosion-resistant material
3 should be consulted and utilized as appropriate. such as Type 304 or Type 316 stainless steel conforming
to the ASTM A 240 or A 666 Specifications, nickel alloy
2.2.7 Appurtenances
or plastic.
(a) Ladders, cages, and stairs may be constructed of
one or more of the following materials: 2.2.8 Welding Electrodes
(1) structural steels and stainless steels conforming (a) AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code Steel is usu-
to the standards under para. 2.2.2(a) ally specified for structural welding of steel stacks. As
(2) carbon steel sheet and strip conforming to the an alternative, ASME BPVC, Section IX, Qualification
ASTM A 569 and A 570 Specification Standard for Welding and Brazing Procedures, Welders,
(3) high-strength, low alloy sheet and strip con- Brazers, and Welding and Brazing Operations may be
forming to the ASTM A 606 and A 607 Specification specified.
(b) Platforms and grating may be constructed of one (b) Welding electrodes with a minimum tensile
or more of the following materials: strength of 70 ksi are to be used for carbon steel applica-
tions in steel stack construction. The type of electrode
(1) materials under 2.2.7(a)
specified is a function of the welding process to be used.
(2) stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A 666
(c) For high-temperature applications, above 750°F
Specification
(400°C), using high-strength, low-alloy steels, welding
(3) aluminum conforming to the ASTM B 221 Speci-
electrodes with a minimum tensile strength of 80 ksi are
fication. Reference is made to the National Association
to be used.
of Architectural Metal Manufacturers (NAAMM) Man-
(d) For steel stack construction using alloy steels, such
ual for metal bar grating and stair treads
as ASTM A 335 and A 387, E8018-B2L electrode with
(c) Handrails, toe plates, etc., typically are made of welding procedures conforming to AWS D10.8, Recom-
one of the following materials: mended Practice for Welding of Chromium-Molybde-
(1) carbon structural steel conforming to the ASTM num Steel Piping and Tubing should be used.
A 36 or A 20 Specifications (e) When stainless steels and nickel alloys are used as
(2) high-strength, low alloy steel conforming to the plate, sheet, or as clad plate, the following specifications
ASTM A 242, A 588, or A 618 Specifications apply:
(3) aluminum conforming to the ASTM B 221 Speci- (1) ANSI/AWS A5.4, Specification for Stainless
fication Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(4) stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A 666 (2) ANSI/AWS A5.9, Specification for Bare Stain-
and A 554 Specifications less Steel Welding Electrodes and Rods
(d) Access doors, instrument and sampling ports (3) ANSI/AWS A5.11, Specification for Nickel and
(1) Access doors shall be of a material matching Nickel Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
the shell plates or cast iron. Welding
6
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
(4) ANSI/AWS A5.14, Specification of Nickel and temperatures that are only slightly lower than the inlet
Nickel Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods flue gas temperature.
(5) ANSI/AWS A5.1, Specification for Covered Critical corrosion temperatures are not absolute val-
Carbon Steel Arc Welding Electrodes ues covering all situations, but present focal points for
(6) ANSI/AWS A5.18, Specification for Carbon more detailed study, i.e., if stack surface temperatures
Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding fall below acid condensation dew points, external insula-
(7) ANSI/AWS A5.20, Specification for Carbon tion and/or higher flue gas velocities could correct the
Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding situation. External insulation can be used to maintain
(f) When welds are made between dissimilar metals, stack surface temperature at least 50°F (10°C) above the
the type of electrode to be used should be based on the flue gas dew point. If metal temperatures are exceeded,
higher grade material being welded. internal linings may be used to provide a solution.
(g) As with the design of the stack metal, proper con- (a) 120°F (49°C). This is the water dew point, the con-
sideration must be given to the reduction in weld metal densation point of nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and
strength when exposed to high temperatures. The tem- sulfurous acid.
perature-based strength reductions for the weld metal (b) 145°F (63°C). This is the temperature at which
should be assumed to be the same as that for the base hydrochloric acid condenses. Chlorides are found in
metal. most coals.
(c) 275°F (135°C). This is the sulfuric acid dew point
of No. 2 fuel oil having a 0.6% sulfur content.
3 LININGS AND COATINGS
(d) 320°F (160°C). The sulfuric acid dew point of No. 6
3.1 Scope fuel oil having a 2% to 8% sulfur content.
This section will provide the designer with informa- (e) 400°F (204°C). The maximum theoretical acid dew
tion that will help him to determine whether or not an point, assuming all sulfur present was converted into
interior lining and/or an exterior coating should be used sulfur trioxide.
on the stack, the types of linings and coatings that may (f ) 800°F (427°C). Temperatures above this point
be considered, and the general chemical and thermal induce structural changes that render nonstabilized
limitations associated with each type. Considerations grades of stainless steel susceptible to intergranular cor-
with respect to the use of insulating linings and exterior rosion. The temperature range for this effect is 800°F
insulation also are presented. (427°C) to 1650°F (899°C).
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(b) To determine if a lining should be used, a complete mal expansion for carbon, alloy, stainless steels, and
thermal analysis of the entire system from heat source nickel alloys are shown in Appendix B, Table B-1. These
to stack outlet should be performed giving primary con- coefficients are of interest when welding carbon and
sideration to the stack surface temperature. A complete alloy steels to stainless steels for service at temperatures
chemical and physical analysis of the flue gas should of 400°F (204°C) and above.
also be performed to determine the presence of chemi-
(c) 750°F (400°C). For carbon steel such as ASTM A 36,
cally corrosive constituents and the characteristics of
creep becomes a design consideration at temperatures
particulate loading.
above 750°F (400°C). Creep is defined as the time-depen-
3.2.1 Temperature/Corrosion. The metal surface tem- dent permanent deformation which occurs after the
peratures of uninsulated, unlined steel stacks may fall application of a load to a metal in or above the creep
below flue gas dew points within the stack or at the temperature range. ASTM A 242 and ASTM A 588 high-
stack outlet. strength, low-alloy steels may be used where steels with
The most commonly quoted stack temperature is the oxidation resistance and creep rupture properties supe-
flue temperature at the stack inlet. It is also the most rior to that of carbon steel are required. ASTM A 242 is
misleading because it is the metal surface temperature the more resistant of the two and may be used at a
that is of importance. Uninsulated unlined steel stacks temperature about 100°F higher than that of carbon steel
can have metal surface temperatures 60% or more below (850°F or 455°C). Care should be exercised if using A 588
the flue temperatures at the stack inlet, whereas stacks at 800°F (427°C) and above because of relatively low
with external insulation often will have metal surface ductility.
7
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
(d) 850°F (455°C). The temperature at which creep physical properties. Application is in liquid form (solu-
becomes important for alloy steels. tion, dispersion, etc.) using spray, roller, or trowel.
(e) 1050°F (565°C). The temperature at which creep (b) Organic elastomers. Fluoropolymers, natural rub-
becomes important for chromium-nickel austenitic ber, butyl rubber, and urethane asphalts, etc. Linings
stainless steels. based on natural or synthetic polymers which, at room
(f) 1150°F (620°C) to 2000°F (1093°C). The temperature temperature, return rapidly to their approximate initial
range over which the stainless steels depending on their dimension and shape after substantial deformation by
alloy content, provide useful resistance to scaling. Refer a weak stress and subsequent release of that stress.
to Nonmandatory Appendix B, Table B-17 for informa- Application is in sheet or liquid form.
tion on maximum temperatures for alloy and stainless Due to the great number of variations of formulations
steels to avoid excessive scaling. by manufacturers of organic linings, this document will
not be more specific in this regard. There are ASTM
3.2.3 Environmental Severity Levels. See Nonmanda-
standards that can be used to evaluate certain properties
tory Appendix C, Table C-1.
of organic linings, and where standards do not exist or
(a) Chemical Environment. Constituents within the flue
when further information is needed regarding specific
gas that will affect the corrosivity of the environment
products, their performance, and recommended usages
and thereby the suitability of linings include oxides of
are required, the linings manufacturers should be con-
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sulfur (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), chlorides (Cl),
tacted.
and fluorides (F).
(1) Mild. Flue surface temperatures above acid dew 3.2.4.2 Inorganic Linings
points (pH p 4 to 8) (a) Inorganic Cementitious Concrete Monolithics. Lin-
(2) Moderate. Flue surface temperatures below acid ings comprised of materials other than hydrocarbons
dew points on an intermittent basis, but normally above and their derivatives. These protective barriers are com-
the acid dew points (pH p 2 to 4) prised of inert mixtures of chemically inert, solid aggre-
(3) Severe. Flue surface temperatures below the acid gate fillers and a cementing agent. The cementing agent
dew points for all operating cycles (pH p less than 2) may be an acid-setting agent contained in the powder
(b) Temperature Environments. Temperature levels also and a silicate binder, which subsequently hardens by
contribute to the severity of the environment particularly the chemical reaction between the setting agent and the
as they relate to the suitability of organic linings. Tem- silicate binder, or a high alumina cement binder that
peratures that remain constant or steady may be less of hardens by hydration. Application is by troweling, cast-
a problem than those that are cyclic. ing, or Guniting. Refractory installation quality control
(1) Mild. Temperatures up to, but not exceeding, guidelines, monolithic refractory linings inspection and
200°F (93°C) testing, and materials used shall be in accordance with
(2) Moderate. Temperatures from 200°F (93°C) to API RP 936. Included are the following:
350°F (177°C) (1) Acid-Resistant Concrete. These linings are based
(3) Severe. Temperatures greater than 350°F (177°C) on silicate chemical setting cements and utilize chemi-
cally inert fillers. Particularly suited for severe chemical
3.2.4 Classifications of Linings. See Nonmandatory environments and mild/moderate temperature environ-
Appendix C, Table C-1 and Table C-2. ments.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3.2.4.1 Organic Linings. Most acid-resistant organic (2) Acid-Alkali-Resistant Concrete. These linings are
linings fail or lose their flexibility and ability to resist generally based on a combined silicate, chemically-resis-
liquid or vapor penetration at temperatures over 300°F tant cement, with inert aggregate fillers. Particularly
(149°C). Some manufacturers claim that their products suited under moderate chemical environments and
can perform up to 500°F (260°C). Often-times, the combi- mild/moderate temperature environments.
nation of the chemical environment, together with the (3) Refractory Concrete. These linings are typically
temperature environment, will be synergistic in nature, based on high alumina, hydraulically-setting cement
and require more careful selection of a lining. Before binders, utilizing inert refractory-type aggregate fillers.
choosing a particular lining, the designer should contact Suitable for mild chemical environments and severe
the manufacturer to ensure the suitability of the product temperature environments.
for the requirements at hand. (4) Insulating Concrete for Temperatures to 650°F
(a) Organic resin. Polyester, novolac phenolic epoxy, (899°C). Typical formulations include: expanded clay,
novolac epoxy, epoxy, vinyl ester, etc. Linings comprised slag, or fuel ash, combined with a high alumina hydrau-
of chemical resinous compounds based on carbon chains lic cement binder; a calcined diatomite aggregate filler
or rings, and also containing hydrogen with or without and high alumina cement; a perlite or vermiculite aggre-
oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. The formulations gate filler combined with a high alumina cement binder.
incorporate hardening agents to cure the resins, and Suited for application where temperature is the main
usually fillers or reinforcement to provide desirable environmental condition to be addressed.
8
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
(5) Insulating Concrete for Temperatures up to 2200°F When selecting stainless steels and nickel alloys for
(1204°C). Linings are based on high-temperature insulat- corrosive applications, a brief description of the effects
ing aggregate fillers utilizing a high alumina hydraulic of some of the alloying elements may be helpful. Chro-
setting cement binder. Particularly suited where the tem- mium (Cr) is most important from the standpoint of
perature environment and insulation characteristics of developing the passive or protective film which forms
the lining are important. on the surface of the alloy in air or oxidizing environ-
(b) Inorganic Masonry. Linings comprised of nonme- ments. Nickel (Ni) is important in that it helps to expand
tallic, chemically inert masonry units, such as brick or the passivity limits of the alloy thereby contributing to
foamed, closed, cellular glass block, bonded together improved corrosion resistance. It also is responsible for
with a mortar having adequate adhesion to the units, the maintenance of the desirable austenitic microstruc-
and possessing suitable chemical and thermal resistance ture, which provides good ductility, fabricability, and
for the anticipated exposure. Included are the following: weldability. Molybdenum (Mo) is the most important
(1) Foamed, Closed, Cellular Glass Block. Linings con- element for providing pitting and crevice corrosion
structed of this unit are highly insulative. Borosilicate- resistance, and nitrogen (N) and tungsten (W) are help-
type glass compositions are most suited for withstand- ful in this regard. Nitrogen also increases the strength
ing severe chemical environments and severe tempera- of the alloy and helps to maintain the austenitic micro-
ture environments as defined by this Standard. structure. ASTM G 48 offers standard test methods for
(2) Firebrick. Linings of brick having appropriate evaluating pitting and crevice corrosion resistance in
alumina content to be chemically and physically stable chloride environments.
at high temperatures, and installed with a suitable The most important element for increasing oxidation
refractory mortar, may be used to temperatures of 2200°F (corrosion) resistance of steels at temperatures of 1,000°F
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9
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
be given, together with an awareness of discoloration, (g) Zinc-Rich Painting Systems (Inorganic). This coating
fading, brittleness, etc. provides excellent protection to the steel from weather-
(c) In assessing the corrosive effects of the environ- ing and is suited for high humidity and marine atmo-
ment, careful consideration should be given to the top spheres. It is not particularly suited for acid resistance.
portion of the stack where washdown may create a more However, when it is top-coated, it provides good resist-
severe condition. ance to exposure to chemical fumes. It requires an SSPC-
(d) The type of coating required will depend upon SP#10 minimum surface preparation with a surface pro-
file of 1 to 2 mils in order to obtain total adhesion.
the color, pigmentation, maximum temperature reached
by the steel skin, and the duration of the higher tempera- (h) Epoxy Coating System. This coating provides good
tures. resistance to industrial fumes and marine atmosphere
exposures. These coatings exhibit good flexibility, hard-
(e) The majority of heat-resistant coatings use heat-
ness, toughness, and are of a high solids content.
resistant pigments, either inorganic or metallic.
Although they tend to chalk quickly under weathering,
(f) In coating steel stacks, water-based paints or emul- they retain excellent chemical resistance.
sions have not shown good performance, and tend to (i) Novolac Epoxy System. This coating provides excel-
exhibit bleeding. lent resistance to industrial fumes and marine atmo-
sphere exposures. These coatings exhibit good flexibility,
3.3.1 Classification of Coatings. See Nonmandatory
hardness, toughness, and are of 100% solids content.
Appendix C, Table C-2. They have a higher temperature resistance than an epoxy
(a) Oil-Based Coating System. Such a coating system is system and better chemical resistance.
suitable for providing excellent protection when sub- (j) Novolac Phenolic Epoxy System. This coating pro-
jected to outside rural weather conditions, but only pro- vides excellent resistance to industrial fumes and marine
tects against very mild industrial fumes and mild marine atmosphere exposures. These coatings exhibit flexibility,
environments. This coating system is not recommended hardness, excellent toughness, and are of 100% solids
for corrosive environments. It tends to exhibit very slow content. They have a higher temperature resistance than
drying characteristics in curing, and embrittles and yel- novolac epoxy systems and better chemical resistance.
lows with aging. (k) Chlorinated Rubber. This coating is similar to a vinyl
(b) Alkyd Coating System. This type of coating shows and provides a good tough film, which has good abra-
excellent resistance to weathering in rural environments. sion resistance and possesses excellent weathering char-
It shows poor acid chemical resistance, and shows only acteristics. It also shows excellent resistance to mineral
fair performance in marine salt environments. This sys- acids and to marine environments in salt water. Nor-
tem is easy to apply, exhibits good color retention and mally limited to 160°F (71°C) performance temperature.
gloss, is economical, and is easy to recoat. However, it (l) Silicones. Silicones provide excellent heat resistance
is very limited in its usage. and may be used up to 1,200°F (649°C). They have supe-
(c) Phenolic Coating System. This system is excellent in rior exterior weathering, minimum film erosion, as
moderate/severe chemical corrosive atmospheres, and shown by chalking resistance, gloss retention, and color
exhibits good weathering resistance. It shows excellent retention. They show good resistance to mild chemical
resistance in very humid environments. exposure. The properties depend upon the amount of
silicone resin present and the type of modified agent
(d) Vinyl Coatings. These coatings are normally used
used. Pure silicone, together with aluminum pigment,
in severe chemical environments, and not usually used
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provides an excellent durable coating resistant to high
as stack coatings because they are expensive. However,
temperature, and is also expensive.
these coatings do exhibit excellent resistance to weather-
(m) Two-Component Urethane System. A two-compo-
ing, and provide a good degree of flexibility.
nent, catalyzed, cured aliphatic urethane provides a
(e) One-Coat Shop Painting for Structural Steel. This hard, tough, and abrasion-resistant coating, which
type of coating is not for protecting steel exposed to shows excellent weathering characteristics and gloss
weathering for greater than a six-month period even in retention. It also possesses good chemical resistance to
normal rural or mild industrial environments, or marine mild acids and alkalis, and shows excellent adhesion
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
rural environments, where there are nothing more than (b) Deep, square corners.
very mild fume conditions. They do not exhibit proper- (c) Discontinuous areas (bolt heads, corners, etc.).
ties as good as vinyl or chlorinated rubbers with respect (d) Weld and weld spatter.
to chemical resistance. (e) Skip welds.
