Chapter 2

Structural systems
2.1. Introduction
Any structure is made up of structural elements (load-carrying, such as beams and columns) and non-
structural elements (such as partitions, false ceilings, doors, finishing etc). The structural elements,
put together, constitute the ‘structural system’. Its function is to resist effectively the action of
gravitational and environmental loads (such as wind and earth quake) and to transmit the resulting
forces to the supporting ground, without significantly disturbing the geometry, integrity and
serviceability of the structure.

Thus the structural system (load resisting system) is the skeleton of a building that resists all the
applied loads on the building including the load due to non structural parts of a building.

The first step in design is the planning carried out by the architect to determine the arrangement and
layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements. After doing this, the structural engineer then
determines the best structural system or form for the given condition to bring the architect’s concept
into being real. Close cooperation with the architect in the early stages of a project is essential in
developing a structure that not only meets functional and aesthetic requirements but exploits to the
fullest the special advantages of the structure such as cost and durability.

It is to look at its structural system and its load transmission mechanism in some detail. As the height
of the building increases, lateral loads (due to wind and earthquake) make their presence felt
increasingly; in fact, in very tall buildings, the choice of a structural system is dictated primarily by its
relative economy in effectively resisting lateral loads (rather than gravity loads).

For convenience, we may separate the structural system into two loads transmission mechanisms, i.e

 Gravity or vertical load resisting and

 Lateral load resisting,

These two systems are complementary and interactive. As an integrated system, the structure must
resist and transmit all the effects of gravity loads and lateral loads acting on it to the foundation and
the ground below.

2.1.1 Vertical Load Resisting Systems

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The purpose of vertical load resisting systems is to transfer Gravity Loads Applied at the Floor Levels
down to the Foundation Level and then to the soil layer beneath the foundation. The vertical load
resisting systems include Slab, column, beam, and load bearing walls.

2.1.1.1 Gravity or Vertical load transfer path

The gravity or vertical load transfer path can be direct path or indirect multi path system.

A. Direct Path Systems (Single path)

 Slab Supported on Load Bearing Walls

 Slab Supported on Columns(Flat slab)

B. Indirect Multi Path Systems (Dual path, mixed path, Complex path, etc.)

 Slab Supported on Beams

 Beams Supported on Other Beams

 Beams Supported on Walls or Columns

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2.1.1.2 Structural members in the vertical load resisting systems

Structural members in the vertical load resisting systems can be divided into two types,

A. Floor system -those that form horizontal (or sloped roof) planes and

B. Vertical framing -those that provide the vertical support for these planes(floor system)

A. Floor systems
The (horizontal) floor system resists the gravity loads (dead and live loads) acting on it and transmits
these to the vertical framing system. In this process, the floor system is subjected primarily to flexure
and transverse shear, whereas the vertical frame elements are generally subjected to axial compression,
often coupled with flexure and shear. The floor also serves as a horizontal diaphragm connecting
together and stiffening the various vertical frame elements. In cast-in-situ reinforced concrete
construction, the floor system usually consists of the following:

a. Wall supported slab system

In this system, the floor slabs are supported on load bearing walls (masonry). This system mainly
adopted in low rise buildings.

When the slab is supported only on two opposite sides, the slab bends in one direction only; hence it is
called a one way slab. When the slab supported on all four sides, and the plan dimensions of length
and breadth are comparable to each other, the slab bends in two directions; hence it is called a two way
slab. However, if the plan is a long rectangle (length greater than about twice the width), the bending

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along longitudinal direction is negligible in comparison with that along the transverse direction, and
the resulting slab action is effectively one way. If the wall extends above the floor level, the slab is no
more simply supported; partial fixity at the support introduces hogging moments in the slab.
Generally, slabs are cast in panels that are continuous over several wall supports, and are called one-
way continuous or two way continuous slab, depending on whether the bending is predominantly
along one direction or two directions. Hogging moments are introduced in the slab in the region
adjacent to the continuous support.

b. Beam supported slab system

This system is similar to the wall-supported system, except that the floor slabs are supported on
beams (instead of walls). The beams are cast monolithically with the slabs. This system
commonly adopted in high rise building construction, and also in low rise framed structures. The
gravity loads acting on the slabs are transmitted to the columns through the network of beams.
The beams which are directly connected to the columns (forming the vertical frames) are called

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primary beams (or girders); whereas, the beams which are supported, not by columns, but by
other beams (primary beams), are called secondary beams.

The action of slab may be either two-way or one-way, depending on the panel dimensions. When
a large number of two-way secondary beams are involved he floor called as ‘grid floor’ system
with a large column-free space.

