Anatomically the brain is the most voluminous part of the brain and is divided by a central

groove called longitudinal fissure in the right and left hemispheres, at the same time joined by
the corpus callosum. The surface of each hemisphere has a set of folds that form a series of
irregular depressions, are grooves or fissures. The disposition that these furrows take is never
the same between the brains of different people, and they also adopt different dispositions on
both sides of the same brain.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes: the frontal, the parietal, the temporal, and
the occipital. In general, the first four lobes are located under the bones that bear the same
name. Thus, the frontal lobe rests in the depths of the frontal bone, the parietal lobe under the
parietal bone, the temporal lobe under the temporal bone and the occipital lobe below the
region corresponding to the occipital protuberance.

The brain contains several trillion cells, of which about 100,000 million neurons and has almost
100 trillion interconnections in series and in parallel that provide the physical basis that allows
brain functioning. Thanks to circuits formed by nerve cells or neurons, it is capable of
processing sensory information from the outside world and from the body itself. The brain
performs sensory functions, motor functions and less defined integration functions associated
with various mental activities. Some processes that are controlled by the brain are memory,
language, writing and emotional response.

The functioning of the brain is based on the concept that the neuron is an independent
anatomical and functional unit, composed of a cell body from which numerous branches,
called dendrites, which receive information from other nerve cells and a main prolongation,
the axon, which carries information to the other neurons in the form of electric current. But
the neurons are not connected to each other by a continuous network formed by their
extensions, but they do so by contacts separated by narrow spaces called synapses. The
transmission of the signals through the synapses is carried out by chemical substances known
as neurotransmitters, of which more than twenty different classes are known today.

The brain is responsible for motor, sensory and integration functions. The left cerebral
hemisphere is specialized in producing and understanding the sounds of language, the control
of skillful movements and gestures with the right hand. The right hemisphere is specialized in
the perception of sounds not related to language (music, crying ...), in tactile perception and in
the spatial localization of objects.

Nowadays it is known that visual information is received and analyzed in the occipital lobe. In
the temporal lobes, certain visual and auditory sensations are governed. The voluntary
movements of the muscles are governed by the neurons located in the most posterior part of
the frontal lobes, in the so-called motor cortex. The frontal lobes are also related to language,
intelligence and personality, although specific functions in this area are unknown. The parietal
lobes are associated with the senses of touch and balance. At the base of the brain is the brain
stem, which governs breathing, coughing and heartbeat. The cerebellum is located behind the
trunk, which coordinates body movement, maintaining posture and balance. The brain areas
that govern functions such as memory, thinking, emotions, consciousness and personality are
much more difficult to locate.

Memory is linked to the limbic system, located in the center of the brain. As far as emotions
are concerned, it is known that the hippocampus controls thirst, hunger, aggression and
emotions in general. It is postulated that impulses from the frontal lobes are integrated into
the limbic system, reaching the hypothalamus, a structure that in turn regulates the
functioning of the pituitary gland, which produces several hormones.

It is in the cortex where cognitive capacities are integrated, where our ability to be aware, to
establish relationships and to make complex reasonings is found. What we call gray matter is a
small layer that covers the rest of the brain. But the human cerebral cortex has a characteristic
that distinguishes it from all the others. It has numerous folds. This remarkably increases its
surface. If we extended it, it would occupy the area equivalent to four pages. In comparison,
that of a chimpanzee would only be one folio, that of the monkey would occupy like a postcard
and that of the rat would be a postmark.

The processing of the sensory information collected from the world around us and from our
own body, the motor and emotional responses, learning, consciousness, imagination and
memory are functions performed by circuits formed by interrelated neurons through the
synaptic contacts. It is for this reason that brain functioning resembles, in part, a computer.
But the brain is much more complex than a computer, since it is endowed with properties that
only provides its biological nature.

In humans, the brain or brain is the part of the Central Nervous System that is located at the
end of the spinal cord, inside the skull. It is, in short, the organ through which we can perform
the most complex mental operations and have consciousness, that is, sense of self. Precisely
for that reason within the brain there are a lot of structures working together at a great speed,
a fact that makes the functioning of the brain is, even today, a mystery in many aspects.

To begin to understand what we know about this complex machinery, it is essential to know
the parts of the brain, that is, the way in which the structures that compose it can be classified.
A good way to classify the different parts of the brain above can be by attending to the
different formations that are formed within the head of a human embryo. They are a total of
three structures.

1.1. Rombencephalon

It is the upper part of the spinal cord and throughout the development of the fetus will be
transformed into structures responsible for performing essential tasks for survival, such as
control of heart rate and breathing. It will end up transforming the cerebellum, the brainstem
bridge and the medulla oblongata, as we will see.