3.3.2 Important Coating Considerations (f) Back-to-back angles.
(a) environment (rural, industrial, and marine) (g) Effective separation of faces of dissimilar metals.
(b) exposure to temperature (h) Separation materials of suitable shape and thick-
(c) weathering ness (gaskets, butyl tape, etc.).
(d) aesthetic color retention (i) Structural materials, guy wires, cables, fittings,
(e) durability bolts, nuts, washers, ladders, cages, grating, and other
(f) surface preparation accessories may be protected from atmospheric corro-
(g) cost sion by the use of hot-dip galvanized coatings. These
should be applied in accordance with the ASTM A 153
(h) coating manufacturer’s recommendation
Specification, and should involve the appropriate coat-
3.3.3 Curing Methods ing weight, Classes A, B, and C, which are in order of
(a) Air oxidation (alkyds, epoxy) increasing zinc coating weight.
(b) Solvent evaporation (vinyls, chlorinated rubber, (j) Hot-dip galvanized coatings should not be used
coal-tar, and acrylics) on material in contact with unpainted A 242 or A 588
(c) Chemical reaction (epoxies, polyurethanes, vinyl steels.
esters, and inorganic zincs) (k) Because of potential corrosion problems with stack
(d) Heat cure (silicones and high-bake phenolics) rain-caps, stainless steels conforming to the ASTM A 240
Specification or higher alloy, corrosion-resistant materi-
3.3.4 Primer
als should be considered in their construction.
(a) The primer is the most critical element in most
(l) Galvanizing of such items as hand rails, ladders,
coating systems because it is responsible for preserving
and other items of suitable size and shape affords long-
the metallic state of the substrate, and it must anchor
term protection in nonaggressive atmospheric environ-
the total coating system to the steel. Surface preparation
ments.
is very important.
(m) Silicone coatings have been well-known for some
(b) In general, the more severe the environment, or
time for their good color and gloss retention when
the longer the requirement for protection, the greater
exposed to exterior weathering. Unmodified silicones
the coating dry-film thickness will be. Care should be
are expensive, and must cure at 400°F to 500°F (204°C
taken, however, in the application of high build systems
to 260°C). Air drying properties, lower cost, and hard-
to thin-walled structures and other dimensionally unsta-
ness in adhesion are obtained by copolymerizing sili-
ble substrates. Thick films, particularly those of rigid
cones with organic polymers. The copolymers show
thermal sets, are less able to provide the necessary flexi-
practically no film erosion and, therefore, are very slow
bility to substrate movements (expansion and contrac-
to chalk.
tion) than are thin films, and can easily undergo
(n) Inorganic zinc pigmented coatings, when prop-
adhesive and cohesive failure leading to subsequent dis-
erly applied to blast-cleaned surfaces, show good resist-
bondment.
ance to atmospheric exposure.
(c) It is to be noted that temperatures are to refer
to the exterior steel surfaces, and not to the flue gas 3.3.6 Variations of Formulations. Due to the great
temperatures within the stacks. number of variations of formulations by coating manu-
(d) For external steel surface temperatures between facturers, this document will not be more specific in this
450°F (232°C) and 900°F (482°C), two coats of aluminum regard. When standards do not exist, or when further
pigmented, silicone resin-based coatings have been information is needed regarding specific products, their
shown to provide excellent performance. performance, and recommended usages, the coating
(e) For external steel surface temperatures between manufacturers should be contacted.
450°F (232°C) and 900°F (482°C), a zinc primer, followed
by a top-finished coat of a modified silicone, has shown 3.4 Corrosion
excellent performance.
3.4.1 Attack Due to Sulfur Oxides [From the Model
(f) All coatings should be applied in strict accordance
Code on Steel Chimneys (CICIND)]
with the manufacturer’s instructions, observing mini-
(a) The most common form of internal chemical attack
mum application temperatures, catalyst, type, addition
is due to acids formed by the condensation of sulfur
rates and thinners, and the amounts allowed.
oxides in the flue gas. Sulfur is found in all solid and
3.3.5 Design Considerations liquid fuels to varying degrees and can also be found
(a) Edges. in gaseous fuels. During the combustion process, nearly
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
all sulfur in the fuel is oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2), the water dew point and the sulfurous acid dew point.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
which is absorbed by condensing water vapor to form Therefore, even very small amounts of chlorides and
sulfurous acid. fluorides, if allowed to concentrate such as under depos-
(b) A small quantity of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is oxi- its, can cause serious corrosion problems. For example,
dized to sulfur trioxide (SO3). The quantity depends in chloride levels under deposits have been found to be as
a complex manner upon the sulfur content of the fuel, high as 100,000 ppm necessitating the use of the most
the amount of excess air available during combustion, corrosion-resistant materials.
temperature in the combustion chamber, and the pres- (b) Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and free
ence of catalysts such as iron oxides. This small concen- chlorine in flue gases also become corrosive in their
tration of SO3 (usually measured in ppm) gives rise vapor stage. Stainless steels are attacked at temperatures
to most of the acid corrosion problems encountered in above 600°F (316°C). Fluoride vapors are corrosive to
chimneys. This is because on condensation, the SO3 ions stainless steels at temperatures above 480°F (249°C).
combine with water vapor to form sulfuric acid, whose
3.4.3 Limited Acid Corrosion Exposure. Limited expo-
concentration can be as high as 85%.
sure to acid corrosion conditions can be permitted in
(c) Condensation of these acids takes place when the
stacks, which, for most of the time, are safe from chemi-
temperature of the flue gas falls below their acid dew
cal attack, provided the flue gas does not contain halo-
point, or when the flue gas comes into contact with a
gens (chlorine, chlorides, fluorides, etc.).
surface at or below the relevant acid dew point temper-
ature. 3.4.4 Critical Corrosion Factors
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(d) The acid dew point temperature of sulfuric acid (a) Air leaks
depends upon the concentration of SO3 in the flue gas. (b) Fin cooling of flanges, spoilers, or other attach-
Provided the temperature of the surfaces with which ments
the flue gas can come into contact is maintained at least (c) Cooling through support points
50°F (10°C) above the acid dew point estimated in Fig. (d) Downdraft effects at top of the chimney
C-1 in Nonmandatory Appendix C, there is no danger of (1) presence of chlorides or fluorides in the flue gas
acid corrosion due to this cause. An adiabatic saturation condensate can radically increase corrosion rates
curve showing sulfuric acid concentrations for various (2) regardless of temperatures, corrosion can occur
temperatures and operating conditions together with if halogen concentrations exceed the following limits
suggested material is shown in Fig. C-2 in Nonmanda- (a) hydrogen fluoride: 0.025% by weight
tory Appendix C. (300 mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
(e) The acid dew point of sulfurous acid is about 120°F (b) elementary chlorine: 0.1% by weight
(49°C), a little above the water dew point. If the fuel is (1 300 mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
contaminated, other acids, such as hydrochloric and (c) hydrogen chloride: 0.1% by weight (1 300
nitric acid can be expected to condense in the same mg/m3 at 20°C and 1 bar pressure)
temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion
processes are chosen to minimize production of SO3, or 3.5 Insulation, Jacketing, and Strapping
if flue gases are scrubbed to remove most of the SO3
3.5.1 Insulation
and SO2, severe corrosion can be expected if the tempera-
tures of the flue gas, or the surfaces with which it can (a) Insulation may be required on the stack exterior
come into contact, fall below 149°F (65°C), or the acid and/or interior, or between the walls of a dual wall stack.
dew point temperature relevant to the reduced SO3 con- (b) Insulating linings are covered in para. 3.2.4.2.
centration, if this is higher. Again, a safety margin of (c) There are numerous ASTM standards covering
50°F (10°C) above the acid dew point is determined from thermal insulating materials and their properties. These
Figs. C-1 and C-2 in Nonmandatory Appendix C. standards should be consulted and utilized in conjunc-
tion with the manufacturers’ recommendations to meet
3.4.2 Attack Due to Chlorine, Chlorides, and Fluorides the application requirements.
(a) Chlorides and fluorides may be found in all solid
3.5.2 Jacketing and Strapping
fuels, including refuse, and in many liquid fuels. Upon
combustion, chlorides and fluorides are transformed (a) Jacketing may be of a material selected from one
into free chloride and fluoride ions, respectively, which, of the following ASTM Specifications:
on contact with water vapor, are transformed into hydro- (1) aluminum-coated steel conforming to A 463
chloric acid and hydrofluoric acid. The highest conden- (2) galvanized steel conforming to A 527
sation temperature at which hydrochloric acid has been (3) stainless steel conforming to A 666
found is 140°F (60°C). The condensation temperature (4) aluminum conforming to B 209
for hydrofluoric acid can be even lower. Thus, when any (b) Strapping may be of the same material as the jack-
flue surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious eting, but stainless steel is usually preferred.
corrosion will occur. This dew point is close to that of
12
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
and
4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN 3zM0
w D (z) p 关Gf (1 + 6.8I z) −1兴 (4-3)
4.1 Scope h3
This section includes currently acceptable methods
for establishing structural configuration of steel stacks
and stack elements to resist all external and internal The velocity pressure, qz, shall be calculated by:
loads imposed by the geography and topography of the
qz p 0.00256 V 2 IKztKz (4-4)
site and by operating conditions.
4.2 General where the basic wind speed (V) is based on a three-
second gust velocity and is selected in accordance with
4.2.1 Limitations. The design recommendations
the provisions of para. 4.3.3.2 – para. 4.3.3.4, the impor-
made in the Standard are applicable primarily to circular
tance factor (I) is set forth in Tables I-2 and I-3 of Manda-
steel stacks.
tory Appendix I, and the velocity pressure exposure
4.2.2 Location. The stack design and construction coefficient (Kz) is given in Table I-4 of of Mandatory
shall be appropriate to the specific site, with particular Appendix I in accordance with the provisions of paras.
consideration to local wind and seismic conditions, air- 4.3.3.5 and 4.3.3.7. Provisions of para. 4.3.3.5 shall be
craft traffic, operating conditions, and local laws. used to determine Kzt where applicable, but Kzt shall
not be less than 1.0. The numerical coefficient 0.00256
4.2.3 Drawings and Computations. Design drawings
shall be used, except where sufficient climatic data are
of the stack and all appurtenances shall be prepared
available to justify the selection of a different value of
showing all elements and details necessary for satisfac-
this factor for a specific design application. Interference
tory fabrication and erection of the stack. Computations
effects on the force coefficient (Cf ) described in para.
shall be prepared and submitted. All means of connec-
4.3.3.7 shall be considered.
tion of material shall be specifically detailed with proper
The basic wind speed V used in the determination of
differentiation between shop and field connections.
design wind loads is given in Fig. I-1 of Mandatory
4.3 Applied Loading Appendix I, except as provided in paras. 4.3.3.2 through
4.3.3.4.
4.3.1 Dead Load. The dead load shall consist of the
weight of steel stack, coatings, internal liner, insulation, 4.3.3.2 Special Wind Regions. The basic wind
and cladding, and all permanent accessories such as speed shall be increased where records or experience
ladders, platforms, and gas sampling equipment. For indicate that the wind speeds are higher than those
dead load, the full plate thickness shall be used. The reflected in Fig. I-1 of Mandatory Appendix I. Mountain-
corroded plate area shall be used for stress calculations. ous terrain, gorges and special regions shown in Fig. I-1
For stacks possessing refractory lining, the applied shall be examined for unusual wind conditions. The
weight of the refractory material shall be used to calcu- authority having jurisdiction shall, if necessary, adjust
late dead load stresses. the values given in Fig. I-1 to account for higher local
4.3.2 Live Load. The minimum live load of 50 psf wind speeds. Such adjustment shall be based on meteo-
shall be included for platforms and walkways. This load rological information and an estimate of the basic wind
need not be considered for wind or earthquake combina- speed obtained in accordance with the provisions of
tions. Consideration shall be given for accumulated ash para. 4.3.3.3.
loads, and moisture in the case of wet gases, on the stack 4.3.3.3 Estimation of Basic Wind Speeds From
walls and floors. Regional Climatic Data. Regional climatic data shall only
4.3.3 Wind Load. The wind load shall be calculated be used in lieu of the basic wind speeds given in
in accordance with procedures outlined in this section. Fig. I-1 when
The design shall also consider wind loads due to interfer- (a) approved extreme-value statistical-analysis proce-
ence effects as stated in para. 4.3.3.7. dures have been employed in reducing the data; and
(b) the length of record, sampling error, averaging
4.3.3.1 Design Wind Force. The design load distri-
time, anemometer height, data quality, and terrain expo-
bution is given by
sure have been taken into account.
w(z) p w(z) + wD (z) (4-1)
4.3.3.4 Exposure Categories. An exposure category
where that adequately reflects the characteristics of ground
surface irregularities shall be determined for the site at
Cf q z D which the building or structure is to be constructed.
w(z) p (4-2)
12(1 + 6.8I z ) Account shall be taken of variations in ground surface
13
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
roughness that arises from natural topography and veg- 4.3.3.7 Force Coefficient Interference Effect. For
etation as well as from constructed features. The expo- grouped or clustered stacks having a center-to-center
sure in which a specific building or other structure is distance of 3 diam. or less, an increase in the force coeffi-
sited shall be assessed as being one of the following cient value of 20% is suggested in the absence of model
categories: wind tunnel testing or existing full scale data.
(a) Exposure A. Large city centers with at least 50% of
the buildings having a height in excess of 70 ft. Use of 4.3.4 Seismic Load. Lateral seismic forces shall be
this exposure category shall be limited to those areas considered in accordance with the guidelines described
for which terrain representative of Exposure A prevails in this Section. The procedure provided shall be followed
in the upwind direction for a distance of at least 0.5 in the U.S. as a minimum requirement. It has been found
miles or 10 times the height of the steel stack, whichever that, due to the low mass of steel stacks, those only
is greater. Possible channeling effects or increased veloc- in high seismic areas or those containing high mass
ity pressures due to the steel stack being located in the distribution are governed by seismic loads.
wake of adjacent buildings shall be taken into account.
4.3.4.1 Earthquake Response. The steel stack
(b) Exposure B. Urban and suburban areas, wooded response to earthquake can be determined using the
areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced response spectrum method by using a horizontal
structures having the size of single-family dwellings or response spectrum based upon a maximum ground
larger. Use of this exposure category shall be limited to
acceleration of 1.0g with a damping value of 0.05, which
those areas for which terrain representative of Exposure
is scaled to the specific site. The value of the acceleration,
B prevails in the upwind direction for a distance of at
Av, related to the effective peak velocity, shall be deter-
least 1,500 ft or 10 times the height of the building or
mined using Table D-2 in Nonmandatory Appendix D
other structure, whichever is greater.
or the published value for the location. Using the value
(c) Exposure C. Open terrain with scattered obstruc-
of Av, the response spectrum scaling ratio is found in
tions having heights generally less than 30 ft. This cate-
Table D-2 in Nonmandatory Appendix D. Linear inter-
gory includes flat, open country and grasslands.
polation may be used in between published values of
(d) Exposure D. Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to
Av. The modal moment, shear, and deflection response
wind flowing over open water for a distance of at least
of each mode is scaled with the scaling ratio for the
1 mile. This exposure shall apply only to those steel
specific frequency of each mode. Modal responses for
stacks exposed to the wind coming from over the water.
each mode are then added using the SRSS method (tak-
Exposure D extends inland from the shoreline a distance
ing the square root of the sum of the squares of modal
of 1,500 ft or 10 times the height of the stack, whichever
moment, shear deflection responses). In lieu of the
is greater.
response spectrum method, a static equivalent method
4.3.3.5 Wind Speed Over Hills and Escarpments. may be used.
The provisions of this paragraph shall apply to isolated The mathematical model of the steel stack used in the
hills or escarpments located in Exposures B, C, or D analysis shall be sufficiently detailed to represent the
where the upwind terrain is free of such topographic steel stack, liner or coating, lateral support and founda-
features for a distance equal to 50HH or 1 mile, whichever tion property and support conditions. A minimum of
is smaller, as measured from the point at which HH 10 elements and 5 modes of vibration should be used.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is determined. Wind speed-up over isolated hills and An example of the mathematical calculation of modal
escarpments that constitute abrupt changes in the gen- properties and response spectrum earthquake response
eral topography shall be considered for steel stacks sited is shown in Nonmandatory Appendix D.
on the upper half of hills and ridges or near the edges
of escarpments, illustrated in Fig. I-2 of Mandatory 4.3.5 Thermal Loads. Nonuniform distribution of flue
Appendix I, by using factor Kzt gas across the steel stack or steel stack liner may cause
differential temperatures. Unless the temperature distri-
Kzt p (1 + K1 K2 K3)2 (4-5) bution is uniform or linearly varying across the stack/
liner diameter, thermal stresses will be induced in both
where K1, K2, and K3 are given in Fig. I-2 of Mandatory longitudinal and circumferential directions. In addition,
Appendix I. The effect of wind speed-up shall not be longitudinal bending stresses and shear stresses will be
required to be considered when HH/Lh < 0.2, or when produced if the stack shell or liner that is subjected to
HH < 15 ft for Exposure D, or 30 ft for Exposure C, or nonuniform temperatures along its height is restrained
< 60 ft for all other exposures.
from lateral movements. The thermal stresses should be
4.3.3.6 Gust Effect Factor. The gust effect factor Gf considered in applicable stack and liner designs. Refer
for main wind-force resisting systems of steel stacks to 1975 ASCE Publication, Design and Construction of
shall be calculated in accordance with the equations Steel Chimney Liners for more discussion of thermal
shown in Mandatory Appendix I. effects.
