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Austroads.
ISBN 978-1-921991-14-1
Project Manager
Mark Davies, VicRoads
Prepared by
Dr Ian Espada and Dr James Luk
ARRB Group
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept
responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers
should rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Application of Accessibility Measures
Sydney 2011
About Austroads
Austroads’ purpose is to:
▪ promote improved Australian and New Zealand transport outcomes
▪ provide expert technical input to national policy development on road and road
transport issues
▪ promote improved practice and capability by road agencies.
▪ promote consistency in road and road agency operations.
Austroads membership comprises the six state and two territory road transport and traffic
authorities, the Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure and Transport, the Australian
Local Government Association, and NZ Transport Agency. Austroads is governed by a
Board consisting of the chief executive officer (or an alternative senior executive officer) of
each of its eleven member organisations:
▪ Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
▪ Roads Corporation Victoria
▪ Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland
▪ Main Roads Western Australia
▪ Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure South Australia
▪ Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
▪ Department of Lands and Planning Northern Territory
▪ Department of Territory and Municipal Services Australian Capital Territory
▪ Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure and Transport
▪ Australian Local Government Association
▪ New Zealand Transport Agency.
The success of Austroads is derived from the collaboration of member organisations and
others in the road industry. It aims to be the Australasian leader in providing high quality
information, advice and fostering research in the road transport sector.
Application of Accessibility Measures
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope of Objectives ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Calibration and Application of Accessibility Metric .................................................... 1
1.1.2 Comparison of Accessibility Metrics ......................................................................... 2
1.2 Contents of this Report .......................................................................................................... 2
2 ARRB ACCESSIBILITY METRIC .......................................................................................... 3
2.1 Definition and Measurement of Accessibility .......................................................................... 3
2.2 Measurement of Accessibility by the AAM ............................................................................. 4
2.3 AAM Deterrence Function ...................................................................................................... 5
2.4 AAM Saturation Function ..................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Limitations of AAM for Health and Community Service ........................................................ 17
3 STRATEGIC ACCESSIBILITY ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 18
3.1 Accessibility in Perth ............................................................................................................ 18
3.1.1 Overall Assessment ............................................................................................... 18
3.1.2 Accessibility Maps .................................................................................................. 21
3.2 Accessibility in Melbourne .................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1 Overall Assessment ............................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Accessibility Maps .................................................................................................. 32
3.3 Impacts of Accessibility ........................................................................................................ 43
3.3.1 Travel Distance and Accessibility ........................................................................... 43
3.3.2 Mode Share and Accessibility ................................................................................ 45
3.3.3 Property Price and Accessibility ............................................................................. 50
4 NEIGHBOURHOOD ACCESSIBILITY ANALYSIS.............................................................. 54
4.1 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 54
4.2 Joondalup ............................................................................................................................ 56
4.3 Mandurah ............................................................................................................................ 61
4.4 Burwood Heights, City of Whitehorse ................................................................................... 66
5 COMPARISON OF METRICS ............................................................................................. 71
5.1 Koenig Accessibility Metric................................................................................................... 71
5.1.1 Assessment of Accessibility of Melbourne .............................................................. 71
5.1.2 Impact of Eastlink on Accessibility .......................................................................... 73
5.1.3 Sensitivity Analysis ................................................................................................. 75
5.2 LUPTAI ................................................................................................................................ 77
5.2.1 Assessment of Accessibility ................................................................................... 77
5.2.2 Impact of a PT Project on Accessibility ................................................................... 83
5.3 NZTA Accessibility Metric .................................................................................................... 86
5.3.1 Heretaunga Plains.................................................................................................. 87
5.3.2 Sensitivity Analysis ................................................................................................. 99
5.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 102
6 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................ 103
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 104
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Application of Accessibility Measures
TABLES
Table 1.1: Scope of calibration and application ......................................................................... 1
Table 2.1: Deterrence function parameters ............................................................................... 8
Table 2.2: Saturation function parameters .............................................................................. 12
Table 2.3: Saturation point of the AAM by trip purpose ........................................................... 15
Table 3.1: Accessibility scores in Perth ................................................................................... 18
Table 3.2: Ratio of the average and highest household accessibility score in Perth ................ 20
Table 3.3: Suburbs with high accessibility scores in Perth ...................................................... 22
Table 3.4: Suburbs with low accessibility scores in Perth ........................................................ 22
Table 3.5: Accessibility scores in Melbourne ........................................................................... 31
Table 3.6: Ratio of the average and the highest household accessibility score in
Melbourne .............................................................................................................. 32
Table 3.7: Average PKT model parameters ............................................................................ 44
Table 3.8: Relationship between accessibility and PT, walking and cycling mode
share ...................................................................................................................... 46
Table 3.9: Property price model parameters ........................................................................... 52
Table 4.1: Joondalup study area AAM results ......................................................................... 57
Table 4.2: Mandurah study area AAM results ......................................................................... 62
Table 4.3: Burwood Heights study area AAM results .............................................................. 67
Table 5.1: Average residential unit accessibility score for Heretaunga Plains: AAM
and NAM ................................................................................................................ 88
FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Illustrative example on the calculation of accessibility score by the AAM
methodology ............................................................................................................ 5
Figure 2.2: AAM deterrence function .......................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.3: Level of satisfaction of travel time to work ................................................................ 7
Figure 2.4: Car deterrence function ............................................................................................ 9
Figure 2.5: Public transport deterrence function ......................................................................... 9