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 c. Ribbed slab system

This is a special type of ‘gird floor’ slab-beam system, in which the ‘slab’, called
topping, is very thin (50-100mm) and the ‘beams’, called ribs, are slender and
closely spaced (less than 1.5m apart).The ribs have a thickness of not less than
65mm and a depth that is three-to-four times the thickness. The ribs may be
designed in one-way or two-way patterns, and are generally cast-in-situ, although
precast construction is possible.

Two-way ribbed slabs are sometimes called waffle slabs. Along the outer edges, the
ribbed slab system is generally supported on stiff edge beams or walls. In walls-
supported systems, the thickness of the rib resting on the walls is usually increased
to match the wall thickness for improved bearing, waffle slabs, used in large-span
construction, may rest directly on columns; in this case, the slab is made solid in the
neighborhood of the column.

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 d. Flat plate system

The flat plate system is suitable for lower loads and lower spans. Here, the floor
slab is supported directly on the columns without the presence of stiffening beams,
except at the periphery as an optional. Its load carrying capacity is restricted by the
limited shear strength and hogging moment capacity at the column supports
because it is relatively thin and has a flat under-surface, it is called flat Plate.

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 e. Flat slab system

This is a more acceptable concept to many designers. It is adopted in some office

buildings. The flat slabs are plates that are stiffened near the column supported by
means of ‘drop panels’ or/and ‘column capitals’ (which are generally hidden under
‘drop ceiling’). Compared to the flat plate system, the flat slab system is suitable
for higher loads and higher spans, because of its enhanced capacity in resisting
shear and hogging moments near the supports. Among the various floor systems;
the flat slab system is the one with highest dead load per unit area.

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 B. Vertical framing

As mentioned earlier, the vertical framing system resists the gravity loads and
lateral loads from the floor system and transmits theses effects to the foundation
and ground below. The framing system made up of a three-dimensional framework
of beams and columns. For convenience, we may divide the framework into
separate plane frames in the transverse and longitudinal directions of the building.

In cast-in situ reinforced concrete construction, the vertical framing system usually
comprises the following.

a. Columns

These are skeletal structural elements, whose cross sectional shape may be
rectangular, square, circular, L-shaped, etc.-often as specified by the architect. The
size of the column section is dictated, from a structural viewpoint, by its height and
the loads acting on it-which, in turn, depend on the type of floor system, spacing of
columns, number of stores, etc. the column is generally designed to resist axial
compression combined with biaxial or uniaxial moments that are induced by ‘frame
action’ under gravity and lateral loads. These load effects are more pronounced in
the lower stories of tall buildings; hence, high strength concrete (up to 50MPa) with

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high reinforcement area (up to 6 percent of the concrete area) is frequently adopted
in such cases, to minimize the column size. In some situations, the column height
between floor slabs may be excessive (more than one story height); in such case, it
is structurally desirable to reduce the unsupported length of the column by
providing appropriate tie beams; otherwise, the column should be properly
designed as slender column.

b. Walls

These are vertical elements, made of masonry or reinforced concrete. These are
called bearing walls if their main structural function is to support gravity loads, and
are referred to as shear walls if they are mainly required to resist lateral loads due to
wind and earthquake. The thickness of reinforced concrete bearing walls varies
from 125mm to 200mm; however, shear walls may be considerably thicker in the
lower story of tall buildings. The walls around the lift cores of a building often
serve as shear walls.

c. Transfer girders

In some buildings, the architectural planning is such that large column-free spaces
are required in the lower floors—for banquet/convention halls in hotels, lobbies,
parking areas, etc.

In such cases, the vertical load bearing elements (column, bearing walls) of the
upper floors are not allowed to continue downwards, through the lower floors to the
foundations below. This problem can be resolved by providing a very heavy beam,
called transfer girders. The upper –story columns terminate above the transfer
girder, and transmit their loads, through beams action of the girder, to the main
columns that support the girder from below.

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2.1.2 Lateral Load Resisting Systems
All loads (vertical loads, lateral loads, impact loads, etc.) on a building or structure must be provided with
a continuous path to the foundation. Not only must the individual structural elements and/or structural
systems resist and transfer the applied loads to the foundation, the connections must also be designed to
resist and transfer the applied loads to the foundation. If all of the connections, structural elements and/or
structural systems are not adequately designed, the load path will not be continuous.

Lateral loads may be Primary Lateral Loads or other lateral loads.