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--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
冢r冣
given in the design for applied construction loads in Le
18,000 +
combination with wind and seismic loads that may rea-
sonably be expected to occur during construction.
Le
when > 60 and Fy ≤ 50 ksi
4.3.7 Other Loads. Where applicable, additional r
loading such as expansion joint thrusts, pressure loads,
2
冢 冣
or other loads unique to the specific case shall be consid-
ered in the design. 10Fy t
−
E D
Ks p
4.4 Allowable Stresses 7.2Fy
The following formulas for determining allowable E
stresses are applicable for circular stacks and liners pro-
vided that eq. (4-6) is satisfied: 4.4.2 Case 2 Longitudinal Compression and Bending
Combination. The combined longitudinal compressive
and bending stress in cylindrical stacks and liners shall
t 10Fy not exceed the allowable stress, Sbl.
≤ (4-6)
D E
An increase in allowable shell stresses due to wind or P MD
+ ≤ Sbl (4-10)
seismic loads shall not be allowed. A 2Isection
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
All other steel members shall comply with the require- where S bl (pS cl ) is given in eqs. (4-8) and (4-9) of
ments of the American Institute of Steel Construction para. 4.4.1.
(AISC) specification for the design, fabrication, and erec-
tion of structural steel for buildings, AISC Manual of NOTE: Yp1 for compression due to bending.
Steel Construction, latest edition, with the exception that 4.4.3 Case 3 Circumferential Stress. The circumferen-
an increase in allowable shell stresses due to wind or tial stress fc in the shell due to external wind pressure
seismic loads shall not be allowed. For stacks and liners qz between stiffeners spaced at distance, ls, shall be deter-
meeting the requirements of eq. (4-6), the following four mined using
load cases must be satisfied.
qzD
4.4.1 Case 1 Longitudinal Compression. The longitu- fc p
288t
(4-11)
dinal compressive stress in cylindrical stacks and liners
(P/A) shall not exceed the allowable limit, Scl. The circumferential stress shall be less than the allowable
stress, Scc, calculated as
P
≤ Scl (4-7)
A
冢D冣
t 1.5
1.30EK
where Scc p (4-12)
(F.S.) 冢 冣
l s
EtY t 2.8 Fy D
Scl p when ≤ (4-8)
4D (F. S.) D E
or t 2.8 Fy
when 0 ≤ ≤ ,Kp1
D E
Fy (1 − 0.3K s)Y
Scl p (4-9)
(F.S.)
2.8 Fy t 10Fy
when < ≤ ,
2.8 Fy t 10 Fy E D E
when < ≤
E D E
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
where qz p external wind pressure on stack shell at Dead + Live + Other + Thermal + Along or Across Wind 1.50
elevation under consideration, psf and Cf p 1.0 Dead + Live + Other + Thermal + Seismic 1.50
Dead + Live + Other + Abnormal Thermal + Along Wind/4 1.33
4.4.4 Case 4 Combined Longitudinal and Circumferen- Construction 1.33
tial Compressive Stress. The combined longitudinal and
circumferential compressive stress in cylindrical stacks
and liners may be determined using the following for-
Table 4.4.7 Minimum Structural Plate Thickness
mulae.
and Maximum Stiffener Spacing
冢A冣 + 2I
P MD Inside Diameter, Minimum Structural Maximum Stiffener
2
冢 冣
section fc D Plate Thickness, in. Spacing,
+ ≤ 1.0 (4-13) ft [Note (1)] ft
Sbl Scc
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
(2) the average stress to cause creep rupture after forces to the supporting structure or foundation in accor-
100,000 hr with a factor of safety of 1.5 dance with proven design methods. No strength increase
(d) Selected allowable creep tensile design stresses for will be permitted for wind or seismic loads.
various steels used in ductwork and steel stacks are
presented for reference (see Nonmandatory Appendix 4.8 Anchor Bolts
D) from the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 4.8.1 Anchor Bolt Tension. Anchor bolts shall be
1995 publication, The Structural Design of Air and Gas designed to transfer all tension and shear forces to the
Ducts for Power Stations and Industrial Boiler Applica- foundation unless other methods are incorporated to
tions, Section 3. The values presented in this book are accomplish this purpose. The maximum anchor bolt ten-
intended to be used only as a reference. Creep rupture sion, Fb, may be determined from the following relation
allowable tensile design stress used in stack design for circular sections sufficiently away from discontinu-
should be obtained from test data reflecting the precise ities:
chemical composition of the steel to be used in the stack
fabrication. 4 Mb P
Fb p − (4-17)
NDbc N
4.5 Deflections
4.8.2 Anchor Bolt Material. All anchor bolt material
4.5.1 Lateral Deflection. The maximum deflection shall conform to Section 2.
under the static design loading shall be calculated, and
the foundation rotation or movement shall be consid- 4.8.3 Anchor Bolt Loading. Anchor bolt capacities for
ered in evaluating deflection. There is no practical limit tension and/or shear shall not exceed those given for
placed on the maximum deflection a stack can experi- size of bolt and material indicated in AISC, latest edition.
ence; however, for large deflections, the resulting sec- No load increase in bolts will be permitted for wind or
ondary stresses caused by P· should be considered. seismic loading.
The calculated maximum deflection shall also be consid- 4.8.4 Load Transfers Between Anchor Bolts and Shell.
ered in evaluating the suitability of equipment anchored Transfer of loads between anchor bolts and shell shall
to the stack. accommodate all loads and eccentricities. An increase
4.5.2 Dual Wall or Multiflue Stacks. The forces due in allowable shell stresses due to wind or seismic loads
to contact between liners and the shell of dual wall or shall not be allowed.
multiflue steel stacks due to any velocity wind up to 4.9 Foundation
the design velocity shall be considered at all elevations
The foundation shall transfer all moment and shear
of the shell and liners.
loads (static and dynamic) to the supporting soil or piles.
4.6 Structural Shell Discontinuities Concrete and steel reinforcement design shall comply
with the latest edition of ACI 318 and ACI 301. A quali-
4.6.1 Discontinuities. Openings in the shell shall be
fied geotechnical engineer shall review soil boring and
designed to maintain the minimum factors of safety
pile capacity test results. The combined dead load of
specified for the loading conditions.
the stack plus the foundation weight, times the distance
(a) The top and bottom of the breeching opening shall
from the center of the weight to the toe shall be at least
be adequately reinforced to transfer the discontinuities
1.5 times the design moment.
of shell stress back to the full circumference of the shell.
(b) The sides of breeching openings shall act as col- 4.10 Guyed Stacks
umns or tension members to withstand the end reactions
In a guyed stack, externally applied loads (wind, seis-
of the assumed horizontal girders above and below the
mic forces, etc.) are carried by the stack shell as well as
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
opening. The strength of a plane cut through the opening
by guys in tension. The term “guy wire” refers to wire
at any elevation shall be adequate to withstand all
rope or structural bridge strand. Sometimes it is also
applied loads on the section.
referred to as a “stay.”
(c) The breeching opening reinforcement may serve
as a means of connecting the breeching to the liner or 4.10.1 Guy Wire. In design and selection of guy wires,
shell. The applicable corrosion allowance shall be the factors as stated in paras. 4.10.1.1 – 4.10.1.5 should
applied to the reinforcement if exposed to the flue gas. be considered.
4.6.2 Flanged Shell and/or Liner Connections. For 4.10.1.1 Guy Wire Spacing and Position. Guy wires
information on flanged shell and/or liner connections, are to be equally spaced in plan. A stack may be guyed
see CICIND or SMACNA publications in section 10. at one or more levels through its height. A minimum
of three cables (at 120 deg from each other around the
4.7 Base circumference) is recommended at each level. An angle
The base ring and anchor bolts shall be designed to of 45 – 60 deg between the guy and the horizontal axis
transfer the steel stack shear, compression, and tensile of the stack is typical.
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
Structural bridge strand Due to high stiffness, Due to high stiffness, thermal Requires guy fittings for both
offers good resistance to expansion introduces large ends to be installed in shop.
lateral movement stresses into the cables, Consequently, length adjust-
stack, and foundation ment in the field is limited to
turnbuckle allowance.
Wire rope Relatively high flexibility Flexibility is more forgiving for Flexibility allows cable to be
leads to larger deflection thermal expansion, offering supplied longer than required
less stress in cables, stack, and field adjusted
and foundation
4.10.1.2 Guy Wire Anchorage. Guy cables shall be and verified. It is recommended that the guy wires be
attached to a fixed and stable structure or foundation lubricated and tension verified every five years.
often referred to as a dead man. Each set of guy wire
4.10.2 Analysis of Guy Wire Stacks. After height and
anchors should be at the same relative elevation above
stability considerations, the guy wire levels as well as
ground.
the number and angle of the guy wires shall be estab-
4.10.1.3 Guy Wire Material. Guy wires shall be gal- lished by the designer. Analysis of a multilevel guy wire
vanized or protected from corrosion by other suitable stack is very complex due to many variable support
means such as plastic coating or using stainless steel conditions. Therefore, timesaving computer modeling
cable strands. The fittings required in the assembly of for structural analysis is essential. In computer modeling
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
guy wires shall be galvanized. See Table 4.10.1.3 for cable the following parameters must be considered:
selection criteria and refer to para. 2.2.4 for more details. (a) nonlinear cable effects
(b) wind/seismic loads in different directions
4.10.1.4 Guy Wire Pretensioning/Site Tensioning.
Guyed stacks move laterally due to wind. With adequate (c) thermal expansion of the stack
initial tension in the guys (pretensioning), this move- 4.10.3 Guy Wire Attachment to Stack. Commercial
ment is reduced. The pretension force as well as the rated capacity of the cable shall be used for design of
procedure for pretensioning shall be established by the guy wire attachment assembly, including the lug. The
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
designer. To avoid stretching of the cables during con- stack shell shall be reinforced at the attachment level,
struction, which may alter the design condition, use of by using continuous ring and stiffeners as needed.
prestretched cable is recommended. In the case of hot
stacks (over 400°F), the pretension is usually less so that 4.10.4 Vortex Shedding of Guyed Stacks. Nonlinear
the cable is more forgiving as the stack grows. However, effects may be critical unless the guys are relatively
the lateral deflection of the stack will increase due to highly tensioned. Guy modes (modes involving guy
this reduction in pretension. Consequently, the guyed motion much greater than the stack motions) are not
stack must be analyzed in both hot and cold conditions. likely to be critical.
A turnbuckle or take-up, typically provided at the guy-
wire-to-dead-man connection, allows adjustment to the 4.11 Braced and Tower Supported Stacks
cable to set the pretension. The effect of temperature In addition to freestanding stacks on typical ground-
causing differential thermal expansion in stack and guys based foundation or guyed stacks, a stack may also be
shall be considered. The effect of ice on guys shall also be supported vertically or laterally at different elevations
considered. Refer to ASCE 7, Section 10.0 for additional due to structural reasons surrounding physical con-
information. The breaking strength (B.S.) of the cables straints and even safety reasons. Understanding advan-
should be based on a minimum factor of safety of 3. tages and structural characteristics of stack support
The efficiency of the fittings shall also be considered. options are prerequisites for analysis and design of
For detailed information, such as material, size, and braced or tower-supported stacks.
strength, refer to the cable manufacturer.
4.11.1 Types of Supports. There are two types of stack
4.10.1.5 Guy Wire Inspection and Maintenance. The supports: vertical and lateral, or braced. Vertical sup-
guy wires should be inspected frequently. This may com- ports may be above ground. Examples of this kind of
prise visual inspection of the cable or electromagnetic support would be a stack supported on a steel frame
measurement, which estimates the lost metal thickness. within a structural tower or a stack supported on a
For inspection frequency refer to para. 9.4.1. The preten- floor or on top of a building. Considerations for stacks
sion of the cables should also be periodically checked supported on other structures are discussed in para.
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
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4.11.3.2. Examples of a laterally supported stack would penetrating, and braced at, the roof. In either case, the
be a stack braced against a building or braced by a base support condition shall be evaluated.
structural tower. A stack may be braced at more than
one location. Design considerations for this type of stack 4.12 Section 4 Symbols and Definitions
are discussed in para. 4.11.3.1. It is very important that
any catwalk connecting any building to a stack be of a A p cross-sectional area of stack plate, in.2
sliding connection type, where it does not permit any As+p p area of stack stiffener and plate section, in.2
horizontal load transfer between the stack and the con- Av p effective peak velocity-related acceleration
necting structure. Otherwise, redistribution of forces and
b p stack diameter (used only in Mandatory
stresses shall be considered in modeling and analysis of
the stack. Refer to para. 4.11.3 for further discussion on Appendix I, Gust Factor Calculation), ft
analysis. b p coefficient given in Table I-1 of Mandatory
Appendix I
4.11.2 Advantages of Vertically Supported and Braced
Cf p force coefficient given in Table I-5 of Man-
Stacks. Stacks supported above ground usually have
datory Appendix I
the option of receiving exhaust duct attachment from
below, as well as from the sides. A braced stack will c p coefficient given in Table I-1 of Mandatory
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
between lateral supports, for stresses in the Y p coefficient used to calculate longitudinal
section between lateral supports, in. compressive stress
Lh p distance upwind of crest of hill or escarp- z p elevation under consideration, ft
ment in Fig. I-2 of Mandatory Appendix I z p equivalent height of stack, ft
to where the difference in ground elevation p coefficients given in Table I-1 of Mandatory
is half the height of hill or escarpment, ft Appendix I
Lz p integral length scale of turbulence at the p total damping value
equivalent height, ft ∈ p coefficients given in Table I-1 of Mandatory
ls p spacing between circumferential stiffeners, Appendix I
determined as the sum of half of the dis- p coefficient used to calculate the resonant
tance to adjacent stiffeners on either side response factor
of the stiffener under consideration, in. w(z) p total along-wind load on stack per unit
M p moment in stack at elevation under consid- height, lbf/ft
eration due to wind or earthquake loads, w(z) p mean along-wind load on stack per unit
lbf-in. length, lbf/ft
Mb p moment at the base of the stack due to wind wD(z) p fluctuating along-wind load on stack per
or earthquake loads, lbf-in. unit height, lbf/ft
M0 p moment at the base of the stack due to w
(z) loading, lbf-ft 5 DYNAMIC WIND LOADS
N p number of anchor bolts
N1 p coefficient used to calculate the resonant 5.1 Scope
response factor This Section considers the dynamic wind load effects
n1 p first natural frequency of the stack, Hz on steel stacks. Since steel stacks are lightweight, flexible
P p dead load of stack above elevation under structures with low inherent structural damping, the
consideration, lb dynamic effects of wind shall be considered in the
Q p background response factor design.
qp p stack draft pressure, psf.
5.2 Dynamic Responses
qz p external wind pressure on stack shell at ele-
vation under consideration, psf. 5.2.1 Dynamic Characteristics. The dynamic charac-
R p resonant response factor teristics of natural frequencies, corresponding mode
Rb, Rd p coefficients used to calculate the resonant shapes, and damping shall be considered in wind load-
response factor ing. All modes of vibration that could occur based upon
R h, R n p coefficients used to calculate the resonant the wind loads considered in the design shall be investi-
response factor gated.
r p weighted mean radius of gyration for eleva- Frequencies. Stack frequencies and corresponding
tion under consideration, in. mode shapes are a function of the stack configuration
and the vertical and lateral support conditions. The fre-
Sbl p allowable combined longitudinal compres-
quencies and mode shapes shall be calculated using a
sive and bending stress, psi
suitable mathematical modeling method.