Figure 2.6: Walk deterrence function........................................................................................ 10
Figure 2.7: Cycle deterrence function ....................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.8: AAM saturation function ......................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.9: Work saturation function......................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.10: Primary and secondary school saturation function ................................................. 13
Figure 2.11: Tertiary school saturation function .......................................................................... 14
Figure 2.12: Shopping and recreation saturation function .......................................................... 14
Figure 2.13: Geographical area required to reach saturation point from the CBD and
a suburb in Melbourne............................................................................................ 16
Figure 3.1: Car-based work accessibility score by household percentile (Perth) ...................... 19
Figure 3.2: PT-based work accessibility score by household percentile (Perth)........................ 20
Figure 3.3: Car vs. public transport work accessibility in Perth ................................................. 21
Figure 3.4: Work accessibility in Perth by car and public transport ........................................... 23
Figure 3.5: Work accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk ......................................................... 24
Figure 3.6: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Perth by car and public
transport ................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 3.7: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk .................. 26
Figure 3.8: Tertiary school accessibility in Perth by car and public transport ............................ 27
Figure 3.9: Tertiary school accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk .......................................... 28
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Application of Accessibility Measures
Figure 3.10: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Perth by car and public
transport ................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.11: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Perth ....................................................... 30
Figure 3.12: Car vs. public transport work accessibility in Melbourne ......................................... 32
Figure 3.13: Average work accessibility by local government area in Melbourne ....................... 33
Figure 3.14: Average primary and secondary school accessibility by local government
area in Melbourne .................................................................................................. 33
Figure 3.15: Average tertiary school accessibility by local government area in
Melbourne .............................................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.16: Average shopping and recreation accessibility by local government area
in Melbourne .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.17: Work accessibility in Melbourne by car and public transport ................................... 35
Figure 3.18: Work accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and walk ................................................. 36
Figure 3.19: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Melbourne by car and
public transport....................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.20: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and
walk........................................................................................................................ 38
Figure 3.21: Tertiary school accessibility in Melbourne by car and public transport .................... 39
Figure 3.22: Tertiary school accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and walk .................................. 40
Figure 3.23: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Melbourne by car and public
transport ................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 3.24: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and walk .................. 42
Figure 3.25: Average PKT by zone in Perth: model results vs. data ........................................... 44
Figure 3.26: Average PKT by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data ................................... 45
Figure 3.27: Public transport share by zone in Perth: model results vs. data .............................. 47
Figure 3.28: Walking and cycling share by zone in Perth: model results vs. data ....................... 48
Figure 3.29: Public transport share by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data ..................... 49
Figure 3.30: Walking share by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data ................................. 50
Figure 3.31: Median house and unit/apartment price in Melbourne (2008) ................................. 51
Figure 3.32: House prices by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data ................................... 53
Figure 3.33: Unit and apartment prices by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data ............... 53
Figure 4.1: Location of neighbourhood analysis study areas .................................................... 54
Figure 4.2: High resolution transport network for accessibility study (Mandurah study
area) ...................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.3: Transport network and key attractors in Joondalup study area ............................... 56
Figure 4.4: Public transport accessibility in Joondalup study area, Perth.................................. 58
Figure 4.5: Walking accessibility in Joondalup study area, Perth ............................................. 59
Figure 4.6: Cycle accessibility in Joondalup study area, Perth ................................................. 60
Figure 4.7: Transport network and key attractors in Mandurah study area ............................... 61
Figure 4.8: Public transport accessibility in Mandurah study area, Perth .................................. 63
Figure 4.9: Walking accessibility in Mandurah study area, Perth .............................................. 64
Figure 4.10: Cycle accessibility in Mandurah study area, Perth .................................................. 65
Figure 4.11: Transport network and key attractors in Burwood Heights study area .................... 66
Figure 4.12: Public transport accessibility in Burwood Heights study area, Melbourne ............... 68
Figure 4.13: Walking accessibility in Burwood Heights study area, Melbourne ........................... 69
Figure 4.14: Cycle accessibility in Burwood Heights study area, Melbourne .............................. 70
Figure 5.1: Comparison of work accessibility using KAM and AAM .......................................... 72
Figure 5.2: Rank of zones based on work accessibility using KAM and AAM ........................... 72
Figure 5.3: Relative magnitude of work accessibility using KAM and AAM ............................... 73
Figure 5.4: Change in accessibility due to Eastlink using AAM and KAM ................................. 74
Figure 5.5: Change in accessibility by zone due to Eastlink using AAM and KAM .................... 74
Figure 5.6: One origin – one destination city ............................................................................ 75
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Application of Accessibility Measures
Figure 5.7: Jobs within LGA and average PKT by car in Melbourne ......................................... 76
Figure 5.8: Comparison of the effect of transport impedance on work accessibility
using KAM and AAM .............................................................................................. 76
Figure 5.9: Comparison of the effect of employment on work accessibility using
KAM and AAM........................................................................................................ 77
Figure 5.10: Accessibility of zones by LUPTAI and AAM............................................................ 79
Figure 5.11: Accessibility of zones by rescaled LUPTAI and AAM ............................................. 80
Figure 5.12: Brisbane work PT accessibility: AAM and LUPTAI ................................................. 81
Figure 5.13: Brisbane primary and secondary school PT accessibility: AAM and
LUPTAI .................................................................................................................. 81
Figure 5.14: Brisbane tertiary school PT accessibility: AAM and LUPTAI ................................... 82
Figure 5.15: Brisbane retail PT accessibility: AAM and LUPTAI ................................................. 82
Figure 5.16: Change in work PT accessibility due to project: AAM and LUPTAI ......................... 84
Figure 5.17: Change in primary and secondary school PT accessibility due to project:
AAM and LUPTAI ................................................................................................... 84
Figure 5.18: Change in tertiary school PT accessibility due to project: AAM and
LUPTAI .................................................................................................................. 85
Figure 5.19: Change in retail PT accessibility due to project: AAM and LUPTAI......................... 85
Figure 5.20: NAM raw accessibility value by mode .................................................................... 87
Figure 5.21: Impact of transport impedance by PT and cycle in NAM and AAM (work
accessibility) ........................................................................................................... 89