1.2. Midbrain

In human embryos appears just above the rhombencephalon, and will be transformed into the
medial part of the brain, which is also responsible for performing many of the basic functions
of survival but also acts as a bridge between the other two structures.

1.3. Forebrain

Located at the far end of the spinal cord and on the side closest to the face of the embryo, the
forebrain is the formation that will be transformed into the parts of the brain that have
appeared more recently in our evolutionary line and that, therefore, they have to do with the
use of language, planning and the search for creative solutions to new problems. As we will
see, the two main structures that the development of the rombencephalon gives way to are
the diencephalon and the telencephalon.

2. The parts of the adult brain

Going into more detail, we can stop to see the different components of the brain in fully
developed humans. It is in this set of organs that we find all those parts of the brain that define
the way of functioning of our mind.

Here we will see, in the first place, the parts of the brain that are generated from the
forebrain, and then go to the mesencephalon area and the rhombencephalon, in that order.

2.1. Telencephalon

The telencephalon is the part of the brain that is easier to see with the naked eye, since it
occupies most of the surface of the brain. Its components are the cerebral cortex, the basal
ganglia and the limbic system.

2.1.1. Cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex (or cortex) is the part of the brain that is rough and full of folds. It covers
the rest of the brain above, and it is the area in which the necessary information is integrated
to carry out the most complex mental processes, since the information that arrives at this
region has already been partially processed by other structures of the brain. The cortex is
divided into two cerebral hemispheres that are almost symmetrical to the naked eye, although
on a microscopic scale they are very different.

In addition, each hemisphere is composed of several lobes of the brain, each of which is more
involved in certain mental processes. The lobes of the brain are these:

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

Insula

2.1.2. Basal ganglia

The second component of the telencephalon is the set formed by the basal ganglia. These are
a group of structures located below the cerebral cortex and distributed symmetrically under
each hemisphere. The basal ganglia are the pale globe, the putamen and the caudate nucleus,
which are complemented by a region known as the substantia nigra.

The basal ganglia are the parts of the brain that allow us to perform relatively complex and
precise movements easily and almost automatically: writing, speaking, changing our facial
expressions voluntarily, etc. Therefore, they monitor in a semi-automatic way the way in which
we carry out chains of movements that we have practiced before many times until we have
mastered them, and at the same time they allow us to learn them well, among other functions.

2.1.3. Limbic system

The limbic system is a set of brain structures whose limits are quite diffuse, since it mixes with
many different parts of the brain. Its functions are related to the appearance and regulation of
emotions and bodily responses beyond the head that accompany them. That is why sometimes
it is considered "the emotional brain" as opposed to the "rational brain" that would
correspond to the areas occupied by the cerebral cortex (and especially the frontal lobe).

However, neither the limbic system nor the cortex can work well independently, and therefore
this distinction between rational and emotional areas is very artificial, and more so considering
that we are not as rational as it might seem.

2.1.4. Hippocampus

The hippocampus is an elongated structure located in the inner part of the temporal lobes,
one of the oldest regions of the cerebral cortex, present in the forms of older mammals. Its
function is related to the storage and recovery of memories, learning and spatial navigation.

2.1.5. Amygdala

The amygdala is a set of neurons that are grouped on the inner side of the temporal lobe of
each of the hemispheres. That is to say, that just like what happens with the hippocampus, it is
one of those parts of the brain that are found in duplicate in each human brain, with one in
each half (left and right) of the brain.

The cerebral amygdala is part of the limbic system, and is one of the cerebral structures that
have more importance when it comes to relating emotional states with situations that we live;
that is why it plays a key role in the mental processes related to emotional memory and the
learning related to it, which are very important. At the end of the day, knowing which
emotions are matched to each type of stimulus or experience makes us adopt an attitude
towards them and we opt for possible reactions and not others.

2.2. Diencephalon

The diencephalon is the second great structure that forms the forebrain, and is located just
below the telencephalon, in the depths of the Central Nervous System. The parts of the brain
that make up the diencephalon are basically the thalamus and the hypothalamus.

2.2.1. Thalamus

It is the largest part of the diencephalon, and is the nucleus in which all the information that
reaches us through the senses is integrated for the first time (with the exception of smell,
which reaches the brain directly through the olfactory bulb of each hemisphere). cerebral). The
thalamus sends this information to higher areas of the brain, so that it continues to process
the information that has begun to be synthesized in it, and is also able to make it possible for
the Autonomous Nervous System to react quickly to stimuli that may mean the presence of a
danger.