Primary Lateral Loads includes:

o Load generated by Wind Pressure

o Load generated due to Seismic Excitation

Other Lateral Loads

o Load generated due to horizontal component of Gravity Loads in Inclined Systems and in
Un-symmetrical structures

o Load due to lateral soil pressure, liquid and material retention

Forces that act laterally/horizontally, such as wind and seismic excitation require lateral load resisting
systems to be built into structures in order to sustain the applied loads without failure. As lateral loads are
applied to a structure, horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) transfer the load to the lateral load
resisting systems.

Lateral load resisting systems of buildings generally consist of one of the following:

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a. Moment resisting frames b. Braced Frames c. Shear Walls d. Tubes

a. Moment resisting frames:

These are generally composed of columns and beams. Their ability to resist lateral loads is entirely due to
the rigidities of the beam-column connections and the moment-resisting capacities of the individual
members. It may be used economically to provide lateral load resistance for low-rise buildings.
Generally, it is less stiff than other systems. The Load is transferred by shear in columns that produces
moment in columns and in beams. In this system, the Beam-Column connection is crucial for the system
to work. The moments and shear force produced by the lateral loads must be added to those from gravity
loads.

b. Shear walls

These are solid walls, which usually extend over the full height of the building. Specially designed
reinforced concrete walls parallel to the directions of load are used to resist a large part of the lateral
loads caused by wind or earthquakes by acting as deep cantilever beams fixed at foundation. Frequently
buildings have interior concrete core walls around the elevator, stair and service wells. Such walls may be
considered as shear walls. Shear walls are also frequently placed along the transverse direction of a
building, either as exterior (facade) walls or as interior walls. The advantages of shear walls are

i) They are very rigid in their own plane and hence are effective in limiting deflections

ii) They act as fire compartment walls.

However, for low and medium rise buildings, the construction of shear walls takes more time and is less
precise in dimensions than steelwork. Generally, reinforced concrete walls possess sufficient strength and
stiffness to resist the lateral loading.

In general

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 • Shear Walls offer stiffness against swaying of structure due to wind and earthquake load

• Generally used for buildings with story more than 10

• Behavior of shear wall is influenced by shape of the wall(s) and their position in plan

• They are Classified as short, squat and cantilever based on their height/width ratio

Stiffness of Frame + Wall > Stiffness of Frame or Stiffness of Wall alone

OPENINGS IN SHEAR WALLS

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Basic shapes of shear walls and cores

DIFFERENT PLAN CONFIGURATION AND THEIR EFFECTS

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 c. Braced Frames

To resist the lateral deflections, the simplest method from a theoretical standpoint is the
intersection of full diagonal bracing or X-bracing as shown below. The X-bracing system works

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well for 20 to 60 storey height, but it does not give room for openings such as doors and windows.
To provide more flexibility for the placing of windows and doors, the K-bracing system shown
below is preferred instead of X- bracing system.
Generally In this resisting system:
• The lateral load is primarily resisted by the Axial Force in the braces, columns and beams in
the braced zone

• The frame away from the braced zone does not have significant moments
• Bracing does not have to be provided in every bay, but in every story

d. Tubes

The structural systems discussed so far are not efficient for buildings taller than 60 stories. This
section introduces more advanced structural forms that are adopted in steel-framed multi-storied
buildings larger than 60 storeys high. Common types of advanced structural forms (Tubes) are:

1. Framed -Tube Structures

The framed tube is one of the most significant modern developments in high
rise structural form. These are systems in which closely-spaced columns 2 - 4 m between centers are
located along the periphery of a building. Deep spandrel beams, located on the exterior surface of the

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building, interconnect these columns. The idea is to create a tube that will act like a continuous
perforated chimney or stack. The lateral resistance of framed tube structures is provided by very stiff
moment resisting frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the building. The gravity loading is
shared between the tube and interior columns. This structural form offers an efficient, easily
constructed structure appropriate for buildings having 40 to80 stories.

When lateral loads act, the perimeter frames aligned in the direction of loads act as the webs of the
massive tube cantilever and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the flanges. Even
though framed tube is a structurally efficient form, flange frames tend to suffer from shear lag. This
results in the mid face flange columns being less stressed than the corner columns and therefore not
contributing to their full potential lateral strength. Aesthetically, the tube looks like the grid-like façade
as small windowed and is repetitious and hence use of prefabrication in steel makes the construction
faster. A typical framed tube is shown in Fig. (a) below.

2. Braced tube structures

Further improvements of the tubular system can be made by cross bracing the frame with X-bracing
over many stories, as illustrated in Fig.(b) below. This arrangement was first used in a steel structure,
in Chicago's John Hancock Building, in 1969.