Figure 5.22: NAM and AAM of Residential Unit 44 and 90 ......................................................... 90
Figure 5.23: Difference in valuation of impedance in AAM and NAM for Unit 44 and
Unit 90 ................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 5.24: Primary school accessibility by walk: AAM and NAM ............................................. 92
Figure 5.25: Primary school accessibility by cycle: AAM and NAM............................................. 92
Figure 5.26: Primary school accessibility by PT: AAM and NAM ................................................ 93
Figure 5.27: Secondary school accessibility by walk: AAM and NAM ......................................... 93
Figure 5.28: Secondary school accessibility by cycle: AAM and NAM ........................................ 94
Figure 5.29: Secondary school accessibility by PT: AAM and NAM ........................................... 94
Figure 5.30: Work accessibility by walk: AAM and NAM............................................................. 95
Figure 5.31: Work accessibility by cycle: AAM and NAM............................................................ 95
Figure 5.32: Work accessibility by PT: AAM and NAM ............................................................... 96
Figure 5.33: Work accessibility by car: AAM and NAM ............................................................... 96
Figure 5.34: Primary school accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and AAM .............. 97
Figure 5.35: Secondary school accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and
AAM ....................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 5.36: Work accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and AAM ............................. 99
Figure 5.37: One origin – one destination city ............................................................................ 99
Figure 5.38: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM walk accessibility to transport impedance
(school and work) ................................................................................................. 101
Figure 5.39: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM cycle accessibility to transport impedance
(school and work) ................................................................................................. 101
Figure 5.40: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM PT accessibility to transport impedance
(school and work) ................................................................................................. 101
Figure 5.41: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM car accessibility to transport impedance
(school and work) ................................................................................................. 102
Figure 5.42: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM car accessibility to opportunities at
destination (school and work) ............................................................................... 102
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Application of Accessibility Measures
SUMMARY
Accessibility is broadly defined as the variety of opportunities provided to people through efficient
arrangement of land use and various modes of transport. It measures the ease with which people
are able to find and reach the best suited opportunity, either for work, study and others. It is an
essential metric to assist in land use/transport planning and performance monitoring. This project
contributes to this purpose with the following aims:
▪ calibration and refinement of the accessibility metric proposed in project NS1516 (Austroads
2010)
▪ demonstration of the application of the accessibility metric at the strategic and
neighbourhood level
▪ comparison of the developed accessibility metric with other accessibility metrics.
The accessibility metric or AAM was formulated in this project. The AAM includes four types of
accessibility by mode, including car, public transport, cycle and walk. It also includes accessibility
to four destination types including work, primary and secondary school, tertiary institutions and
shopping and recreation. The AAM was calibrated to Australian metropolitan conditions.
The application of the AAM at the strategic level was conducted on Perth and Melbourne. Baseline
accessibility indicators were established. The baseline indicators can be used to check trends in
accessibility levels over time. Areas of high and low accessibility were identified. Generally, the
CBD and its neighbouring areas were rated to have the best accessibility in the metropolitan.
However areas of good accessibility could be observed in the suburbs, particularly for primary and
secondary school and shopping and recreation.
The relationship of accessibility to travel distance, mode share and land price was also examined
in Perth and Melbourne. The analysis underscored a potential link between accessibility and
tangible benefits to society. Key findings were as follows:
▪ Higher accessibility results in less travel kilometres.
▪ A positive impact of accessibility on mode share is apparent in work trips but a relationship
could not be clearly identified for school and shopping and recreation trips.
▪ There is an indicative relationship between accessibility and property price.
Neighbourhood application of the AAM was demonstrated in three case studies including study
areas in Joondalup (WA), Mandurah (WA) and Burwood Heights, City of Whitehorse (Victoria). The
analysis included public transport, cycle and walk accessibility. It did not cover car accessibility
because there is little variation in travel time by car from within a small area. Key findings were as
follows:
▪ Accessibility levels in the Joondalup study area were similar to the average level in Perth.
▪ The Mandurah study area was assessed to accessibility levels below the Perth average,
except for accessibility to primary and secondary school by public transport and cycle.
▪ The Burwood Heights study area was assessed to have accessibility levels above the
Melbourne average.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
The AAM was compared with the Koenig (1974) accessibility metric (KAM), Land Use and Public
Transport Accessibility Index (LUPTAI) of TMR (2010) and NZTA accessibility metric (NAM) (Abley
2010). The comparison of AAM with KAM, LUPTAI and NAM demonstrated a degree of correlation
between metrics which indicates a commonality in the principles adopted by the four metrics. Key
differences are as follows:
▪ AAM results in a more realistic assessment of the hinterland of developments than KAM.
▪ AAM establishes a more realistic benchmark for the scale of opportunities to induce
containment than KAM.
▪ There was a situation where AAM and LUPTAI resulted in diverging accessibility results. This
was attributed to differences in inputs used in the calculations and to some extent the
variations inherent in the random utility theory and Monte Carlo simulation approach of
LUPTAI.
▪ AAM is more applicable to large metropolitan areas than the NAM for employment
accessibility because AAM has the property of diminishing returns for employment whereas
the NAM assumes constant returns for employment.
▪ The AAM and NAM account travel time and opportunities differently. The AAM model forms
and parameters were calibrated using data from Melbourne and Perth, while the NAM was
based on New Zealand conditions.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1 INTRODUCTION
Accessibility is broadly defined as the variety of opportunities provided to people through efficient
arrangement of land use and various modes of transport. It measures the ease with which people
are able to find and reach the best suited opportunity, either for work, study and others. The
purpose of Austroads NS1586 is the development of an accessibility assessment framework for
policy analysis and performance monitoring. The metric developed in this project is referred to as
the accessibility metric or AAM. The endorsement of this report by Austroads does not imply that
each road agency will adopt the AAM.
The application of the calibrated metric entailed the development of accessibility maps and
accessibility indicators. The calibrated metric was applied at a strategic level and at a
neighbourhood level. Melbourne and Perth were used as subjects for strategic level application.
Three small groups of suburbs were selected as subjects for neighbourhood-level application.
These included selected sites in City of Whitehorse in Victoria, City of Joondalup in WA and City of
Mandurah in WA. In Whitehorse the selected site was Burwood Heights development area and its
surroundings (approximately Burwood and Burwood East). In Joondalup the selected site included
the suburbs of Kinross, Currambine and Joondalup. In Mandurah the selected sites included the
area bounded by Meadow Springs Dr, Lakes Rd and Pinjara Rd. The selected sites for
neighbourhood-level application were based on recommendations of respective local government.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
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Application of Accessibility Measures
An accessibility metric quantifies the degree to which the above two aspects are present in a
location. The use of accessibility as a performance indicator extends transport-based performance
indicators such as travel time and connectivity by rewarding high performing transport corridors
that link with destinations of value such as job centres, schools, shopping areas, etc. An
accessibility metric also account for improvements in land use when opportunities are more
equitably distributed and positioned where they could be easily reached by transport.