Scc p allowable circumferential compressive
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Mathematical Modeling. Appropriate detailed calcula-
stress in shell, psi
tion methods shall be used for dynamic analysis of more
Sccs p allowable circumferential compressive complex configurations. These configurations include
stress in stiffeners and band of shell stacks with variable diameters and thickness, inner lin-
plate, psi ers, stacks with internal coatings, guyed or laterally sup-
Scl p allowable longitudinal compressive stress ported stacks, derrick-supported stacks, or stacks with
in shell, psi flexible foundations. The finite element analysis tech-
Ss+p p section modulus of stack stiffener and plate niques shall be used in these cases. However, for simple
section, in.3 stack configurations, simpler models can be used if justi-
t p stack shell or liner wall thickness, in. fication can be provided.
V p basic wind speed corresponding to a 3-sec- (a) For steel stacks supported on rock or firm soil
ond gust speed at 33 ft above ground in and/or supported on end-bearing piles, a fixed-base
exposure category C, associated with an modeling approach is acceptable. For steel stacks sup-
annual probability of 0.02 of being equalled ported on buildings, the interaction effects of the build-
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or exceeded (50-year mean recurrence inter- ing shall be included. For steel stacks supported with
val), mph shallow foundations on soil or on friction piles, appro-
z p
V mean hourly wind speed, ft/sec priate methods of analysis shall be used to account for
20
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
冢 33 冣
Table 5.2.1 Representative Structural Damping Zcr 22
Vzcr p b V (5-3)
Values (s) 15 R
Support Damping Value
The critical wind speed for vortex shedding (ft/sec) for
Type Welded Stack Rigid Support (1) Elastic Support (2) any mode of vibration is given by
Unlined 0.002 0.004
Vc p n 1 D/S (5-4)
Lined (3) 0.003 0.006
or other elastic base support conditions. need not be combined with long wind loads.
(3) Lining must consist of a minimum 2 in. thick, nominally 100pcf (2) Vortex shedding loads shall be calculated for
density liner material for stack to be considered lined for the
all modes of vibration where Vzcr < Vc < 1.2 Vzcr. The
use of this table.
procedure in Nonmandatory Appendix E may be used.
The resulting loads may be reduced by the factor
Vzcr 2
冢 冣
interaction effects. Parametric studies may be necessary
. Fatigue analysis need not be considered.
to account for the uncertainty of soil properties. Vc
Consideration should be given in the design to the (3) If Vc > 1.2 Vzcr, then response vortex shedding
corrosion or erosion of the stack or liner, which could can be ignored.
affect the frequency. For variable diameter stacks, a range of critical speeds
(b) Damping. Steel stacks have relatively low inherent must be considered. The procedure in Nonmandatory
structural damping. Additional damping may be gained Appendix E may be used for variable diameter stacks.
from the inclusion of a brick or refractory lining, founda- (b) Ovalling. The intermediate application of vortex
tion system, or aerodynamic methods which disrupt forces on the stack could cause ovalling resonance. The
vortex formation, although the last may, in fact, reduce lined stack is more resistant to ovalling because the lin-
the damping. ing contributes to a high natural frequency and increased
For wind loads, the structural damping values (s) damping for the elastic ring; therefore, ovalling need
shown in Table 5.2.1 have been observed for steel stacks. Other not be considered for lined stacks. The unlined stack
damping values shown in Table 5.1 may be used for support possesses very little damping to restrict ovalling, and
conditions that have inherently large damping or utilize the may experience excessive stresses and deflections at the
damping methods of para. 5.3.2, when justified by results of critical ovalling wind velocity. For unlined steel stacks,
testing or analysis. Consideration should be given to stacks the ovalling natural frequency is calculated as follows:
supported on steel frames.
Aerodynamic damping shall also be considered. The 680t
fo p (5-5)
aerodynamic damping value, a, is calculated as follows: D2
(a) For along wind response and the critical wind velocity for ovalling is
Cf D V f oD
a p
z
(5-1) co p (5-6)
4 man 1 2S
where ma p mass per unit length of the top 1⁄3 of If the vco is less than Vz, the unlined stack should be
the stack reinforced with ring stiffeners meeting the requirements
(b) For a crosswind motion response, the effects of the of Table 4.2. The required minimum section modulus of
aerodynamic damping are included in the procedures stiffener, Ss (in.3), with respect to the neutral axis of
described in Nonmandatory Appendix E. its cross section parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
The total damping shall be as follows: stack is
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stacks A divided by the diameter D of the obstructed shroud surface area. Values stated are minimums and
stack is less than 15, the Strouhal number S shall be may be modified if proven by testing.
determined from eq. (5.8). The resulting increase in vor-
tex shedding velocity and resulting loads shall be con- 5.3.2 Damping Methods. The second category con-
sidered. This increase may result in increasing the critical sists of attachments and auxiliary structures that absorb
velocity beyond the design consideration value of 1.2 dynamic energy from the moving stack.
Vzcr for wind directions near the line of the stacks. Mass Damper. The mass damper represents a second-
ary mass-spring system attached to the top of the stack.
冢 D − 3冣 for A/D ≤ 15 The mass ratio of the secondary system to the equivalent
1 A
S p 0.16 + (5-8)
300 mass of a stack at the attachment location is normally
S p 0.20 for A/D > 15 not more than 5%. This method has demonstrated the
capability to provide a damping value of up to approxi-
For all stacks that are identical and have center-to-center mately 0.05.
distances of less than three mean diameters, or for stacks Preformed Fabric Pads. The control of damping in a
that are not identical, interference effects shall be estab- stack is obtained by installing a preformed fabric pad
lished by reference to model test, or other studies of at the base of the stack. The placement of the fabric pads
similar arrangements. shall be such as to ensure that all stress paths between
the stack and its support are through segments of the
5.3 Prevention of Excessive Vibrations
fabric pads. This will require the addition of a preformed
Many methods have been used to prevent excessive fabric pad (washer) and steel backing plate beneath each
vibrations in stack designs. It is not the purpose of this anchor bolt nut. This method has been demonstrated to
Standard to determine the exact method to be used in provide a damping value up to approximately 0.03.
the design of stacks, but rather to indicate some methods Other Devices. Other devices such as hanging chains
that have been successfully used. One or more of the or impact damping between the lining and the shell
following methods have been shown to prevent or (of dual wall or multiflue stacks) have been proven to
diminish resonant vibrations: aerodynamic methods,
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
ma p mass per unit length of upper 1⁄3 of stack (lb/ft) steel stacks shall be made on a regular basis, preferably
n1 p natural frequency for mode being considered once each year.
(Hz)
6.2.4 Welding. All welding shall be in accordance
S p Strouhal number, usually used as 0.2 for single
with the Structural Welding Code, Steel, AWS D1.1 latest
stacks and may vary due to Reynolds numbers
edition) published by the American Welding Society, or
and multiple stacks
Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
Ss p minimum section modulus of stack stiffeners
Welding and Brazing Qualifications.
(in.3)
t p stack shell or liner wall thickness (in.) 6.2.5 OSHA. Ladders, platforms, and other equip-
V p basic wind speed corresponding to a 3-sec gust ment used to access steel stacks must conform to the
speed at 33 ft above ground in exposure cate- OSHA Standard (29 CFR 1910).
gory C, associated with an annual probability
of 0.02 of being equalled or exceeded (50-yr 6.2.6 Definitions
mean recurrence interval) (mph) cage (also known as cage guard or basket guard): a barrier
Vc p critical wind speed for vortex shedding (ft/sec) that is an enclosure mounted on the siderails of the
VR p reference design speed, which is V factored by fixed ladder or fastened to the structure to enclose the
the importance factor V√I (mph) climbing space of the ladder. (See Fig. 6.2.6-1.)
Vz p mean hourly wind speed (ft/sec)
climbing protection device: a vertical support system other
Vzcr p mean hourly wind speed at zcr (ft/sec)
than a cage, used in conjunction with a ladder, which
Zcr p elevation equal to 5⁄6 stack height (ft)
will limit a person’s fall from a ladder without having
vco p ovalling critical wind velocity (ft/sec) to continuously manipulate the device.
p coefficients given in Table I-1 of Mandatory
Appendix I grab bar: an individual handhold placed adjacent to, or
p total damping value as an extension above, a ladder for the purpose of pro-
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
a p aerodynamic damping value viding safe access/egress for a user of the ladder.
s p structural damping value ladder: a device incorporated or employing steps or
p Pi (3.141593) rungs on which a person may step ascending or descend-
p density of air (lbm/ft3) ing, and siderails or grab bars for holding.
a p allowable tensile stress in stack stiffener (psi)
ladder, side step: a ladder that requires a person accessing
or egressing to or from the ladder to step sideways.
6 ACCESS AND SAFETY ladder, step through: a ladder that requires a person
accessing or egressing at the top to step between the
6.1 Scope siderails.
This section applies to the design and construction of ladder support: a device for attaching a ladder to a struc-
permanently installed equipment commonly used for ture, building, or equipment.
accessing steel stacks. Equipment used in the construc-
tion, inspection, and demolition of steel stacks is not landing or rest platform: a surface that is used when trans-
included. ferring from one section of a ladder to another, or for
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
resting.
6.2 General length of climb: the total vertical distance a person could
6.2.1 Purpose. The access safety option of the Stan- climb in traveling between the extreme points of access/
dard has the purpose of protecting persons by establish- egress for a fixed ladder, whether the ladder is of an
ing minimum standards for the design, installation, and unbroken length or consists of multiple sections. This
maintenance of equipment used to provide access to total vertical distance is determined by including all
steel stacks. spaces between all ladder steps or rungs, and all other
vertical intervening spaces between the extreme points
6.2.2 Limitations. Access to a steel stack shall be pro- of access/egress.
vided and used only when required for inspection, test-
ing, and maintenance. Access shall not be provided pitch: the included angle between the horizontal and
when prohibited by government regulations, local laws, ladder, which is measured on the opposite (back) side
or ordinances. of the ladder from the climbing side (See Fig. 6.2.6-2).
platform: a surface that is used for working, standing,
6.2.3 Maintenance of Equipment. All equipment used
in providing access to steel stacks shall be maintained or transferring from one ladder section to another.
in a serviceable condition at all times. Inspection of serviceable: capable of performing its intended function
ladders, platforms, and other equipment used to access within its design parameters.
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
18 in. min. 1
2 × 4 in. horizontal bands
15 in. min. 1 1
1 2 × 4 in.
20 in. max.
27 in. min. vertical bars
30 in. max. 27 in. min.
30 in. max.
3 ft 6 in. min.
4 ft 0 in. max.
Ladder
50 ft 0 in. max.
50 ft 0 in. max.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4 in. flare 4 in. flare
4 ft 0 in. max.
8 ft max.
8 ft max.
7 ft min.
7 ft min.
siderail: the side members of fixed ladder joined at inter- (1) The minimum design live load shall be two
vals by either rungs or steps. loads of 250 lb each concentrated between any two con-
toeboard: a barrier erected along the exposed edge of a secutive ladder supports. Each step or rung in the ladder
platform to prevent objects from falling, which could shall be designed for a single concentrated live load of
create hazards to persons below. 250 lb minimum.
(2) The number and position of additional concen-
well: a walled enclosure around a fixed ladder, which trated live load units of 250 lb each, determined from
provides the person climbing the ladder with protection anticipated usage of the ladder, shall be considered in
similar to a cage. the design.
(b) Other Live Loads. The following live load shall be
6.3 Fixed Ladders
considered in the design, where applicable:
6.3.1 Application. This Section applies to new fixed (1) ice on parts of the ladder and appurtenances
ladders on new or existing steel stacks. Ladders used (2) maximum anticipated wind or seismic loading
for steel stack access must conform to ANSI A14.3 (latest on all parts of the ladder
edition) Safety Code for Fixed Ladders. (3) anticipated impact loads resulting from the use
of climbing protection devices
6.3.2 Materials of Construction. Refer to Section 2 of
this Standard for materials of construction. (c) Live Load Concentration. All live loads shall be con-
sidered to be concentrated at a point or points that will
6.3.3 Live Loads cause the maximum stress in the structural member
(a) Live Loads Imposed by Persons being considered.
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
30 in. min.
Floor, platform, roof,
or other obstructions
24 in. min.
60 deg.
1
16 in. min.
32 in. min.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
12 in. max.
7 in. to of rungs
Pitch Reduced Clearance
90 deg max. Normal Clearance Deflector Plate for
Head Hazards
6.3.4 Dead Loads. The weight of the ladder and that adjacent sections be offset, landing platforms shall
attached appurtenances shall be considered simultane- be provided at each offset. The total depth of platform
ously with the live loads in the design of siderails, sup- shall provide a minimum space of 30 in. from the ladder
ports, and fastenings. on the climbing side. The width of the platform shall
not be less than 30 in. The grating and straight require-
6.3.5 Pitch. The pitch of a fixed ladder shall never
ments for landing platforms shall be the same as work
exceed 90 deg nor be less than 75 deg from the hori-
platforms. (See para. 6.4.3.)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
zontal. The pitch shall not be such that a person’s posi-
tion is below the ladder when climbing. (See definition 6.3.8 Access/Egress. The siderails of step-through
of pitch in para. 6.2.6 and Fig. 6.2.6-2.) and side step-fixed ladders shall extend at least 42 in.
above the roof, parapet, or landing platform, preferably
6.3.6 Clearances. The distance from the center line
being gooseneck, unless other convenient and secure
of the rungs to the nearest permanent object on the
hand holds (grab bars) are fixed at such places.
climbing side of the ladder shall not be less than 36 in.
(a) For step-through ladders, the rungs shall be omit-
For a pitch of 75 deg, and 30 in. (See Fig. 6.2.6-2.)
ted from this extension. For step-through ladders, the
(a) The distance from the center line of the rungs to
step-across distance from the center line of the rung to
the nearest permanent object on the opposite (back) side
the nearest edge of the structure, building, or equipment
shall not be less than 7 in. (See Fig. 6.2.6-2.)
shall not be less than 7 in., or more than 12 in. If the
(b) A clear side-to-side width of a least 15 in. shall be
normal step-across distance exceeds 12 in., a landing
provided each way from the center line of the ladder in
platform shall be provided to reduce the distance to
the climbing space, except when cages are used. (See
between 7 in. and 12 in. For these step-through ladders,
Fig. 6.3.6.)
the same rung spacing used on the ladder shall be used
(c) The distance from the center line of a grab bar to
from the landing platform to the first rung below the
the nearest permanent object in the back of the grab bar
landing. (See Fig. 6-4.)
shall not be less than 4 in. The grab bars shall not pro-
(b) For side step or offset fixed ladder sections at
trude on the climbing side beyond the rungs of the
landings, the siderails and rungs shall be carried to the
ladder that they serve.
next regular rung beyond or above the 42-in. min. men-
6.3.7 Landing Platforms. When caged ladders are tioned above. Side step ladders at the point of access/
used to ascend to heights exceeding 50 ft (except as egress to a platform shall have a step-across distance of
provided in para. 6.3.10), landing platforms shall be 15 in. min. and 20 in. max. from the center line of the
spaced at intervals of 50 ft or less. Where installation ladder. For side step landings, the platform shall be
conditions (even for a short, unbroken length) require located at the same level as one of the rungs.
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--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
10 ft 0 in. nominal
max. spacing of 15 in. min.
supports 20 in. max.
15 in.
Min. clearance to
any permanent
obstruction for
ladder without
cage or well
7 in. min.
12 in. max.
6.3.9 Safety Cages. Except as provided in para. 6.3.10, shall be erected extending from the ground or floor level
safety cages shall be provided for all ladders to a maxi- to a height of at least 8 ft to prevent access to the uncased
mum unbroken length of 50 ft. (See para. 6.3.7.) side of the ladder.
(a) Cages shall extend to a minimum of 3 in. to 6 in. (g) Climbing protection devices may be used in com-
above the top of a landing unless other acceptable pro- bination with cages if additional protection is desired.
tection is provided. 6.3.10 Climbing Protection Devices. Climbing protec-
(b) Cages shall extend down the ladder to a point not tion devices may be used on ladders in lieu of cage
less than 7 ft or more than 8 ft above the base of the protection. Landing platforms shall be provided at a
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
ladder with the bottom flared not less than 4 in., or the maximum of 150-ft intervals in these cases. Climbing
portion of the cage opposite the ladder shall be carried protection devices that incorporate friction brakes and
to the base. sliding attachments shall meet the requirements of ANSI
(c) Cages shall not extend less than 27 in. or more A14.3. Special consideration shall be given to increased
than 30 in. from the center line of the rungs of the ladder. possibility of corrosion at the top of stacks resulting
Cages shall not be less than 27 in. in width. The inside from the action of stack gases.
shall be clear of projections. Vertical bars shall be located
at maximum spacing of 40 deg around the circumference 6.3.11 Short Ladders. All stack ladders over 10 ft in
of the cage. This will give a maximum spacing of approx- height shall be caged, or have a safety device unless the
imately 91⁄2 in. center-to-center of the vertical bars. There ladder extends less than 15 ft above ground.
shall be seven vertical bars located inside the hoops. 6.3.12 Siderails. The siderails shall be of flat bar stock
(d) Hoop bars shall be 1⁄4 x 2 in. steel minimum with and not be less than 21⁄2 in. − 3⁄8 in. If siderails of other
a maximum spacing of 4 ft on centers. cross sections are desired, they shall be at least equal in
(e) Vertical bars shall be sized 3⁄16 in. − 11⁄2 in. min.Ver- strength to the above-sized steel bar.
tical bars shall be welded or bolted together and to the (a) Rails shall be spaced a minimum of 16 in. (inside)
hoops with bolt heads countersunk on the inside. and a maximum of 24 in. (inside) apart.