As the diagonals of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually
eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and web frames. As a result the structure behaves
under lateral loads more like a braced frame reducing bending in the plane of the frames. Hence, the
spacing of the columns can be increased and the depth of the girders will be less, thereby allowing
large size windows than in the conventional framed tube structures.

In the braced tube structure, the braces transfer axial load from the more highly stressed columns to
the less highly stressed columns and eliminates differences between load stresses in the columns.

(a) Framed tube (b) Braced framed tube

3. Tube-in-Tube Structures

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When the (outer) framed tube is combined with an ‘inner tube’ (or a central shear core), the system is
called a tube-in-tube. The inner tube may consist of braced frames or shear cores. The outer and inner
tubes act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading in steel-framed buildings. However, the
outer tube usually plays a dominant role because of its much greater structural depth. This type of
structures is also called as Hull (Outer tube) and Core (Inner tube) structures. A typical Tube-in-Tube
structure is shown in Fig.(a) below.

a). Tube-in-Tube frame b). Bundled Tube

4. Bundled Tube

When the sectional plan of the building comprises several perforated tubular cells, the system is called
a bundled tube or ‘multi-cell framed tube’. The increase in stiffness is apparent. The system allows for
the greatest height and the most floor area. This structural form was used in the Sears Tower in
Chicago. Fig.(b) above shows bundled tubes in the Sears Tower. In this system, introduction of the
internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges. Hence, their columns are more evenly
stressed than in the single tube structure and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is greater.

2.1.3. SELECTION OF PROPER SYSTEM AND CONFIGURATION FOR LATERAL LOADS

In actual cases, there is no universal ideal configuration for any particular type of a building. However,

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there are certain basic or guiding principles of design that can be used as guidelines in selecting an
adequate building configuration structural layout, structural system, structural material and the non-
structural components. Building (superstructure and non-structural components) should be light and
avoid unnecessary masses.

Building and its superstructure should be simple, symmetric, and regular in plan and elevation to
prevent significant torsional forces, avoiding large height-width ratio and large plan area.

Building and its superstructure should have a uniform and continuous distribution of mass, stiffness,
strength and ductility, avoiding formation of soft and weak stories.

a) Superstructure should have relatively shorter spans and avoid use of long cantilevers.

The non-structural components should either be well separated so that they will not interact with the
rest of the structure, or they should be integrated with the structure.

b) Superstructure should be detailed so that the inelastic deformations can be constrained

(controlled) to develop in desired regions and according to a desirable hierarchy.

Superstructure should have the largest possible number of defense lines, that is, it should be composed
of different tough structural subsystems which interact or are interconnected by very tough structural
elements (structural fuses) whose inelastic behavior would permit the whole structure to find its way
out from a critical stage of dynamic response.

Superstructure should be provided with balanced stiffness and strength between its members,
connections and supports.

c) The stiffness and strength of the entire building should be compatible with the stiffness
and strength of the soil foundation.

2.2. Structural Regularity

The distinction as regular or non-regular in plan or in elevation or in both has

implications on the following aspects

– Structural model to be used - a simplified planar or a spatial one

– Method of analysis to be used static or dynamic

– The value of behavior factor in equivalent static analysis

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2.2.1. Criteria for Regularity in plan

 symmetric in plan with respect to two orthogonal directions

 Compact plan configuration (no H, I, X shapes) total dimensions of re-entrant

corners or recesses in one direction < 25 % of overall dimension in that
direction.

 In plane stiffness of the floors must be greater than lateral stiffness of the vertical
elements so that the deformation of floors has small effect on the distribution of
the forces among the vertical elements

 At any storey, maximum displacement in the direction of the seismic forces does
not exceed the average storey displacement by more than 20%

2.2.2. Criteria for regularity in elevation

 All lateral load resisting systems (components) should run without interruption
from their foundation to the top of the building

 Both lateral stiffness and mass shall reduce gradually without abrupt changes
from the base to the top

 Storey resistance capacities shall not vary disproportionately with their adjacent
story

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  For gradual setbacks In all the stories, preserving axial symmetry, set back at any
floor < 20 % of the previous plan dimension in the direction of set back

 For single set back with in lower 15% of the total height, the set back < 50% of
the previous plan dimension

 For setbacks do not preserve symmetry, in each face the sum of setbacks at all
stories < 30% of the plan dimensions at the first storey, and the individual
setbacks < 10% of the previous plan dimension

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