There are a number of accessibility metrics available and major approaches are described in
Austroads (2010). The measurement of accessibility invariably involves the determination of an
accessibility score from transport impedance and opportunities at destinations. An accessibility
metric thereby requires two inputs as follows:
▪ distribution of opportunities (i.e. location and number of opportunities such as jobs, retail
space, enrolment, etc.)
▪ transport impedance (e.g. cost and time) to reach opportunities from a given location.
To illustrate the saturation function, consider a case where a grocery store is opened in an area
with no existing grocery store. Contrast it with a case where the new grocery store is opened in an
area with an already existing grocery store. The improvement of accessibility to retail is higher in
the former than in the latter. The saturation function determines the marginal improvement in
accessibility based on the level of opportunities that already are in place.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
All available opportunities are scanned and the deterrence function and the saturation gives an
accessibility score for a particular location. Terminologies and approaches to the treatment of the
deterrence and saturation function differ in various metrics (e.g. see Austroads 2010), but
fundamentally all accessibility metrics follow the same principles.
Two key inputs required by the AAM are the opportunities by zone and the transport impedance
matrix. Proxies are used to quantify opportunities. Proxies for opportunities in this study include:
▪ jobs for employment opportunities
▪ enrolment for school opportunities
▪ workers in the retail industry for shopping opportunities
▪ workers in the recreation industry for recreation opportunities.
The transport impedance matrix is a table of generalised transport costs of going from one zone to
another zone. It includes travel time (door-to-door) and cost (e.g. fare, parking, etc.). For this study,
the transport impedance matrix was derived from transport models. Transport impedance is
expressed in terms of equivalent unweighted travel time.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the calculation of an accessibility score using the AAM. Say the accessibility
level of Zone 1 is going to be calculated. Firstly, the weighting factor for all destination zones based
on transport impedance from Zone 1 is determined. In Figure 2.1 the weights of 0.5 and 0.25 are
determined from the transport impedance data and the deterrence function. The number of
opportunities in each destination zone is multiplied by the respective weighting factor and summed
up, i.e. 1000 x 0.5 + 2000 x 0.25 = 1000 in the example. The weighted sum of 1000 is inputted into
the saturation function to determine an accessibility score of 0.6.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1000 opportunities
30 min → Transport impedance function → weight of 0.5
30 min
45 min
Zone 1
Weighted sum of opportunities = 0.5 1000 jobs + 0.25 2000 jobs = 1000 equivalent opportunities
Figure 2.1: Illustrative example on the calculation of accessibility score by the AAM methodology
1
Ai = s d (Ci , j )X j
j
where
Details of the deterrence function and the saturation function are in Section 2.3 and Section 2.4
respectively.
The AAM deterrence function has an S-shaped form. This implies that at low levels of transport
impedance, the effect of transport is marginal. As transport impedance increases the impact of
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1.0 Application of Accessibility Measures
transport increases. At higher transport impedance the weighting factor levels off close to 0. The
0.8 empirical studies on valuation of transport impedance by Redmond and Mokhtarian (2001) in San
Francisco and analysed by Calvert and Avineri (2009) and Young and Morris (1981) in Melbourne
were used as the basis for adopting an S-shaped form for the AAM deterrence function
(Figure 2.3). It is important to note that the AAM deterrence function is a measure of level of
0.6 satisfaction of transport impedance and it is not directly related to the trip length distribution.
1.0 ==20
kappa
alpha 20 = =0.2
= 0.0013
beta 0.2
0.4 ==35
kappa
alpha = =0.2
= 0.0008
35 beta 0.2
0.8
= 35 = 0.1
alpha = 35 beta = 0.1
kappa = 0.0006
Weighting factor
0.2
0.6
- 0.4
-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Transport impedance,
Transort min
impedance
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Application of Accessibility Measures
90
80
70 Car user
Level of satisfaction
exp − (C − ) 2
d (C ) =
1 + exp − (C − )
where
= 1 + exp ( )
exp ( )
, are parameters .
The AAM deterrence function has two parameters that determine the shape of the deterrence
function, i.e. and . The AAM deterrence functions were calibrated based on the Strategic
Transport Evaluation Model (STEM) database of the Department of Planning and Investment (DPI)
in Western Australia and the Melbourne Integrated Transport Model (MITM) database of the
Department of Transport (DOT) in Victoria. Because of the choice of the calibration data set, the
AAM deterrence function is applicable only to Australian metropolitan conditions.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
The calibration methodology of and is in Progress Report 2 of this study (Espada 2010). The
calibrated parameters are summarised in Table 2.1. It also includes the definition of transport
impedance which factors in travel time and associated travel cost. The deterrence functions by
mode and trip purposes are illustrated as follows:
▪ car in Figure 2.4
▪ public transport (PT) in Figure 2.5
▪ walk in Figure 2.6
▪ cycle in Figure 2.7.
The curves illustrate the threshold transport impedance of opportunities or developments, beyond
which their impact to accessibility is diminished.
A generalised deterrence function which is applicable to all trip purposes and mode can be useful
to examine multimodal issues. Moreover, inclusion of level of service (e.g. reliability and on-board
congestion) in the deterrence function can also be useful for policy analysis. Deterrence functions
that can account the impact of significant increases in transport cost, such as fuel price increase is
also beneficial. Further research is required to develop the above deterrence functions.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0 Work
Primary & secondary
Weighting factor, f(c)
0.8
Tertiary
0.4
0.2
-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Transport
Transport impedance,
imepdance,min
min
1.0
Work
Weighting factor, f(c)
0.4
0.2
-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Transport
Transport impedance,
imepdance, min
min
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0 Work
Primary & secondary
Weighting factor, f(c)
0.8
Tertiary
0.6 Shop & recreation
0.4
0.2
-
0 10 20 30 40
Transport
Transportimpedance,
imepdance,min
min
1.0 Work
Primary & secondary
Weighting factor, f(c)
0.8
Tertiary
0.6 Shop & recreation
0.4
0.2
-
0 10 20 30 40
Transport impedance,
Transport imepdance,min
min
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
3
1 − exp − d (Ci , j )X i , j
s() = j
1 + exp − d (Ci , j )X i , j
j
where k is a parameter.