(f) Where a caged ladder is so located that it could (b) All splices shall provide smooth transitions with
be ascended on the uncased side, a sheet steel baffle the main siderails so as to afford minimum interference
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
Weld (typical)
16 in. clear
Anchor straps
Steps or rungs
12 in. OC max.
7 in. min.
Grating
platform
fastener
Floor or
platform line
with the gripping surface for the hands of the person the ladder. Rungs shall be inserted through holes in the
using the ladder. Sharp or extensive projections shall siderails and shall be welded completely around the
not be permitted. circumference of the rung to the outside of the siderails.
(c) Provisions for expansion due to thermal changes
6.3.14 Ladder Support. Ladder supports shall be of
shall be made at the siderail splices, if these provisions
steel at least equivalent to the siderails in strength. Lad-
are required to prevent buckling or the buildup of
der supports may be bolted or welded to the siderails,
stresses in the siderails.
but must be welded to the stack shell. Ladder supports
(d) For ladders subject to unusually corrosive atmo-
shall not be more than 10 ft apart. Anchorage of ladders
spheric conditions, corrosion-resistant steel of increased
must account for the thermal growth of the stack.
thickness should be used. The extent of increased thick-
ness should be determined from experience with cor- 6.4 Work Platforms
rosion.
(e) Bolt heads shall be countersunk or the button type. 6.4.1 Where Required. Work platforms shall be pro-
The heads shall be on the inside of the siderails. Bolts vided wherever duties require an employee to work at
shall not be less than 5⁄8 in. in diameter. elevations above grade or building floors adjacent to
the stack.
(f) With the bolted siderail joints, a minimum of two
bolts shall be provided on each side. 6.4.2 Strength Requirements. Work platforms shall
(g) Welded siderail splices shall be full penetration be designed to support the expected loads, including the
butt welds between the rungs and staggered at least possible attachment of gin poles, davits, and suspended
12 in. inspection and maintenance scaffolding.
6.3.13 Rungs. Rungs shall not be less than 3⁄4 in. in 6.4.3 Surfaces. The flooring should be of the grating
diameter. For ladders exposed to unusually corrosive type. The space in the grating bars should be such that
atmospheres, rungs shall be of at least 1 in. solid bars. any one opening is not greater than will permit a ball
Spacing of rungs shall not exceed 12 in. center-to-center 1 in. in diameter to pass through. The grating should
and shall be spaced uniformly throughout the length of be of sufficient strength to withstand a live floor loading
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
of 100 lb/sq. ft over the entire platform area. The mini- be bolted or riveted through the stack plate. (See para.
mum size of the platform should be the same as the size 6.3.14.)
for landing platforms, as indicated in para. 6.3.7.
6.5.4 Personnel Hoists. Personnel hoists shall meet
6.4.4 Railings. Railings shall be used on all work the requirements of the current revision of ANSI A10.4,
platforms and shall be of steel construction (see para. Safety Requirements of Personnel Hoists.
6.3.2). A standard railing shall consist of top rail, inter-
6.5.5 Painter’s Trolleys. Painter’s trolleys should not
mediate rail, and posts and shall have a vertical height
be used for hoisting, lowering, or supporting personnel.
of 42 in. nominal from upper surface of top rail through-
Painter’s trolleys should be used for hoisting materi-
out the length of the railing. The intermediate railing
als only.
shall be approximately halfway between the top rail and
the platform. The spacing of the horizontal rails shall 6.6 Thermal Protection
be such that a 21-in. diameter ball will not pass between
the rails. The ends of the rail shall not overhang the 6.6.1 Hot Surfaces. Surface of steel stacks (when
terminal posts, except where such an overhang does not exposed to personnel) shall be limited to a maximum
constitute a projection hazard. temperature of 140°F.
(a) The railings shall be of pipe or tubing with mini- 6.6.2 Where to Protect. Areas that should be pro-
mum 11⁄2 in. outside diameter or other cross sections of tected are as follows:
equivalent strength with the vertical posts spaced not (a) 2 ft width − full length of ladders
more than 6 ft on centers. (b) platform grating to 8 ft above grating
(b) The top and intermediate railings shall be capable (c) stack base to 8 ft above base, if hot
of withstanding a force of 200 lb in any direction, and
at any location on the railing. 6.6.3 How to Protect. Protection may be provided by
insulation and cladding, and/or stand-off mesh. Mesh
6.4.5 Toe Boards. Toe boards shall be at least 4 in. shall be no larger than 2 in. − 2 in.
nominal vertical height from the top edge to the level
of the platform. They shall be securely fastened in place 6.6.4 Materials. Materials used for anchorage, clad-
with not more than 1⁄4 in. clearance above the platform. ding, and mesh shall be corrosion resistant and designed
They should be made of steel. to resist wind pressures.
6.4.6 Access
7 ELECTRICAL
(a) Access openings to work platforms shall be
guarded. 7.1 Scope
(b) Where access to work platforms is through the
Provisions of this Section shall apply to permanent
floor, trap doors shall be provided. Access doors shall
electrical items as related to the stack. They shall not
remain closed except when persons are accessing or
apply to items used during construction or demolition
leaving the platform. Access doors and hatches should
of steel stacks.
be designed as self-closing.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
other tall structures or other stacks are present, etc. The Code requires two ground terminals located on opposite
FAA will investigate and rule on the most appropriate sides of a stack having a metal thickness of 3 ⁄16 in.
marking and/or lighting for each such case upon (4.8 mm) or greater. No air terminals or down conductors
request. are required. On guyed stacks, metal guy wires are to
be grounded at their lower ends if anchored in concrete,
7.3.2 System Components. When required, an or to a masonry building or other nonconductive
obstruction-marking light system shall conform to the
support.
requirements of the FAA current Advisory Circular AC
70/7460. A light system may consist of the following: 7.5 Convenience Lighting
(a) Flood Lights. Flood lights located at or near the
Convenience or area lighting on test platforms, moni-
base of the stack are considered nonstandard but may
tor platforms, access systems, annular space, etc., may
be utilized on short stacks with FAA approval.
be considered and specified as applicable.
(b) Aviation Red Obstruction Lights. Aviation red
obstruction lights mounted on the stack at required ele- 7.6 Convenience Power Outlets
vations and at specific positions around the circumfer-
ence should be as required by the FAA Advisory Circular Convenience power outlets are generally useful dur-
AC 70/7460. All red obstruction lighting should be ing stack testing and maintenance of monitoring
exhibited from sunset to sunrise. When the red light equipment.
system is used, it usually is necessary to paint the stack
7.7 Instrumentation: Sampling
with an aviation orange and white color pattern for
daytime obstruction marking. Instrumentation for monitoring or sampling of stack
(c) Medium Intensity White Obstruction Lights. Omnidi- emissions, based on current Federal EPA regulations,
rectional medium intensity obstruction lights are recom- CFR Part 60, shall be mounted on the external surface
mended for most steel stacks, since the high intensity of the steel stack protected from excessive heat and
lights are not normally recommended on structures with providing for thermal and other stack movement.
heights below 500 ft. The light system intensity must be
controlled. The FAA current Advisory Circular AC 70/ 8 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
7460 sets the number and locations. On small diameter
stacks, the FAA frequently will allow only two lights, 8.1 Purpose
since their light rays are omnidirectional.
This section is designed to establish a good level of
(d) High Intensity White Obstruction Lights. If FAA uni-
fabrication and erection quality to create a high degree
directional high intensity white obstruction lights are
of public safety and confidence in these structures. It
required, they should be mounted on the stack at partic-
establishes the welding requirements for the fabrication
ular elevations and at specific positions around the cir-
and erection of welded steel stacks.
cumference as required by the FAA current Advisory
Circular AC 70/7460. This type of system is used with 8.2 Scope
a light sensitive control device, which faces the north
sky to control intensity. This section covers the recommended guidelines
(e) Dual Lighting With Red/Medium Intensity White applying to the fabrication and erection of steel stacks.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Obstruction Lights. This lighting system is a combination It includes, but is not limited to, single-wall, dual-wall,
of the red and white lighting systems defined in paras. and multiflue steel stacks; and applies to stacks that are
7.3.2(b) and (c). A dual lighting system is most com- free-standing, self-supported, guy or cable supported,
monly used in populated areas where the use of less or supported by structural steel braces or framework.
conspicuous red lights at night is preferred. Utilizing These guidelines also pertain to shop or field fabrication
and to field erection.
white lights during daylight hours negates the need to
paint the stack with obstruction markings. 8.3 Welding
7.3.3 System Access Location. Access to lights for The American Welding Society Structural Welding
maintenance may be by ladders and platform or by a Code ANSI/AWS D1.1 (latest edition) or ASME BPVC,
lowering device which brings the light fixture to an Section IX shall be used for all welding provisions, work-
accessible location. Because of stack gas downwash, the manship, techniques, welder and inspector qualifica-
location of the access and lights should be as low as the tions, and inspections. All structural butt welds shall be
FAA allows. full penetration welds.
29
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8.4.1 Minimum Weld Inspection as measured from an 18 in. (450 mm) long template
(a) Visual inspections shall be made for all welds dur- centered at the weld and cut to the prescribed radius.
ing the welding operation and again after the work (c) At the time of erection, the stack shall be true and
is completed to determine that thorough fusion exists plumb to within 2 in. (50 mm) in 100 ft (30 m).
between adjacent layers of weld metal and between the (d) The difference between the maximum and mini-
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld metal and the base metal. After the welding is mum inside diameters at any cylindrical shell cross sec-
completed, slag shall be removed from all welds. The tion along the height shall not exceed 1% of the diameter.
weld and the adjacent weld metal shall be cleaned by (e) Local dents in plates shall be no deeper than 1⁄2
brushing or other suitable means. The inspector shall the plate thickness.
pay particular attention to surface cracking, surface
porosity, surface slag inclusion, undercut, overlap, gas 8.6 Shop Fabrication and Field Erection
pockets, and size of welds. Defective welding shall be
corrected according to ASME or AWS Code require- 8.6.1 During the assembly of bolted connections
ments. (a) drifting, if required, shall not enlarge the holes or
(b) A minimum of one radiograph per each three shop distort the members. Holes that must be enlarged shall
circumferential seams on the stack structural shell shall be reamed.
be made, preferably at the vertical weld intersection. (b) bolts shall be tightened using one of the following:
The inner or outer shell shall be considered structural (1) turn-of-the-nut method
when it is designed to resist the controlling wind or
(2) load-indicating washers
seismic load.
(3) calibrated wrenches
(c) All structural full penetration field welds should
(4) other approved method
be visually inspected. Radiographs of shell or flue field
splice welds are not usually feasible due to the design 8.6.2 Any required straightening of material shall
of the field splices. be done by procedures that will result in the minimum
8.4.2 Types of Welding Inspection. The procedure and residual stress to the steel.
technique shall be in accordance with specifications of
8.6.3 Anchor bolt straightening or bending by heat-
the specific job and the standards of acceptance shall be
ing is prohibited.
according to ASME or AWS Codes.
(a) Radiographic Inspection. This procedure can be per- 8.6.4 All vertical shop and field plate butt weld
formed in the shop on full penetration butt welds. seams are to be staggered a minimum of 20 deg. All
(b) Visual Inspection. This procedure is to be performed welded cylindrical sections joined to other cylindrical
on all shop and field welds. sections by circumferential welds shall have their verti-
(c) Magnetic Particle Inspection. This procedure can be cal seams staggered from each other a minimum of
used on all ferromagnetic material welds. 20 deg.
(d) Ultrasonic Inspection. This procedure can be used
on all shop butt welds ≥ 5⁄16 in. 8.6.5 Dimensions and weights of stack sections shall
(e) Dye Penetrant Inspection. This procedure shall be be accurately calculated and compared with crane capa-
used as required to supplement the visual inspection. bilities at the working radii of cranes to be used during
The standard methods set forth in ANSI/AWS D1.1 erection. Crane capacities and working radii shall not
(latest edition) shall be used for dye penetrant inspec- be exceeded.
tion, and the standard acceptance shall be according to
8.6.6 Lifting clips, lugs, dogs, brackets, and other
ASME or AWS Codes.
items welded to the stack sections, or other parts of
8.5 Tolerances the permanent structure and used for erection or fit-up
purposes, if not left in place, shall be removed without
Unless otherwise specified, the following shall be used
damaging the base material. Any portion of the weld
as acceptable tolerances:
remaining on the internal surface of the stack subjected
(a) Misalignment between plates at any butt joint shall
to flue gas shall be made flush and ground smooth. If
not exceed the following limits:
backing is used for welding purposes, they need not be
Plate Thickness, in. Maximum Offset removed.
3 1
Up to ⁄4 ⁄4 (t)
3 1
⁄4 to 1 ⁄2 3
⁄16 in.
8.6.7 Erection and scaffolding, ladders, etc. shall be
t p normal thickness of the thinner plate at the joint in inches in accordance with latest applicable and/or specified
codes.
(b) Peaking is a localized deviation of stack cylindrical
section contour from a true circle at junctions. Peaking 8.6.8 Anchor bolts should be retightened 30 days
of joints and seams shall not exceed 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) max. after stack erection.
30
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--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
STEEL STACKS ASME STS-1–2006
(a) All parts shall be stored in a manner to preclude the first three years. The results of these inspections
being kinked, dented, bent, misshapen, or otherwise should then determine the frequency of future inspec-
mismanaged. tions.
(b) All parts shall be stored above ground and so
9.4.2 Items of Inspection
positioned as to minimize water-holding pockets, soil-
(a) Exterior Inspection
ing, contamination, or deterioration of the coating or
lining. (1) Shell Thickness. Ultrasonic devices for nonde-
structive thickness testing or core samples and drill tests
(c) Items that could deteriorate or become damaged
for destructive testing may be used to measure the shell
due to the influence of the elements shall be properly
thickness. Depending upon the condition of the stack,
protected.
one shell thickness reading for each portion of the stack
height equal to the stack diameter is recommended. A
9 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE record of the results shall be maintained for monitoring
corrosion of the steel shell.
9.1 Purpose (2) Finish. Damage, wear, and discontinuity in the
The purpose of this section is to identify problems exterior finish shall be inspected and all deficiencies
that occur during the service life of steel stacks, and to should be recorded.
31
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ASME STS-1–2006 STEEL STACKS
(3) Access System. All ladders, ladder anchors, (1) It is recommended that color photographs be
cages, safety climb devices, platforms, painter’s trolleys, taken for use in the report. Instant photographs may be
and trolley rails shall be inspected to assure their integ- taken as backups.
rity and safety. (2) Defective areas that may be found shall be
(4) Lightning Protection System. All components of charted and noted.
the lightning protection system, including the ground- (c) The integrity of the lining shall be judged on a
ing connection, shall be inspected for electrical conti- visual basis, supplemented by routine probing to deter-
nuity. mine hardness, soundness, and/or general conditions.
(5) Support System. Any brace, guy wire anchors, (d) Unlined steel stacks shall receive either nonde-
guy cables, guy fittings, and other similar items shall structive thickness testing using an acceptable ultrasonic
be checked. All deficiencies shall be noted and analyzed. device, or destructive thickness testing using drilling or
(6) Anchor bolts shall be inspected. core sampling.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
(7) Electrical System. The presence of any moisture (e) The exterior inspection shall also include a thor-
condensation on the inside of the conduit and fittings ough examination of all appurtenance items, such as
shall be noted. Corrosion of fittings and conduits shall anchor bolts, cleanout door, ladder, caps, lightning pro-
also be noted. Burned out lamps must be replaced. tection system, and any other hardware items.
(8) Insulation. Soaking of insulation due to infiltra-
tion of acid in insulated stacks is possible. Wet and acid- 9.4.4 Inspection Report. The scope of inspection
saturated insulation rapidly accelerates corrosion of the work shall be specified by the stack owner. In the absence
shell leading to major structural damage. of such specifications, it is recommended that the stack
(b) Interior Inspection inspection report have the following items:
(1) Shell Thickness. Ultrasonic devices for nonde- (a) identification and brief description of the stack.
structive thickness testing may be used to measure the (b) description of the inspection procedures.
shell thickness. Depending upon the condition of the (c) color photographs showing typical condition as
stack, one shell thickness reading for each portion of well as problem areas. Each photograph must be identi-
the stack height equal to the stack diameter is recom- fied as to the location of the photograph as well as the
mended. A record of the results shall be maintained for description of what is shown in the photograph.
monitoring corrosion of the steel.