2.2.2. Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located just below the thalamus, and is mainly responsible for making the
whole organism is constantly in a state of homeostasis, that is, in balance in all senses: body
temperature, levels of hormones in blood, rhythm of the breathing, etc.

In addition, thanks to its ability to cause different glands in the body to secrete hormones, it
induces us to more or less high levels of stress and general activation depending on what is
happening in other parts of the brain. It is also the structure responsible for the appearance of
the state of thirst and hunger.

2.3. Brain stem

The brainstem, or brainstem, is the part of the brain that is most directly connected to the
spinal cord, and is also responsible for performing the basic tasks of maintaining vital functions
such as involuntary breathing or heart rhythm. It is formed by the parts that evolve from the
mesencephalon and the rhombencephalon. Its parts are the following.

2.3.1. Midbrain

The mesencephalon is the part of the brainstem that is just below the diencephalon. It is
responsible for communicating the brainstem with the superior structures and vice versa, and
also intervenes in the maintenance of automatic processes that allow us to survive. It is
divided into the tectum and the tegmentum. 2.3.2. Boss

This structure is also known as a Varolium bridge or brainstem bridge. It is located just below
the mesencephalon.

2.3.3. Spinal bulb

It is the lower part of the brainstem, and its functions are very similar to those of the other two
structures of this part of the brain. In addition, it is the link between the brain and the spinal
cord. In the medulla, there is a part known as the decussation of the pyramids, which is where
the bundles of nerve fibers of the two hemiframes (the left and right halves of the human
body) intersect to pass from one side to the other; This explains why the right hemisphere is
responsible for processing information from the left hand while the left hemisphere handles
the other, for example.

2.4. Cerebellum

Next to the medulla oblongata and the protuberance, the cerebellum is the third major
structure that evolves from the hindbrain. In addition, the cerebellum and the protuberance
are part of a region called metencephalon.
The cerebellum is one of the parts of the brain with a higher concentration of neurons and
among its many functions the most studied is the regulation and monitoring of complex
movements that require some coordination. It also has a role in maintaining balance when
standing and walking.

Cranial pairs

The cranial nerves are bundles of axons that leave different points of the lower brain area and
go to other parts of the body without going through the spinal cord. Examples of cranial nerves
are the trigeminal nerve, the vagus nerve or the olfactory nerve; all of them are of great
importance, and in the case of the trigeminal, its incorrect functioning can generate a lot of
pain.

SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is the most caudal part of the central nervous system, starting in the medulla
and ending in the lower back. It is the lower part of the neuroaxis, with a slightly flattened and
asymmetrical cylindrical shape that, like the brain, is strongly protected by being surrounded
by the spine. Likewise, it also enjoys the protection of the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid,
which prevent most of the damage caused by environmental elements.

This part of the nervous system is the point of connection between the brain and the rest of
the organism, with the vast majority of nerve fibers passing through the marrow. The
transmission of information is not usually through a single neuron, but as a general rule, the
neurons that make up the different nerves of the body make one or several intermediate
synapses, either within the marrow itself or outside it (as with the neurons of the nerve
ganglia).

The spinal cord receives both afferents and eferences, that is, it has both neurons that receive
information from the recipients of the different organs and structures and others that send
information and commands to those areas.

Neuroanatomical configuration

Although the division into vertebrae has more to do with the configuration of the spine, that is,
the bone protection of the spine which in turn serves as a supporter of the body position, it
may be useful to take it into consideration in order to locate the situation of the spine. the
parts of the medulla that innervate the different body areas.

The majority of human beings are born with a total of 33 vertebrae, including seven cervical
vertebrae, twelve thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae and four
coxigens. As we develop, the number is reduced by merging the lower ones to form the sacral
and coccygeal bones, going on to consider only the first 24 vertebrae, ending in L5 or lumbar 5.
The beginning of the spinal cord is located a little earlier of its covering by the vertebral
column, being adhered to the medulla oblongata. The point where the marrow ends can vary
from one person to another, culminating generally between vertebrae L1 and L3.
In general, the nerve connections correspond to the marrow correspond to the area where
they are located. Thus, in the part of the cord located in between the thoracic vertebrae are
the nerve connections that innervate the thorax, and so on. In regard to the nerves that
connect with the cord, we have a total of thirty-one pairs, eight cervical, twelve thoracic, five
lumbar, five sacral and one coccygeal. A point to note is the presence of two areas in which the
medulla is somewhat wider, because in these areas are the nerve connections with the
extremities.