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
Accessibility score
0.6
0.6
= 0.0013
kappa = 0.0013
kappa = 0.0013
0.4 0.4 = 0.0008
kappa
kappa ==0.0008
0.0008
kappa ==0.0006
= 0.0006
kappa 0.0006
0.2
0.2
-
- - 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
Weighted sum of opportunities
- 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
Figure 2.8: AAM saturation function
Weighted sum of opportunities
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Application of Accessibility Measures
The AAM saturation function has one parameter that controls the rate of increase of the
accessibility score based on increases in the weighted sum of opportunities, i.e. . In effect,
defines a level of weighted sum of opportunities that level off or saturate. The AAM saturation
function was calibrated using the STEM and MITM databases (Espada 2010). Similar to the
deterrence function, the choice of the calibration data set means that the AAM is applicable only to
Australian metropolitan conditions. The calibrated parameters and proxies for opportunities are in
Table 2.2. The same parameters and opportunity proxies are used for car, public transport, walk
and cycle. The harmonised saturation functions for different trip purposes are illustrated as follows:
▪ work in Figure 2.9
▪ primary and secondary school in Figure 2.10
▪ tertiary school in Figure 2.11
▪ shopping and recreation in Figure 2.12.
The calibrated saturation functions are applicable only to cities with similar profile as Melbourne
and Perth which were used for calibration. Different saturation function parameters will apply to
regional cities. The AAM saturation function also does not consider competition for opportunities
that are considered as private goods. An example would be jobs and enrolments, where
consumption of the opportunity by an individual excludes the consumption of the same opportunity
by others. In such case, the parameters of the saturation function would differ depending on the
level of competition. Further research to develop a general model would be useful.
The AAM deterrence function and the saturation function were calibrated using trip data. Trip data
includes the combined effects of the deterrence function and the saturation function. It is not
possible to accurately isolate the effects of the deterrence function and the saturation function from
the trip data. Further research is needed to examine the extent of the bias in parameters
associated with the use of trip data in calibration of accessibility metrics.
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
0.8
Accessibility score
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thousands
Weighted
Weighted sum sum of opportunities,
of opportunities, jobs
retail and recreation workers
1.0
0.8
Accessibility score
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Thousands
Austroads 2011
— 13 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
0.8
Accessibility score
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Thousands
1.0
0.8
Accessibility score
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Thousands
Austroads 2011
— 14 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
The saturation point provides a frame of reference to intuitively understand the effect of the
saturation function. The saturation point is defined as the point wherein accessibility levels exhibit
noticeable decreasing rates of return. The saturation point is arbitrarily defined in this study as the
weighted sum of opportunities that results in an accessibility score of 0.75. The saturation point of
the AAM and qualitative references are in Table 2.3.
Figure 2.13 illustrates the geographical area for two selected centroids to reach the saturation point
for various accessibility types excluding the effect of the transport impedance. The centroid on the
left is in the CBD, while the centroid on the right is in Vermont South, a suburb 20 km east of the
CBD. The figure illustrates the smaller geographical scope for a CBD centroid to reach the
saturation point than a suburban centroid. This is a result of higher density of opportunities around
the CBD.
Austroads 2011
— 15 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
(c) 45 000 tertiary enrolments (d) 5 500 shopping and recreation workers
Notes:
▪ The effect of transport impedance is excluded.
▪ Suburban zone centroid is in the suburb of Vermont South (20 km east of the CBD).
Figure 2.13: Geographical area required to reach saturation point from the CBD and a suburb in Melbourne
Austroads 2011
— 16 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Austroads 2011
— 17 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Accessibility scores were calculated at the zone level and applied to households within the zone.
Walking and cycling have low accessibility scores compared to car and public transport. This is
expected because of the limited range of non-motorised transport. The impact of improvement of
walking and cycling accessibility however should not be underestimated. A percentage
improvement in walking and cycling accessibility could potentially lead to more benefits than a
similar improvement in car and public transport accessibility. This would be examined in
Section 3.3.
Austroads 2011
— 18 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
For a cross-section analysis, the ratio between the average score and the highest score can be
used to assess accessibility scores as follows:
▪ If the average score for a study area is more than 50% of the highest score then more
households have relatively high accessibility scores than those with low accessibility scores.
▪ If the average for a study area is less than 50% of the highest score then more households
have low accessibility scores than those with high accessibility scores.
It should be noted that this is relative to the area being assessed. If overall accessibility in an area
is low then even above average accessibility scores could still be considered low.
Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2 are plots of accessibility scores by household percentile for car work
accessibility and public transport (PT) work accessibility. For car-based work accessibility, the
average score is greater than 50% of the highest score and the distribution of accessibility scores
is favourable. For PT-based work accessibility, the average score is less than 50% of the highest
score and the distribution of accessibility scores and the majority of households have low
accessibility scores.
1.0
Highest score: 0.96
0.9
0.8
0.7
Accessibility score
Austroads 2011
— 19 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
0.9 Highest score: 0.92
0.8
0.7
Accessibility score
0.6
0.5
50% of highest score: 0.46
0.4
0.3 Average score: 0.33
0.2
0.1
-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Household percentile
Table 3.2 summarises the ratio of the average and the maximum highest accessibility score in
Perth. The distribution of car accessibility is favourable, while the distribution of public transport
accessibility is fair. On the other hand, good cycle and walk accessibility is limited to a small
percentage of households in Perth. Figure 3.3 plots work accessibility by car and public transport
accessibility of each zone. Most zones have lower PT accessibility score than car accessibility
score.