(d) drawings and/or location charts defining shell
(2) Lining. This component of the stack is the most thickness, pH readings, and deficiencies.
critical in terms of wear, cracks, spells, and other defi-
(e) analysis of deficiencies and problems noted during
ciencies. Such deficiencies are often hidden by overlay-
the inspection.
ing particulate deposits and, therefore, proper care shall
be exercised to detect deficiencies. It is recommended (f) maintenance and/or repair recommendations.
that pH readings be taken throughout. pH readings may
be taken using litmus paper, reagent(s), or by chemical 9.5 Maintenance
analysis of representative samples of scrapings from lin-
ing surfaces. 9.5.1 Exterior Surface. All wear, corrosion, and other
(3) Particulate Accumulation. Accumulation of par- deficiencies in the exterior surfaces shall be repaired as
ticulates such as combustion residue, fly ash, etc., on required.
the stack wall and at the base of the stack provides a
9.5.2 Interior Surface. Periodic removal of particle
matrix for acid condensate.
deposits on the interior surfaces using high-pressure
(c) General Items. Deformation of any component of
wash or other effective and practical methods is recom-
the stack due to thermal or other loading shall be noted
mended, and other deficiencies in the lining should be
to include stack cap, expansion joints, and test and
repaired.
instrument ports.
9.5.3 Anchor Bolts. Areas around the anchor bolts
9.4.3 Inspection Procedure
shall be kept clean and free of particle deposits and
(a) For thorough inspections, the stack shall be rigged
moisture. Periodic retightening of anchor bolts is recom-
with equipment allowing the inspector to traverse the
mended.
entire height on the interior and exterior of the chimney.
All rigging and scaffolding shall be in compliance with 9.5.4 Drains. All drains and false bottom floors shall
OSHA regulations. be kept clean through periodic maintenance.
(b) The full height of the stack shall be traversed,
photographing general interior conditions at regular 9.5.5 Appurtenance. All appurtenances shall be
intervals with specific attention to defective areas. repaired as necessary for safety and intended use.
32
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--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASCE 7-98, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Publisher: McGraw Hill Co., P.O. Box 182604, Columbus,
Other Structures, 1998 OH 43272
ASCE Chimney and Stack Inspection Guidelines: Design Good Painting Practice, Steel Structures Painting Man-
And Construction of Steel Chimney Liners, 1975 ual, Vol. 1
The Structural Design of Air and Gas Ducts, 1995 Systems and Specifications, Steel Structures Painting
Publisher: The American Society of Civil Engineers Manual, Vol. 2
(ASCE), 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA
Publisher: Steel Structures Painting Council, 40 24th
20191-4400
Street, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
ASHRAE Handbook, latest edition
Publisher: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating Guide For Steel Stack and Duct Design Construction
and Air Conditioning Engineers, 1791 Tullie Circle, Publisher: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contrac-
NE, Atlanta, GA 30329 tors’ National Association (SMACNA), 4201 Lafayette
Center Drive, Chantilly, VA 20151-1209
ASME Technical Paper, 65WA/FU5
Publisher: The American Society of Mechanical Engi- National Building Code
neers (ASME), Three Park Avenue, New York, NY Publisher: Building Officials and Code Administrators
10016-5990; Order Department: 22 Law Drive, P.O. (BOCA), 4051 West Flossmoor Country Road, Country
Box 2300, Fairfield, NJ 07007-2300 Club Hills, IL 60477
Coatings and Linings Handbook
National Building Code Of Canada
Publisher: National Association of Corrosion Engineers
(NACE International), 1440 South Creek Drive, Hous- Publisher: National Research Council of Canada
ton, TX 77084-4906 (NRCC), Building M-23A, 1200 Montreal Road,
Ottawa, ON, K1A0R6 Canada
Chimney Coatings Manual, 1995
Model Code For Steel Chimneys, 1988 NEC 96, National Electrical Code
Publisher: International Committee on Industrial Chim- National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 1 Bat-
neys (CICIND), Preussenstrasse 11, D-40883 Ratingen, terymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471
Germany
Permanence of Organic Coatings (STP-1)
Code of Federal Regulations
ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, P.O. Box
Publisher: Occupational Safety And Health Administra-
C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
tion (OSHA), Department Of Labor, Title 29, Part 1910
and Part 1926, U.S. Government Printing Office, 732 Stack Height Regulation, 40 CRF Part 51, 1983
N. Capitol Street, NW, Washington, DC 20401 Publisher: Federal Register, Environmental Protection
Design And Evaluation Guidelines For Department of Agency, Ariel Rios Building, 1200 Pennsylvania
Energy Facilities Subjected To Natural Phenomena Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20460
Hazards, UCRL-15910, 1990
Steam
Publisher: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Safety
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Appraisals, 1000 Independence Avenue, SW, Publisher: Babcock and Wilcox Co., 20 S. Van Buren
Washington, DC 20585 Avenue, Barberton, OH 44203-0351
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-`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASME STS-1–2006
MANDATORY APPENDIX I
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Gust Effect Factor Calculation
冪 冢 冣
1 33
Rp R R R (0.53 + 0.47 Rd) Iz p c
n h B z
冪
1 1
Rl p − (1 − e−2) for > 0 1
2 2 Qp 0.63
冢 冣
B+h
1 + 0.63
Lz
1 for p 0
where B p stack diameter, h p stack height; and Lz p
(l p h, B, d)
the integral length scale of turbulence at the equivalent
height
Rl p Rh setting p 4.6n1h/Vz
Rl p RB setting p 4.6n1B/Vz
L z p l(z/33)
Rl p Rd setting p 15.4n1d/Vz
p damping ratio in which l and are as listed in Table I-1.
冢 冣 冢 冣
z 22
Vz p b V
33 15
NOTE:
(1) Zmin p minimum height used to ensure that the equivalent height z is greater of 0.6h or Zmin. For
stacks with h ≤ Zmin, z shall be taken at Zmin.
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ASME STS-1–2006 MANDATORY APPENDIX I
85(38)
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
90(40)
72
120(54)
68 110(49)
100(45)
130(58) 90(40)
64
90(40)
60
90(40)
56 130(58)
100(45)
110(49)
130(58)
52 120(54)
130(58)
−172
−166 −130
−160 −136
−154 −148 −142
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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MANDATORY APPENDIX I ASME STS-1–2006
90(40)
100(45)
110(49)
120(54)
90(40)
130(58)
140(63)
130(58)
140(63) 140(63)
140(63) 150(67)
150(67)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
110(49) 120(54) Location V mph (m/s)
Hawaii 105 (47)
Puerto Rico 145 (65)
Guam 170 (76)
Virgin Islands 145 (65)
American Samoa 125 (56)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s)
at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for Exposure C category.
(b) Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
(c) Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.
(d) Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions
shall be examined for unusual wind conditions.
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ASME STS-1–2006 MANDATORY APPENDIX I
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
140(63)
140(63)
150(67)
90(40)
100(45)
130(58)
110(49)
120(54)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for
Exposure C category.
(b) Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
(c) Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
(d) Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual
wind conditions.
Fig. I-1a Basic Wind Speed – Western Gulf of Mexico Hurricane Coastline
38
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
130(58)
140(63)
90(40)
100(45)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
110(49)
120(54)
130(58) 130(58)
150(67)
140(63)
140(63)
150(67)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground for
Exposure C category.
(b) Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
(c) Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
(d) Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual wind
conditions.
Fig. I-1b Basic Wind Speed – Eastern Gulf of Mexico and Southeastern U.S. Hurricane Coastline
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ASME STS-1–2006 MANDATORY APPENDIX I
90(40)
100(45)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
110(49)
120(54)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind
speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m)
above ground for Exposure C category.
(b Linear interpolation between wind contours is
permitted.
(c) Islands and coastal areas outside the last
contour shall use the last wind speed contour
of the coastal area.
(d) Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean
promontories, and special wind regions shall
be examined for unusual wind conditions.
Fig. I-1c Basic Wind Speed – Mid and Northern Atlantic Hurricane Coastline
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MANDATORY APPENDIX I ASME STS-1–2006
V(z) z V(z)
z
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Speed-up Speed-up
V(z) V(z)
x (Upwind) x (Downwind) x (Upwind) x (Downwind)
H/2 H/2
H Lh H
Lh H/2 H/2
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
K1 Multiplier (2) K2 Multiplier (2) K3 Multiplier (2)
H/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D x/Lh 2-D All z/Lh 2-D 2-D 3-D
(3) Ridge Escarp. Axisym. Hill (3) Escarp. Other Cases (3) Ridge Escarp. Axisym. Hill
0.20 0.29 0.17 0.21 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.50 0.88 0.67 0.10 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.30 0.43 0.26 0.32 1.00 0.75 0.33 0.20 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.30 0.37 1.50 0.63 0.00 0.30 0.41 0.47 0.30
0.40 0.58 0.34 0.42 2.00 0.50 0.00 0.40 0.30 0.37 0.20
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.50 0.38 0.00 0.50 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.50 0.72 0.43 0.53 3.00 0.25 0.00 0.60 0.17 0.22 0.09
... ... ... ... 3.50 0.13 0.00 0.70 0.12 0.17 0.06
... ... ... ... 4.00 0.00 0.00 0.80 0.09 0.14 0.04
... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0.90 0.07 0.11 0.03
... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.00 0.05 0.08 0.02
... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.50 0.01 0.02 0.00
... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
GENERAL NOTE:
Notation:
H p height of hill or escarpment relative to the upwind terrain, ft (m)
Lh p distance upwind of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half the height of hill or escarpment,
ft (m)
K1 p factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up effect
K2 p factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upwind or downwind of crest
K3 p factor to account for reduction in speed-up with height above local terrain
x p distance (upwind or downwind) from the crest to the building site, ft (m)
z p height above local ground level, ft (m)
p horizontal attenuation factor
p height attenuation factor
NOTES:
(1) Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or escarpment along the direction of maximum
slope.
(2) For H/Lh > 0.5, assume H/Lh p 0.5 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh for evaluating K2 and K3.
(3) For values of H/Lh, x/Lh and z/Lh other than those shown, linear interpolation is permitted.
41
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ASME STS-1–2006 MANDATORY APPENDIX I
Equations:
Kzt p (1 + K1 K2 K3)2
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MANDATORY APPENDIX I ASME STS-1–2006
Table I-2 Classification of Buildings and Other Structures for Flood, Wind, Snow, and
Earthquake Loads
Nature of Occupancy Category
Buildings and other structures that represent a low hazard to human life in the event of failure including, but I
not limited to:
• Agricultural facilities
• Certain temporary facilities
• Minor storage facilities
All buildings and other structures except those listed in Categories I, III, and IV II
Buildings and other structures that represent a substantial hazard to human life in the event of failure includ- III
ing, but not limited to:
• Buildings and other structures where more than 300 people congregate in one area
• Buildings and other structures with day-care facilities with capacity greater than 150
• Buildings and other structures with elementary or secondary school facilities with capacity greater than 150
• Buildings and other structures with a capacity greater than 500 for colleges or adult education facilities
• Health care facilities with a capacity of 50 or more resident patients but not having surgery or
emergency treatment facilities
• Jails and detention facilities
• Power generating stations and other public utility facilities not included in Category IV
Buildings and other structures containing sufficient quantities of toxic, explosive or other hazardous sub-
stances to be dangerous to the public if released including, but not limited to:
• Petrochemical facilities
• Fuel storage facilities
• Manufacturing or storage facilities for hazardous chemicals
• Manufacturing or storage facilities for explosives
Buildings and other structures that are equipped with secondary containment of toxic, explosive or other haz- IV
ardous substances (including, but not limited to double wall tank, dike of sufficient size to contain a spill,
or other means to contain a spill or a blast within the property boundary of the facility and prevent release
of harmful quantities of contaminants to the air, soil, ground water, or surface water) or atmosphere
(where appropriate) shall be eligible for classification as a Category II structure.
In hurricane-prone regions, buildings and other structures that contain toxic, explosive, or other hazard
Buildings and other structures designated as essential facilities including, but not limited to:
• Hospitals and other health care facilities having surgery or emergency treatment facilities
• Fire, rescue, and police stations and emergency vehicle garages
• Designated earthquake, hurricane, or other emergency shelters
• Communications centers and other facilities required for emergency response
• Power generating stations and other public utility facilities required in an emergency
• Ancillary structures (including, but not limited to communication towers, fuel storage tanks, cooling towers,
electrical substation structures, fire water storage tanks or other structures housing or supporting water or
other fire-suppression material or equipment) required for operation of Category IV structures during an
emergency
• Aviation control towers, air traffic control centers, and emergency aircraft hangars
• Water storage facilities and pump structures required to maintain water pressure for fire suppression
• Buildings and other structures having critical national defense functions
43
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASME STS-1–2006 MANDATORY APPENDIX I
Table I-3
Importance Factor, I (Wind Loads)
Non-Hurricane Prone Regions
and Hurricane Prone Regions
with V p 85–100 mph Hurricane Prone Regions
Category and Alaska with V > 100 mph
I 0.87 0.77
II 1.00 1.00
III 1.15 1.15
IV 1.15 1.15
44
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MANDATORY APPENDIX I ASME STS-1–2006
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) The design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected on a plane normal to the wind
direction. The force shall be assumed to act parallel to the wind direction.
(b) Linear interpolation is permitted for h/D values other than shown.
(c) Notation:
D p diameter of circular cross-section and least horizontal dimension of square, hexagonal,or octagonal cross-sec-
tions at elevation under consideration, in ft (m)
D′ p depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, in ft (m)
h p height of structure, in ft (m)
qz p velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in psf (N/m2)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
45
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
MECHANICAL DESIGN
0.030
0.025
Di = stack dia, ft
2
f = Friction Factor
0.020
5
10
0.015
NRe (approx.) = 15
20
20,000w 25
Tg Di
0.010
5 105 2 5 106 2 5 107
NRe = Reynolds Number
Fig. A-1 Friction Factor f as Related to Reynolds Number and Stack Diameter
p
p 0.85 for 45 deg slope on top only
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
Diameter, ft
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
10.0
9.0
Natural convection
Forced convection
8.0
Ambient Air Free Temperature: 60°F
7.0
External Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 – F
6.0
50 mph
45 mph
5.0 40 mph
35 mph
4.0
30 mph
25 mph
3.0
20 mph
15 mph
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
2.0
10 mph
7 mph
1.0 5 mph
3 mph
2 mph
0.0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 600
, Temperature Difference Between External Surface
and Ambient Air Free Stream, F
Fig. A-2 External Heat Transfer Coefficient for Forced and Natural Convection
47 --`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.2
Temperature Correction Factor
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 −10
Ambient Air-Free Stream Temperature, T (F)
Fig. A-3 Effect of a Change in the Ambient Air Free Stream Temperature on the External Heat Transfer
Coefficient for Forced Convection
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
4.2
Mean temperature = 400°F
4.0 ∆T = 200°F
∆T = 150°F
∆T = 100°F
3.8 ∆T = 50°F
∆T = 10°F
3.6
3.4
3.2
2.8
∆T = 50°F
∆T = 10°F
2.6
2.4
Mean temperature = 200°F
2.2
∆T = 200°F
∆T = 150°F
2.0 ∆T = 100°F
∆T = 50°F
∆T = 10°F
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Air Gap, in.
Fig. A-4 Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal Chimney
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
Mean temperature = 600°F
7.0 ∆T = 200°F
∆T = 150°F
∆T = 100°F
6.8 ∆T = 50°F
∆T = 10°F
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Air Gap, Btu/hr-ft2 − °F
6.6
6.4
6.2
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6.0
5.8
5.6
Mean temperature = 500°F
5.4
∆T = 200°F
∆T = 150°F
5.2 ∆T = 100°F
∆T = 50°F
∆T = 10°F
5.0
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Air Gap, in.