Between the vertebrae C4 and T1 there is a somewhat wider area than the rest of the medulla.
This area, known as cervical intumescence, is thicker because in this place are the nerve
connections that connect with the upper extremities.

Towards the inferior end of the marrow a thickening can be observed, between which it goes
from the vertebra T11 to the L1, denominated lumbosacral intumescence. It is the part of the
medulla that innervates the lower extremities, and which together with the so-called horsetail
connects with the parts of the body located at the lower end.

Regarding the aforementioned horsetail, which receives its name due to the similarity of its
shape with the tail of said animal, is the set of nerve fibers that connect with the spinal nerves.
This form is due to the fact that the spinal cord is shorter than the spine, so that the areas
Parts of the marrow

It has been observed that the medulla has different nervous connections that innervate
different areas of the body. However, it may be of interest to analyze the internal structure of
the spinal cord.

As in the brain, in the marrow we find both gray matter and white substance. However, the
arrangement is reversed, with the white substance located in an external position and the gray
substance in the inner part of the medulla. Generally, the transmission of information occurs in
an ipsilateral manner, that is, the right side of the body is treated by the left side of the spinal
cord while the left side is treated with the right side.

Gray substance

The gray substance has this coloration because it is a set of somas or nuclei of neurons, which
project their axons to other areas. That is to say, it is in these zones where the bodies of
neurons accumulate, centers of information processing (although not being in the brain that
processing is very shallow). The gray substance is structured in different horns or antlers, being
the main the ventral horn, the dorsal horn and the intermediate zone. There is also the lateral
horn, but only in the thoracic area and the beginning of the lumbar.

The dorsal horn is responsible for receiving information from the systems innervated by the
marrow. In other words, it is the part of the cord that is responsible for the external or internal
stimulation detected by the receptors can be sent to the brain.

The ventral horn of the cord, unlike the dorsal horn, has the main function of emitting
information to the nerves, causing the body to react to external or internal stimuli. Through it
the voluntary movement is exercised.
With regard to the intermediate zone, there are many interneurons, which are those whose
main function is to serve as a link between two other neurons. They are connection bridges
between distal zones.

Although it only appears in the thoracic area and part of the lumbar region, the lateral horn is
of great importance, innervating different structures and participating in the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems of the autonomic nervous system. In this sense, it plays a
fundamental role in homeostasis, the process by which the organism establishes a balance or
harmony between different areas of the body so that the set of organs function in a healthy
and coordinated manner.

White substance

The white substance is formed mainly by the axons of the neurons, interconnecting marrow
and brain. It is organized in different fibers that are named after the zones with which they
connect, which can be ascending or descending. In the marrow you can find three columns,
the dorsal, the lateral and the ventral.

The dorsal column is mainly formed by afferent fibers of somatic type. In other words, as with
the dorsal horn in the gray matter, they are responsible for transmitting sensory information
from the brain to the marrow and vice versa depending on whether it is ascending or
descending.

The ventral and lateral columns are tracts and fascicles, which tend to be of the efferent type,
transporting the motor orders granted by the brain.

Functions of the spinal cord

The importance of this part of the central nervous system is beyond doubt. It is only necessary
to observe the effects that have damage in this area to understand that it is a fundamental
section for normal operation.

In summary, the main functions that make this section of the nervous system so relevant are
the following.

1. Transmission of sensory and motor information

The spinal cord is the relay nucleus of neurons and nerve fibers present in most parts of the
body. This means that both when the brain gives the order to perform an action (for example
kicking a ball) and when a part of our body perceives some stimulus (a caress on the arm), the
information passes first to the marrow, which will send the information to the muscles or the
brain to process it.

2. Processing of information

While it is in the brain where the stimulation becomes conscious, the marrow makes a quick
judgment of the situation in order to determine whether to only send the information to the
brain or provoke emergency action even before it arrives.

3. Immediate reaction: reflections

As we have just said, sometimes the spinal cord itself produces an act without the information
having been transmitted to the brain. These actions are what we know as reflections. To
exemplify we can think of putting a hand on the fire accidentally: the hand is withdrawn
immediately, unplanned and without having yet passed the information to the brain.

The function of the reflexes is clear: to offer a quick reaction to potentially dangerous
situations. Since sensory information already produces a response when it reaches the spinal
cord, without having to wait for it to be picked up by the brain, time is gained, something very
valuable in case of attack by an animal or when it can be injured by falling or Burns.

However, in the case of babies there are also reflexes that are lost during the first months after
birth and whose basic function is not always react quickly, but perform acts that promote
survival, such as sucking breast milk. In this case we speak of primitive reflexes, whose absence
can be a sign of disease.