Table 3.2: Ratio of the average and highest household accessibility score in Perth
Trip purpose Mode
Car Public transport Cycle Walk
Work 0.71 0.36 0.14 0.03
Primary and secondary school 0.87 0.63 0.38 0.25
Tertiary school 0.73 0.47 0.16 0.02
Shopping and recreation 0.92 0.58 0.32 0.09
Austroads 2011
— 20 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
Public transport accessibility score
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Car accesssibility score
The accessibility scores were calculated by zone. Each dot in the figures represents a cluster of
200 households. The colour of the dot indicates the accessibility score of the zone where the
household cluster resides. The location of the cluster within the zone was randomly generated for
illustration. Zones that have no households are not shown on the maps. Zones with a significant
number of households and low accessibility scores can be identified from the maps as a group of
closely spaced red dots. Examples of suburbs with high and low accessibility scores are shown in
Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 respectively.
Austroads 2011
— 21 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Austroads 2011
— 22 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Public transport
Car
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.85 – 0.9
• 0.85 – 0.95
• 0.45 – 0.65
• 0.7 – 0.85
• 0.25 – 0.45
• 0.5 – 0.7
• 0.1 – 0.25
• 0.3 – 0.5
• 0 – 0.1
• 0 – 0.3
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
Figure 3.4: Work accessibility in Perth by car and public transport
ACC_PERTH ACC_PERTH
W_car W_PT
0.008130 - 0.298659 0.000030 - 0.084178
0.298660 - 0.534022 0.084179 - 0.242810
0.534023 - 0.708092
Austroads 2011 0.242811 - 0.451557
0.708093 - 0.854053
— 23 — 0.451558 - 0.652515
0.854054 - 0.963547 0.652516 - 0.916702
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Walk
Cycle Accessibility score
Accessibility score • 0.09 – 0.35
• 0.4 – 0.7 • 0.04 – 0.09
• 0.2 – 0.4 • 0.02 – 0.04
• 0.1 – 0.2 • 0.01 – 0.02
• 0.05 – 0.1 • 0 – 0.01
• 0 – 0.05
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
ACC_PERTH Figure 3.5: Work accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk ACC_PERTH
W_cycle W_walk
0.000110 - 0.038664 0.000000 - 0.007000
0.038665 - 0.089636 0.007001 - 0.016821
0.089637 - 0.180654 0.016822 - 0.036782
Austroads 2011
0.180655 - 0.387103 0.036783 - 0.087242
0.387104 - 0.676731 — 24 — 0.087243 - 0.346980
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
Figure 3.6: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Perth by car and public transport
ACC_PERTH ACC_PERTH
PS_car PS_PT
0.000001 - 0.252242 0.000000 - 0.240970
0.252243 - 0.560701 0.240971 - 0.475636
0.560702 - 0.799244 0.475637 - 0.675200
Austroads 2011
0.799245 - 0.932351 0.675201 - 0.847371
0.932352 - 0.999997 — 25 — 0.847372 - 0.999986
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Walk
Cycle Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.4 – 0.65
• 0.6 – 0.95
• 0.25 – 0.4
• 0.4 – 0.6
• 0.15 – 0.25
• 0.25 – 0.4
• 0.05 – 0.15
• 0.1 – 0.25
• 0 – 0.05
• 0 – 0.1
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
Figure 3.7:
ACC_PERTH Primary and secondary school accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk ACC_PERTH
PS_cycle PS_walk
0.000000 - 0.115486 0.000000 - 0.054904
0.115487 - 0.237091 0.054905 - 0.142123
0.237092 - 0.396957 0.142124 - 0.257649
0.396958 - 0.599900
Austroads 2011 0.257650 - 0.411979
0.599901 - 0.931971
— 26 — 0.411980 - 0.640214
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Public transport
Car
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.8 – 1.0
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.6 – 0.8
• 0.8 – 0.9
• 0.35 – 0.6
• 0.6 – 0.8
• 0.15 – 0.35
• 0.35 – 0.6
• 0 – 0.15
• 0 – 0.35
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
Figure
ACC_PERTH 3.8: Tertiary school accessibility in Perth by car and public transport ACC_PERTH
T_car_2 T_PT
0.008922 - 0.348766 0.000000 - 0.144444
0.348767 - 0.615565 0.144445 - 0.352220
0.615566 - 0.795068 0.352221 - 0.576931
0.795069 - 0.903603
Austroads 2011 0.576932 - 0.775308
0.903604 - 0.984356
— 27 — 0.775309 - 0.975625
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Cycle Walk
Accessibility score Accessibility score
• 0.4 – 0.7 • 0.3 – 0.65
• 0.2 – 0.4 • 0.1 – 0.3
• 0.1 – 0.2 • 0.05 – 0.1
• 0.04 – 0.1 • 0.02 – 0.05
• 0 – 0.04 • 0 – 0.02
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
ACC_PERTH Figure 3.9: Tertiary school accessibility in Perth by cycle and walk ACC_PERTH
T_cycle T_walk
0.000000 - 0.038030 0.000000 - 0.016831
0.038031 - 0.103481 0.016832 - 0.046932
0.103482 - 0.196280 0.046933 - 0.104757
Austroads 2011
0.196281 - 0.419201 0.104758 - 0.275221
0.419202 - 0.684966 — 28 — 0.275222 - 0.651942
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Car
Public transport
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.95 – 1.0
• 0.85 – 1.0
• 0.8 – 0.95
• 0.6 – 0.85
• 0.5 – 0.8
• 0.4 – 0.6
• 0.2 – 0.5
• 0.2 – 0.4
• 0 – 0.2
• 0 – 0.2
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km 0 5 10
± 20 km
Legend Legend
Figure
ACC_PERTH 3.10: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Perth by car and public transport ACC_PERTH
S_car S_PT
0.000015 - 0.225205 0.000000 - 0.179941
0.225206 - 0.521064 0.179942 - 0.398030
0.521065 - 0.784622
Austroads 2011 0.398031 - 0.621150
0.784623 - 0.942639 0.621151 - 0.854338
0.942640 - 1.000000 — 29 — 0.854339 - 1.000000
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Walk
Cycle
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.35 – 0.9
• 0.7 – 1.0
• 0.2 – 0.35
• 0.45 – 0.7
• 0.1 – 0.2
• 0.25 – 0.45
• 0.05 – 0.1
• 0.1 – 0.25
• 0 – 0.05
• 0 – 0.1
• = 200 households
• = 200 households
±
0 5 10 20 km
±
0 5 10 20 km
Legend Legend
ACC_PERTH Figure 3.11: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Perth ACC_PERTH
S_cycle S_walk
0.000000 - 0.109118 0.000000 - 0.040513
0.109119 - 0.249963 0.040514 - 0.094856
0.249964 - 0.436139 0.094857 - 0.175684
Austroads 2011
0.436140 - 0.682279 0.175685 - 0.347883
0.682280 - 0.998836 — 30 — 0.347884 - 0.875500
stz472ll stz472ll
Application of Accessibility Measures
Walking and cycling accessibility are lower than car and public transport accessibility due to their
limited range. As mentioned, the impact of walking and cycling accessibility should not be
discounted because the potential impact of improvement in walking and cycling accessibility could
be proportionately greater than improvement in car and public transport accessibility. This would
be further examined in Section 3.3.