Fig. A-5 Heat Transfer Coefficient for the Air Gap Between Two Walls of a Double-Walled Metal Chimney
50
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
12.0
1 ft
11.0
10.0
2 ft
9.0 3 ft
4 ft
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8.0
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 − °F
6 ft
8 ft
10 ft
7.0
12 ft
15 ft
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity, ft/sec
Fig. A-6 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2°F) vs. Velocity (ft/sec) Film Temperature: 200°F
51
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
12.0
11.0
1 ft
10.0
9.0 2 ft
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 ft
8.0
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 − °F
4 ft
6 ft
7.0
8 ft
10 ft
12 ft
15 ft
6.0
Internal diameter
of cylindrical
smoke stack, ft
5.0
4.0
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity, ft/sec
Fig. A-7 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2°F) vs. Velocity (ft/sec) Film Temperature: 300°F
52
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0 1 ft
8.0
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2 − °F
2 ft
3 ft
7.0
4 ft
6 ft
6.0 8 ft
10 ft
12 ft
15 ft
5.0
Internal diameter
of cylindrical
smoke stack, ft
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity, ft/sec
Fig. A-8 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2°F) vs. Velocity (ft/sec) Film Temperature: 500°F
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F
7.0
1 ft
6.0 2 ft
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 ft
4 ft
5.0
6 ft
8 ft
10 ft
12 ft
4.0 15 ft
Internal diameter
of cylindrical
smoke stack, ft
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Velocity, ft/sec
Fig. A-9 Internal Heat Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr-ft2°F) vs. Velocity (ft/sec) Film Temperature: 1000°F
54
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
0 160
150
100
140
130
200
120
s ec
ft/
300 20
= 110
VS
y
cit
lo
TG
s ve
Ga
=2
180
100
300
0F
0F
W = Gas Flow 1000 lb/hr
12
00
90
c
F
se
10
ft/
00 900
30
F F 80 F F 050F0
500 80
7
ec
00 00 5 0F 300 . TG
0F
ft/s
6
40
70
ec
ft/s
40
0F
45
600
Ga
st
ec
em
ft/s
60
F
p
50
=
ec
20
ft/s
F 0
50
60
700
c
t/se
72 f
40
c
t/se
80 f
t/sec
800
30
90 f
20
900
10
1000 0
Example: Gas flow = 200,000 lb/hr; gas temp. = 500F, gas velocity in flue = 50 ft/sec. Flue size = 70 ft.
NOTE:
(1) For square or rectangular flues, use equal cross sectional areas.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
55
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//^:^^#^~
ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
2100 0.0
Stack
height
2000 = 20 ft 0.1
, 0 in.
30 ft,
0 in.
1900 0.2
40 f
t, 0
in.
50
1800 ft, 0 0.3
in.
60
ft,
0 in
.
1700 70 0.4
ft,
80 0i
ft, n.
90 0i
ft, n.
1600 0.5
10
0
in
010 .
f0t′,–
00″
in
. 0.6
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1500
12
5f
t, 0
15
in.
0f
1400 0.7
t, 0
in.
175
ft,
1300 0.8
200
0 in.
Average Gas Temp. TAG F
–0
1200 0.9
in.
. 100
225
250
ft, 0
temp
275 00 ft, 0
ft, 0
in.
1100 1.0
80F
ient
ft, 0
3
i n .
60F
Amb
in.
1000 1.1
in.
350 f
30F
t, 0 in
900 1.2
400 f
.
0F
F
t, 0 in
–20
450 ft, 500 ft, 0 in.
800 1.3
.
0 in.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
700 1.4
600 1.5
500 1.6
400 1.7
300 1.8
200 1.9
100 2.0
Example: TAG = 600F; H = 150 ft, 0 in.; TAMB = 60F. Natural draft = 1.124 in.
56
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-`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A ASME STS-1–2006
D = 2 ft,
D=5
D=1
D=
0 in.
ft, 0
D=
D= F
0 ft, 0
TAVG = 200
15
20
in.
25
ft, 0
ft,
ft,
in.
0 in
0 in
in.
400F
.
.
500F 600F
800F 1000F
2100F
F
1200 1500F 1800F
Friction Loss, F (for 100 ft) – in. of Water
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
0.60 Gas velocity V = 20 ft/sec
V = 30 ft/sec
Flu
ed
V = 40 ft
ia.
/sec
D=
0.50
2 ft
,0
F
in.
V=5
D
0
0 ft/s
50
=3
D ec
=5
ft,
0i
ft,
0i
n.
V= V= n.
0.40 70
60 f
t/se D
ft/s c =
ec 4
ft,
0
D in
=6 .
ft,
0i
D= n.
7f
0.30 t, 0
in.
D=
8 ft
,0
in.
D=
10 f
t, 0
in.
0.20
D=1
5 ft, 0
in.
D = 20
ft, 0 in
0.11 .
D = 25 ft
0.10 , 0 in.
F
p. 00
e m =2
F
st VG
0
0F
ga TA
F
F
40
0F
0F
0F
0F
.
2100
1800
80
g
Av
100
120
150
60
0.00
Example: D = 5 ft, 0 in.; TAVG = 500F; V = 50 ft/sec.
Friction loss for 100 ft, F = 0.11 (in. of water).
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX A
100.0 0.00
0.15
90.0 0.30
30 de
g ang
le en
tranc 0.45
e
80.0 0.60
F
1800
45 0.75
de
2100F
ga
ng
100 1200F
le
F
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
70.0 0.90
1500
0 F
F
800
60 0.986
de
500 0F
ga 1.05
400 F
0F
60
ng
F
No le
20
F
co
T=
0
30
60.0 ne 1.20
re
90
ra
V (Gas velocity in ft./sec)
de
pe
g
10
em
an
de
gl 1.35
15
st
e
Ga
co
de
ne
gc
on
50.0
e
1.50
1.65
40.0 1.80
1.95
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
30.0 2.10
2.25
20.0 2.40
2.55
10.0 2.70
2.85
0.00 3.00
Example: V = 80/sec;T = 500F; 10 exit cone; pressure drop P 0.986.
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
MATERIALS FOR AMBIENT AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
SERVICE
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
59 --`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
500 260 28.4 195.7 60.0 413.4 27,400 188,786
600 316 27.4 188.8 60.0 413.4 26,900 185,341
650 343 26.9 185.3 60.0 413.4 26,550 182,929
700 371 26.4 181.9 60.0 413.4 26,200 180,518
750 399 25.9 178.5 60.0 413.4 25,900 178,451
800 427 25.2 173.6 60.0 413.4 25,600 176,384
850 454 24.5 168.8 58.3 401.7 25,200 173,628
900 482 23.8 164.0 55.8 384.5 24,800 170,872
950 510 22.9 157.8 52.6 362.4 24,350 167,771
1000 538 21.9 150.9 48.8 336.2 23,900 164,671
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B ASME STS-1–2006
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
61
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Considerable deviation from the listed properties may occur as a result of the relatively broad chemical composition
range shown.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
(c) Values taken from “USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service.”
(d) Reprinted with permission from “USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service,” 1976 revision.
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B ASME STS-1–2006
Carbon 0.10/0.19
Manganese 0.90/1.25
Phosphorus 0.04 Max.
Sulphur 0.05 Max.
Silicon 0.15/0.30
Copper 0.25/0.40
Chromium 0.40/0.65
Vanadium 0.02/0.10
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
80 27 55.0 379.0 86.7 597.4 30,000 206,700
200 93 51.7 356.2 81.4 560.8 29,000 199,810
400 204 48.4 333.5 79.8 549.8 28,000 192,920
600 316 46.7 321.8 75.5 520.2 26,900 185,341
800 427 45.1 310.7 71.1 489.9 25,600 176,384
1000 538 35.8 246.7 52.0 358.3 23,900 164,671
1200 649 20.0 137.8 30.3 208.8 21,800 150,202
1400 760 9.4 64.8 11.3 77.9 18,900 130,221
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Considerable deviation from the listed properties may occur as a result of the relatively broad chemical composition
range shown.
(b) This material should not be used above 800°F for load bearing structures because of possible loss of ductility.
(c) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
(d) Values taken from “USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service.”
(e) Reprinted with permission from “USS Steels for Elevated Temperature Service,” 1976 revision.
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Table B-6 ASTM A 240 Stainless Steel Type 410
A – Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.15
Manganese 1.00
Phosphorus 0.04
Sulphur 0.03
Silicon 1.00
Chromium 11.50/13.50
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B ASME STS-1–2006
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Table B-7 ASTM A 240 Stainless Steel Type 304
A – Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.06
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 18.0/12.00
Nickel 8.0/10.5
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
65
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Table B-8 ASTM A 240 Stainless Steel Type 316
A – Chemical Composition of Elements
Elements Chemical Composition, %
Carbon 0.08
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 16.0/18.00
Nickel 10.0/14.0
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B ASME STS-1–2006
Carbon 0.03
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 18.0/20.00
Nickel 8.0/12
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
Carbon 0.03
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 16.0/18.00
Nickel 10.0/14.0
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B ASME STS-1–2006
Carbon 0.08
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 18.0/20.0
Nickel 11.0/15.0
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
Carbon 0.28
Manganese 0.85/1.20
Phosphorus 0.035
Sulphur 0.035
Silicon 0.15/0.40
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
70
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Carbon 0.08
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 22/24
Nickel 12/15
Iron Bal.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
Carbon 0.08
Manganese 2.00
Phosphorus 0.045
Sulphur 0.030
Silicon 0.75
Chromium 24/26
Nickel 19/22
Iron Bal.
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Properties taken from ASME BPVC, Section II.
(b) Properties are “typical” unless otherwise indicated, and should not be taken as guaranteed properties.
72
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
409 S40900 A 240 0.08 11 0.5 ... ... ... ... bal. 0.75 max.
317L S31703 A 240 0.03 19 13.0 3.25 ... ... ... bal. ...
317LM S31725 A 240 0.03 19 16.0 4.25 ... ... ... bal. ...
317LMN S31726 A 240 0.03 19 16.0 4.0 ... 0.15 ... bal. ...
2205 S31803 A 240 0.03 22 5.0 3.0 ... 0.15 ... bal. ...
255 S32550 A 240 0.03 25 6.0 3.0 2.0 0.15 ... bal. ...
... 6% Mo (1) A 240 0.02 20/24 18/25 6/7.3 0/1 0.2/0.5 ... bal. ...
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B 688
625 N06625 B 443 0.05 22 bal. 9.0 ... ... ... ... Cb+Ta
276 N10276 B 575 0.02 16 Bal. 16.0 ... ... ... ... W
22, 622 N06022 B 575 0.02 22 bal. 13.0 ... ... ... ... W
59 N06059 B 575 0.02 23 59.0 16.0 ... ... ... ... ...
686 N06686 B 575 0.01 21 57.0 16.0 ... ... ... ... W
... Titanium B 265 0.08 ... ... ... ... ... bal. 0.12 residuals
R50250
NOTE:
(1) Because the 6% molybdenum super-austenitic stainless steels are proprietary, it is necessary to show a range of com-
positions.
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX B
A 36 800°F (427°C)
A 242, Type 1 950°F (510°C)
A 387, Gr. 11, 12 1,050°F (566°C)
A 176, Type 409 1,300°F (704°C)
A 176, Type 410 1,300°F (704°C)
A 240, Type 304 1,650°F (899°C)
A 240, Type 316 1,650°F (899°C)
A 240, Type 317 1,650°F (899°C)
A 240, Type 309 1,900°F (1 038°C)
A 240, Type 310 2,000°F (1 038°C)
NOTE:
(1) Manufacturers of types or grades not listed should be consulted
for recommendations.
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX C
LININGS AND COATINGS
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Table C-1 Suggested Suitability of Linings for Steel Stacks to Withstand Chemical and
Temperature Environments of Flue Gases
Lining
Classification Chemical Environment Thermal Environment
UNS No. Type (ASTM) Mild Moderate Severe Mild Moderate Severe
GENERAL NOTE: Materials suppliers shall be consulted with respect to specific recommendations on usage.
NOTES:
(1) Can be used in very severe chemical environments.
(2) Coating may darken surface and convert to organic carbon at higher temperatures.
(3) There is usually no significant price advantage to the use of these alloys as linings in place of solid alloys.
(4) Most resistant of the alloys.
75
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Maximum Cure
Type Mechanism Acid Salt Weather Dry Heat
Organic Chemical Very good (1) Very good Very good 300°F (149°C) (2)
zinc-rich crosslinking
NOTES:
(1) Indicated results based on primer being top coated.
(2) Indicated results based on limitation of top coat in the system.
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX C ASME STS-1–2006
10−1 1000
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
a. 10% H2O from oil
b. 6% H2O from coal
Sulfur Trioxide in Gas, Volume %
10−2 100
10−3 10
Sulfur Trioxide in Gas, Volume %
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX C
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Operating Conditions
55C 65C 80C 135C
Scrubbed Mixed Raw
C gas gases gas F
200 400
Basis 0.020 ipy Acid
max corrosion dewpoint
rate oxidizing
conditions 300
150
62
5
Boiling point
curve C2
100 90 76 200
4L
31
6L
6L
50 31 100
Adiabatic C-St
eel
saturation curve
0 0
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1000
800 10
,
00
0
Di % 80
0
sp 0
10
la n, 00
0
600 ce tio 60
80
m a 00
er
0
en
el
60
t,
in cc 40 0
. A 0
0
40
400
20
0 0
0
20
10
0
0
80 0
10
200 0
80
60
0
60
40
0
40
20
100 0
20
80
10
0
10
80
Velocity, in./sec
60
8
60
6
40
4
40
20
2
10
1
20 8
80
0.
6
60
0.
4
40
0.
10
20
2
0.
8
10
0.
0.
80
08
6 0.
0.
60
06
0.
0.
0
40
04
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4
0.
0. 0.
20
0
02 20
02
00
0
0.
0.
0. 0.
10
01 10
0
00
01
0. 0 0.
08
80
2 08
0.
00
0.
00
00
0. 8 0. 0
06
0.
0.
06
00
60
0
00
6
00
0.
0.
0. 0.
40
04
00 04
00
00
4 0
0.
0.
1
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 800 1000
Frequency, cps.
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D ASME STS-1–2006
0.21
0.20
0.30
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.40
0.20
0.15
0.20 0.15
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.40
0.40 0.10
0.15 0.10
0.40 0.05
0.15
0.40 0.10
0.10 0.10
0.20
0.05 0.12
0.40
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.11
0.05
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.10
0.15
0.20
Kauai
30
0. 0
Honolulu
0.3 .40 Molokai
0 Maui
5
05
0.1
0.30
0. .40
0.
30
10
0
Hawaii
0.
15 Guam Tutuila
0. 20
0
0. Av = 0.30 Av = 0.20
0.1
0
0.3
0
0.4 0 90
Av = 0.20 Av = 0.30
Culebra St. John
0.40
St. Thomas
Vieques
0 100 200 300
St. Croix
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.05 0.04
0.08 0.06
0.15 0.11
0.20 0.15
0.30 0.23
0.40 0.30
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D ASME STS-1–2006
0.10
0.08
0.10
0.10
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
0.10 0.11
0.05
0.11
0.05
0.10 0.10
0.05
0.15
0.05
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.10 0.05
0.20
0.33 0.10 0.05 0.11
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D
A 387 Gr 11 (7) ·· ·· ·· 15.7 (3) 10.7 (3) 7.1 (4) 4.4 (4) 2.7 (4)
A 335 Gr P11 (7)
A 387 Gr 12 (7) ·· ·· ·· 18.0 (3) 11.3 (3) 7.3 (3) 4.5 (4) 2.5 (4)
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
A 335 Gr P12 (7)
·· Indicates that the creep value does not govern—normal allowable stresses based on Fy govern.
· Indicates that the use of this steel is not recommended at this temperature.
‡ Indicates that the use of this steel at this temperature is only recommended for noncritical
applications.
NOTES:
(1) The values presented in this Table are allowable stresses based on the criteria presented in para. 3.3.5 with a design
life of 100,000 hr. The appropriated factor of safety has been incorporated in these values.
(2) Creep and rupture properties are highly dependent upon the exact chemical composition of the steel. The values indi-
cated in the table are intended to be used only as a reference. Values used in design should be obtained from test
data reflecting the precise chemical composition of the steel to be used in the ductwork fabrication.
(3) The allowable stress value at this temperature is governed by the creep rupture strength.
(4) The allowable stress value at this temperature is governed by the creep rate.
(5) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from ASTM DS-11S1.
(6) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from various United States Steel Corporation publications, includ-
ing Steels for Elevated Temperature Service.
(7) Creep and rupture properties for this steel are derived from ASTM DS-50. These values differ from some of the ASME
values because ASME limits the allowable stress to 0.25 Fy, which is a limitation for boilers, not ducts.
(8) A range of values is presented for A 242, A 588, and A 618 steels because of the potentially large variation in chemis-
try, which can drastically affect the steel’s properties. The lower bound value should be used unless data indicate
otherwise.
Table D-4 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 410 Stainless Steel
Stress for a Creep Rate of Stress for Rupture in
0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
Test Temperature 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX D ASME STS-1–2006
Table D-5 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 304 Stainless Steel
Stress for a Creep Rate of Stress for Rupture in
0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
Test Temperature 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
Table D-6 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 316 Stainless Steel
Stress for a Creep Rate of Stress for Rupture in
0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
Test Temperature 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
Table D-7 Creep and Rupture Properties of Type 317 Stainless Steel
Stress for a Creep Rate of Stress for Rupture in
0.0001% per hr 0.00001% per hr
Test Temperature 1% in 10,000 hr 1% in 100,000 hr 1,000 hr 10,000 hr
°F °C ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
Importance factor I 1.00 1.00 1.00 (unitless)
Stack height h 80.00 160.00 240.00 ft
Top outside diameter D 5.000 10.000 15.000 ft
Exposure category C C C C Input Values
First mode frequency 1 2.60 1.30 0.90 Hz
Plate thickness t 0.250 0.3125 0.375 in.