Similar to the Perth case study (Section 3.1.1), the ratio of the average and the maximum highest
score was used to assess the distribution of accessibility in Melbourne. As mentioned earlier, this
assessment s relative to the area being assessed. If overall accessibility in an area is low then
even above average accessibility could be considered low. The results are shown in Table 3.6.
The distribution of car accessibility is favourable. The distribution of public transport accessibility is
likewise favourable but at a lower level than car accessibility. Distribution of cycle accessibility is
fair for primary and secondary school and shopping and recreation. Good work and tertiary school
accessibility by cycle is limited to a small percentage of households in Melbourne. Moreover, good
walk accessibility is also limited to a small percentage of households in Melbourne. Figure 3.12
plots work accessibility by car and public transport accessibility of each zone. Most zones have
lower PT accessibility than car accessibility score.
Austroads 2011
— 31 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Table 3.6: Ratio of the average and the highest household accessibility score in Melbourne
Trip purpose Mode
Car Public transport Cycle Walk
Work 0.77 0.53 0.17 0.03
Primary and secondary school 0.93 0.68 0.46 0.17
Tertiary school 0.85 0.74 0.22 0.03
Shopping and recreation 0.96 0.66 0.47 0.11
1.0
Public transport accessibility score
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Car accesssibility score
Zones with a high number of households and low accessibility scores can be identified from the
maps as a group of closely spaced red dots. Average household accessibility scores by local
government areas are illustrated in Figure 3.13, Figure 3.14, Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16.
Austroads 2011
— 32 —
Average household accessibility score Average household accessibility score
-
-
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
Stonnington Melbourne
Glen Eira Yarra
Boroondara Port Phillip
PT
Car
Port Phillip Stonnington
Walk
Cycle
Yarra Glen Eira
Melbourne Boroondara
Bayside Moreland
Whitehorse Moonee Valley
Moreland Maribyrnong
Moonee Valley Monash
Monash Whitehorse
Greater Dandenong Darebin
Darebin Bayside
Maribyrnong Greater Dandenong
Banyule Kingston
— 33 —
Maroondah Maroondah
Frankston Hobsons Bay
Austroads 2011
Brimbank Banyule
Kingston Manningham
Whittlesea Brimbank
Knox Knox
Manningham Frankston
Casey Whittlesea
Wyndham Hume
Hobsons Bay Casey
Hume Wyndham
Figure 3.13: Average work accessibility by local government area in Melbourne
Walk
Cycle
Nillumbik Nillumbik
Figure 3.14: Average primary and secondary school accessibility by local government area in Melbourne
Mornington Peninsula Cardinia
Cardinia Mornington Peninsula
Application of Accessibility Measures
Average household accessibility score Average household accessibility score
-
-
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
Melbourne Melbourne
Yarra Yarra
Stonnington Stonnington
Port Phillip Boroondara
Glen Eira Glen Eira
Maribyrnong Port Phillip
Boroondara Maribyrnong
Whitehorse Whitehorse
Moonee Valley Darebin
Monash Monash
Darebin Moreland
Moreland Moonee Valley
Bayside Greater Dandenong
Maroondah Bayside
Kingston Kingston
— 34 —
Greater Dandenong Banyule
Banyule Hobsons Bay
Austroads 2011
Knox Brimbank
Frankston Maroondah
Manningham Manningham
Hobsons Bay Whittlesea
Brimbank Knox
Whittlesea Hume
Wyndham Frankston
Casey Wyndham
Hume Casey
Yarra Ranges Nillumbik
Figure 3.15: Average tertiary school accessibility by local government area in Melbourne
PT
Car
Walk
Cycle
Figure 3.16: Average shopping and recreation accessibility by local government area in Melbourne
Nillumbik Yarra Ranges
PT
Car
Melton Cardinia
Walk
Cycle
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0 10 20 km
• = 250 households
Car
Public transport
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.85 – 1.0
• 0.75 – 0.9
• 0.65 – 0.85
• 0.55 – 0.75
• 0.45 – 0.65
• 0.35 – 0.55
• 0.2 – 0.45
Legend • 0 – 0.35 Legend
• 0 – 0.2
Acc_HH Acc_HH
HBW_car HBW_PT
0.036477 - 0.342845
Figure 3.17: Work accessibility in Melbourne by car and public transport 0.000065 - 0.205002
0.342846 - 0.566316 0.205003 - 0.433269
0.566317 - 0.750764
0.433270 - 0.667618
0.750765 - 0.901248
0.667619 - 0.872051
0.901249 - 0.999552
0.872052 - 0.999424
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55 Austroads 2011 Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 35 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0 10 20 km
• = 250 households
Cycle Walk
Accessibility score Accessibility score
• 0.65 – 0.95 • 0.3 – 0.6
• 0.35 – 0.65 • 0.1 – 0.3
• 0.15 – 0.35 • 0.05 – 0.1
• 0.07 – 0.15 • 0.02 – 0.05
Legend
• 0 – 0.07 • 0 – 0.02
Acc_HH Legend
HBW_cycle
0.000447 - 0.071024 Figure 3.18: Work accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and walk Acc_HH
0.071025 - 0.159146
HBW_walk
0.000071 - 0.015016
0.159147 - 0.336356