Damping value 0.006 0.006 0.006 (unitless)
Gust effect factor Gf 0.95 1.01 1.05 See Mandatory Calculated Values
Appendix I
Topographical factor Kzt 1.000 1.000 1.000 Eq. (4-5)
Exposure coefficient Kz (at h) 1.210 1.390 1.516 Table 1-4
Velocity pressure qz (at h) 25.09 35.58 46.96 psf
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E ASME STS-1–2006
冢 冪g2QQ 2 + g2R R 2
冣
1 + 1.7Iz̃ 2
Gf p 0.925
1 + 1.7Iz̃ gv
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
... RB 0.6747 0.7226 0.7475 ...
... Rd 0.3522 0.4082 0.4410 ...
Resonant Response Factor R 0.4160 0.6221 0.7794 ...
Peak Factor of Resonant Response gR 4.411 4.252 4.164 ...
Peak Factor for Wind Response gv 3.4 3.4 3.4 ...
Peak Factor for Background Response gQ 3.4 3.4 3.4 ...
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
K2 p 1.00
K3 p 1.00 0.577
gR p 冪2 In (3600n1) + p 4.2578
Combined Topographic Factor K21 冪2 In 共3600n 1兲
[eq. (4.5)]
Coefficient Rn (unitless)
Ku p (1 + K1 K2 K3) 2 p 1.0000
7.47 N1
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coeff. Rn p p 0.0397
5
Per Table 1-4, pg. 46 Kz (at h) p 1.360 共1 + 10.3N1 兲
3
Velocity Pressure qz (at h), [eq. (4.4)] Coefficients Rh, RB, Rd (unitless)
qz p 0.00256 Kz, Kz V2l p 34.816 (psf) Rh p Rt setting p h
RB p Rt setting p b
Force Coefficient Cf (at h), (Table I-5) Rd p Rt setting p d
for (h/D) p 17.50
Cr p 0.6583 1 1
Ri p − (1 − e−2) for > 0
2 2
Terrain Exposure Constants ¯ , b̄, ¯ , l
(Table I-1) 1 for p 0
¯ p 0.2000 (unitless) Rh p 0.1198
b̄ p 0.65 (unitless) RB p 0.7586
¯ p 0.1538 (unitless) Rd p 0.4566
l p 500 (ft)
Mass per unit length of top 1⁄3 of stack ma (lbm/ft)
Stack First Mode Natural Frequency (Hz) n1 Para. 5.2.1.(b), pg. 22
(Modal Frequency Analysis) ma p 319.0
n1 p 1.335
Air Density (lbm/ft3)
Gust Factor Calculation Gf p 0.076474
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mandatory Appendix I)
Avg. Stack Diameter top 1⁄3 D (ft)
Integral Scale Length (ft) Lz D p 8.0000
Lz p l (z̄/33) ¯ p 602.73037
Aerodynamic Damping a (unitless)
Factors gQ and gv (unitless) [eq. (5.1)]
gQ p 3.4 Cf D V z
gv p 3.4 a p p 0.008284
4 mani
Background Response Q (unitless) Structural Damping r (unitless)
(Table 5.1)
冪
r p 0.004
1
Qp p 0.8908
0.63
Total Damping (unitless)
冢 冣
B+h
1 + 0.63
Lz p a + r p 0.012284
冪R R R
ū 1
冢 冣 冢 冣
z̄ 22 Rp n h g (0.53 + 0.47 Rd) p 0.4680
Vz̄ p b V p 110.0703
33 15
Gust Factor Gr (unitless)
Coefficient N1 (unitless)
冢 冣
l + 1.7 Iz̄ 冪gq2 Q2 + gR2 R2
nL Gf p 0.925 p 0.9555
N1 p i ī p 7.3103 1 + 1.7 Iz̄ gv
Vi
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E ASME STS-1–2006
N
Example Calculation E-4: Earthquake Response
Vin p 兺 Mj2nu jn
jp1
(3)
For a lumped mass system, such as shown in Example
1, the response spectra analysis is as follows:
N
(a) The displacement ujn of the jth mass in the nth
mode of vibration is given by
Min p 兺 Mj2nu jn(hj − hi)
jp1
(4)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
冢 n兺p 1V2in冣
2
Vi p (7)
N 1⁄
冢 兺 M 2in冣
2
Mi p (8)
np1
where
N p number of governing modes, i.e., modes which
contribute 10% or more to the responses.
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E ASME STS-1–2006
Modal Properties
1 2 3 4 5
Moment, ft-kips:
210 0 0 0 0 0 0
196 72 2661 19186 65894 157732 62
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
GENERAL NOTE: Shear calculation method similar with base shear p 37 kips.
E-5 VORTEX SHEDDING DESIGN is not the same value of damping used for seismic loads.
(THIS METHODOLOGY IS NOT AN EXAMPLE) Response is highly sensitive to small changes in
NOTE: This subsection does not apply to guyed or braced stacks
damping s where values of A2 are near 1.
(Sections 4.10 and 4.11).
冢 冣
1−4 ãM 2
mr D p̃ 0.5 1 −
D C2
p H⁄ D
mr p me 冫D 2g Practical Application
冫
H H
The general solution may be reduced to the following
me p 冕 m(z) 2 (z)dz 冕 2 (z)dz formulas of vortex shedding and then used to determine
0 0
equivalent static loads. For any values of mr s,
C2 p 0.6 (for parallel stacks only)
冢 冣
1⁄
H 1⁄ − (1 − A 2 ) + 冪(1 − A 2)2 + 16 A 12A 2 2
冢 冣
1 2
冕 2 (z)dz âM p D
8 A2
H 0
CM p (zM)
1 H 2
(z)dz
H 0冕 The peak values for vortex shedding response are:
(zM) p Value of (z) at maximum deflection â p ĝ ãM and as p gs ãM
zM p H for cantilever mode
CM p̃ 2.0 for the fundamental mode of vibration where â is the maximum value and is used to calculate
C1 p 0.12 for an isolated steel stack peak loads and stresses while as defines equivalent con-
0.12 stant amplitude for fatigue calculations. The values of
C1 p for a grouped steel stack
(5S)2 ĝ and gs are determined from the following:
For a group of two or more identical steel stacks,
For mr s > 0.8,
the amplification factor ⴤ and Strouhal Number S are
ĝ p 4.0
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
given as,
gs p 2.0
(A冫 D − 3) A
p 1.50 − ,3< < 15 For mr s < 0.4,
24 D
A ĝ p 1.6
p 1.0 for ≥ 15 gs p 1.5
D
Linear interpolation is used for 0.4 < mr s < 0.8.
冢 D − 3冣 for D < 15
1 A A
S p 0.16 +
300
Equivalent Static Loads
A
S p 0.20 for ≥ 15 The equivalent static loads corresponding the dis-
D
A placement, âM, are given by:
For < 3 or for groups of identical steel stacks or
D
nonidentical steel stack groups, interference effects shall ŵ(z) p â (2n1) 2 (z) m(z)⁄gc
be established by reference to model test, or other studies ws(z) p as (2n1)2 (z) m(z)⁄gc
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of similar arrangements.
The number of cycles in T years at the equivalent
E-6 COMPUTATION OF VORTEX-INDUCED RESPONSE constant amplitude as is given by:
(THIS METHODOLOGY IS NOT AN EXAMPLE) 2 2
冢 冣 冤 冢 冣冥
Vc冪 I
Vzcr
exp − 15
Vc冪 I
Vzcr
1⁄
冦 冤 冢 冣 冥冧
D ãM 2 2 Vc and Vzcr are evaluated at the same height.
1 − A2 1 − 4
D
A fatigue analysis can be performed using the methods
A1 p C1 CM冫mr 冪s in the CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys or the
A2 p C2冫mr s American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).
92
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E ASME STS-1–2006
冢 冕 冣
1⁄
2
1 evaluating the critical wind velocity (ft/
(z)dz
2
H sec)
z1 z p height z under consideration, ft
CM p (zM)
H zcr p 1⁄2 (z1 + z2) or, for stacks with less than
1
冕 (z) dz ±10% variation over the top third, zcr p 5⁄6
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
2
z2 H H, ft
冢 冕 (z)dz 冣
0 zM p height at maximum modal shape displace-
2
ment (H for mode 1), ft
z1 z1, z2 p upper and lower limits of a section of the
R p stack over which the diameter changes by
H
冕 (z) dz
30% (i.e., D ±15%), ft
2
a p amplification factor
a p aerodynamic damping
R p 1.00 for nearly parallel
s p structural damping
C2 p 0.6 R
p aspect ratio
The limits change to p air density (0.00238), lbm-sec2/ft4
(z) p normalized mode shape at height, z
mr s > 0.8 R (unitless)
mr s < 0.4 R (zM) p max normalized modal displacement (z)
for mode at z p zM, for the first mode
Symbols and Definitions z p H (unitless)
A p center-to-center stack spacing for interfer- ˆ (z) p equivalent static load, lbf/ft
ence effects, ft s(z) p equivalent fatigue load, lbf/ft
A 1 p constant
A 2 p constant E-7 VORTEX SHEDDING EXAMPLE
â p maximum value amplitude for static (EXAMPLE CALCULATION)
equivalent design loads, ft
as p maximum value amplitude for static Vortex Shedding Design per E-5 for steel stacks with
equivalent fatigue loads, ft less than 10% variation in diameter in the upper 1⁄3 of
aM p r. m. s. dynamic displacement at zpzm, ft the stack. Stack is 140 ft tall, 8 ft diameter and 0.3125
C1 p constant for grouped/isolated stacks in. constant wall thickness.
C2 p constant
Height (ft):
CM p mode shape constant
H p 140.00 ft
D p mean diameter for the segment z1 to z2, or
for stacks with less than ±10% variation Top 1⁄3 Ht Mean OS Diameter, ft:
over the top 1⁄3 the value of D is the average
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
D p 8.00
over the top 1⁄3, ft
H p height of steel stack, ft Top 1⁄3 Ht Mean Thickness, in.:
ĝ p constant for maximum static equiv. loads t p 0.3125 in.
g p gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2)
gc p gravitational constant (32.2 lbm-ft/lbf- 3-sec gust Velocity (mph) from (Fig. I-1)
sec2) V p 100
gs p constant for fatigue static equiv. loads
Importance Factor (Table I-2 and Table I-3)
me p equivalent uniform mass per unit length,
Ifactor p 1.00
lbm/ft
m(z) p mass per unit length at height z, lbm/ft Reference Design Wind Speed:
mr p dimensionless mass
n1 p natural frequency of mode, Hz VR p V 冪l factor
NT p effective number of cycles in period years
R p constant for tapered stacks Exposure: (para. 4.3.3.4): C
93
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
11 40 35 8 10 320 0.1263
Shape Factor (Table I-5):
12 30 25 8 10 320 0.0742
Cf p 0.6583 13 20 15 8 10 320 0.0346
14 10 5 8 10 320 0.0092
Spacing between stacks: 15 0 0 8 0 0 0.0000
A p 160 ft (20 ⴛ D)
Critical Elevation
First Mode, therefore (E-5): 5
zcr p H
CM p 2.0 6
zcr p 116.67 ft
z1 p 140.00 ft
Strouhal Number (E-5):
z2 p 0.00 ft
冤D > 15, 0.2, 0.16 + 300 冢D − 3冣冥
A 1 A
St p if
Critical Velocity
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1
Average Diameter for Top 1⁄3 Ht: Vc p n D
St 1 bar
Dbar p D Vc p 53.40 fps
Dbar p 8 ft 30
St p 0.20 Vc p 36.41 mph
44
Mean Hourly Design Speed at 5H/6 (ft):
Vortex Shedding Elevation Range:
冢 冣
zcr bar 44
z1 p H Vz.cr p bbar VR
33 30
z2 p 0
Vz.cr p 115.78 fps
For Exposure C (Table 4A-1): If Vc > 1.2 * Vzcr then ignore
bar p
1 Region p if (Vc > 1.2 Vzcr,
6.5 “Need not Consider”, “Consider”)
bbar p 0.65 Region p “Consider”
c p 0.2
If Vc > 1.2 Vzcr but less than 1.2 * Vzcr reduction factor
Ift p 500 allowed:
1 2
p
冢 冣
Vzcr
5 Freduction p
Vc
Number of Sections: Reduction p if (Vc > Vzcr, “true”, “false”)
n p 15 Reduction p “false”
k p 1...n Freduction p if (Reduction p “true”, Freduction, 1)
I p 500 Freduction p 1.00
Zmin p 15 Grouped Chimney effects must be considered below
p 9.5 15 ⴛ Spa:
zg p 900 A p 160.00
94
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NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E ASME STS-1–2006
冢 冣 冥冧
A
Advice p if < 3, ”Seek Advice”, “Use Code” 0.8, 4.0, gxh兴
Dbar
gp1 p 1.0
ghat p 1.60
冢 冣
1 A
gp2 p 1.5 − −4
冦冤
24 Dbar
gp2 0.83
p ghat p if mr s < 0.4, 1.5, 关if (mr s >
冥冧
Advice “Use Code”
p
gp3 2.0
p 0.8, 2.0, gxh兴
gr if 关A > 15 Dbar, 1, if (A ≥
p
4 Dbar, gp2, gp3)兴 gs p 1.50
gr p 1.00
H
p p 17.50 For Peak Loads:
Dbar
ah p ghat am ah p 4.8134
0.12
C1 p gr C1 p 0.12
(5 St)2
15
c p 兺 (k)2 htk
kp1
c p 35.288 For Fatigue:
as p gs am as p 4.5125
15
1
me p 兺 mk htk (k)2 me p 320.000 lbm/ft
c 冤
whk p ah (2 n1)2 k mk 冥
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
kp1
Max. Deflection at Top for 1st Mode:
zM p 1.0
C2 p 0.60
1⁄ 冤
wsk p as (2 n1)2 k mk 冥
冢 冣
1 2
zM
H c wh
k
ws
k
CMt p k zk (ft) (lb/ft) (lb/ft)
1
H c 1.00 140.00 3366 3155
CMt p 1.992 2.00 130.00 3036 2847
3.00 120.00 2707 2538
me 4.00 110.00 2380 2231
mr p mr p 65.24
Dbar2 g 5.00 100.00 2057 1929
mr s p 0.2610 6.00 90.00 1742 1633
7.00 80.00 1438 1348
C1 CM
A1 p A1 p 0.01390 8.00 70.00 1149 1077
mr 冪s 9.00 60.00 880 825
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
10.00 50.00 637 598
0.60 11.00 40.00 425 399
A2 p A2 p 2.30
mr s 12.00 30.00 250 234
m e s
mr p s p 0.2610 p 0.2610 13.00 20.00 116 109
g Dbar2 14.00 10.00 31 29
15.00 0.00 0 0
For any value of mr * s:
冤 冥
2
am p Dbar Peak Bending Moment for Vortex Shedding:
8 A2
15 whk + whk − 1
冢 冣
1 (zk + zk−1)
Mh p 1000 g 兺
am p 3.01 (zk − 1 − zk)
2 kp2 2
(mr s − 0.4) 2.4
gxh p 1.6 + gxh p 0.766 Mh p 18784 ft-Kip
0.4
(mr s − 0.4) 0.5 Avg. Peak Moment to Consider for Fatigue:
gxs p 1.5 + gxs p 1.326
0.4 15 wsk + wsk − 1
冢 冣
1 (zk + zk−1)
Ms p 1000 g 兺 2
(zk − 1 − zk)
2
kp2
Ms p 17,610 ft-kip
95
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ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX E
t
Number of Stresses at Peak Moment for Fatigue: Din. p D −
6
冤 冢 冣冥
S p (D4 − Din.4) 123
冢 冣
2 2
Vc 冪lfactor Vc 冪lfactor 32 D
冢50冣 n 10
T 10
NT p exp -15
1
Vz cr Vz cr S p 2239.95 in.3
Ms 12
b p
Nf 0 p 1.17 ⴛ 108 cycles (based on 50 years) S
b p 94.34 ksi
Calculate Bending Stress due to Peak Moment for
fatigue consideration. High bending stress level indicates failure for this
Section Modulus: stack configuration. Additional damping or aerody-
D p 8.00 ft namic wind spoilers such as helical strakes are
required.
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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ASME STS-1–2006
NONMANDATORY APPENDIX F
CONVERSION FACTORS: U.S. CUSTOMARY TO SI (METRIC)
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sq ft m2 0.0929 psf Pa 47.88
sq in. m2 0.0006451 psi kPa 6.895
sq yd m2 0.8361
sq mile (statute) m2 2,590,000
97
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//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
ASME STS-1–2006 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX F
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
98
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ASME STS-1–2006
//^:^^#^~^^""~:@":^*^~$~"#:*~:*@^:#^#:~~^^~:^":^@::~*\\
L06906
--`,,```,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---