0.015017 - 0.044921
0.336357 - 0.658377
0.658378 - 0.961726 0.044922 - 0.102528
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0 10 20 km
• = 250 households
Car
Public transport
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.95 – 1.0
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.85 – 0.95
• 0.7 – 0.9
• 0.7 – 0.85
• 0.5 – 0.7
• 0.35 – 0.7
Legend • 0.25 – 0.5
• 0 – 0.35
Acc_HH Legend • 0 – 0.25
HBEPS_car
Acc_HH
0.034235 - 0.376014
HBEPS_PT
Figure 3.19: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Melbourne by car and public
0.376015 - 0.694983 transport
0.000013 - 0.261723
0.694984 - 0.868955
0.261724 - 0.520692
0.868956 - 0.955994
0.520693 - 0.728201
0.955995 - 0.999993
0.728202 - 0.904814
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
0.904815 - 1.000000
Austroads 2011
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 37 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
Cycle Walk
Accessibility score Accessibility score
• 0.7 – 1.0 • 0.35 – 0.7
• 0.5 – 0.7 • 0.2 – 0.35
• 0.35 – 0.5 • 0.12 – 0.2
• 0.2 – 0.35 • 0.05 – 0.12
Legend
• 0 – 0.2 Legend • 0 – 0.05
Acc_HH
Acc_HH
HBEPS_cycl
HBEPS_walk
Figure 3.20: Primary and secondary school accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and
0.000000 - 0.187991 walk
0.000000 - 0.049568
0.187992 - 0.361124
0.049569 - 0.126402
0.361125 - 0.525330
0.126403 - 0.220679
0.525331 - 0.701754
0.220680 - 0.364663
0.701755 - 0.982687
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55 Austroads 2011 0.364664 - 0.683673
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 38 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0 10 20 km
• = 250 households
Car
Public transport
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.8 – 0.9
• 0.75 – 0.9
• 0.6 – 0.8
• 0.5 – 0.75
• 0.3 – 0.6
• 0.25 – 0.5
Legend • 0 – 0.3 Legend
Acc_HH • 0 – 0.25
Acc_HH
HBET_car_v
HBET_PT
0.023215 - 0.320511
Figure 3.21: Tertiary school accessibility in Melbourne by car and public transport
0.320512 - 0.588346
0.000000 - 0.253929
0.253930 - 0.530658
0.588347 - 0.773809
0.530659 - 0.747757
0.773810 - 0.921789
0.747758 - 0.914356
0.921790 - 0.999999
0.914357 - 1.000000
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
Austroads 2011 Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 39 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0 10 20 km
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
• = 250 households
Cycle Walk
Accessibility score Accessibility score
• 0.75 – 1.0 • 0.65 – 1.0
• 0.5 – 0.75 • 0.3 – 0.65
• 0.3 – 0.5 • 0.12 – 0.3
• 0.1 – 0.3 • 0.03 – 0.12
Legend
• 0 – 0.1 • 0 – 0.03
Legend Acc_HH
Acc_HH HBET_walk
HBET_cycle Figure 3.22: Tertiary school accessibility in Melbourne by cycle and walk 0.000000 - 0.035375
0.000000 - 0.094345 0.035376 - 0.126949
0.094346 - 0.277779 0.126950 - 0.286867
0.277780 - 0.491214 0.286868 - 0.639645
0.491215 - 0.765521 0.639646 - 0.985287
0.765522 - 0.999590 Austroads 2011 Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 40 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
Car
Public transport
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
• 0.95 – 1.0
• 0.9 – 1.0
• 0.85 – 0.95
• 0.7 – 0.9
• 0.7 – 0.85
• 0.5 – 0.7
• 0.45 – 0.7
• 0.25 – 0.5
• 0 – 0.45
Legend Legend • 0 – 0.25
Acc_HH Acc_HH
HBSR_car HBSR_PT
Figure 3.23: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Melbourne by car and public transport
0.074805 - 0.434172 0.000159 - 0.235926
0.434173 - 0.708456 0.235927 - 0.469133
0.708457 - 0.866993 0.469134 - 0.701687
0.866994 - 0.963971 0.701688 - 0.902348
0.963972 - 1.000000
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
Austroads 2011 0.902349 - 1.000000
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
— 41 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
± 10 5 0
• = 250 households
10 20 km
Cycle Walk
Accessibility score Accessibility score
• 0.85 – 1.0 • 0.6 – 1.0
• 0.6 – 0.85 • 0.35 – 0.6
• 0.4 – 0.6 • 0.2 – 0.35
• 0.2 – 0.4 • 0.1 – 0.2
• 0 – 0.2 • 0 – 0. 1
Legend Legend
Acc_HH Acc_HH
Figure 3.24: Shopping and recreation accessibility in Melbourne by cycleHBSR_Walk
and walk
HBSR_cycle
0.000001 - 0.078611
0.000616 - 0.193331
0.078612 - 0.183265
0.193332 - 0.394816
0.183266 - 0.339569
0.394817 - 0.617488
0.339570 - 0.614967
0.617489 - 0.838982 Austroads 2011
0.614968 - 0.998371
0.838983 - 1.000000
Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55 — 42 — Zones_2253_region_GDA94z55
Application of Accessibility Measures
where
The PKT model was calibrated by trip purpose for Perth and Melbourne using the STEM and MITM
databases. The calibration results are in Table 3.7. Scatter graphs are in Figure 3.25 for Perth and
Figure 3.26 for Melbourne. The average PKT model has good correlation with the data, with the
correlation coefficient, R2, ranging from 0.48 to 0.89. From the analysis, it can be said that on
average, zones with high accessibility scores have less average PKT. It was also noted that walk
and cycle accessibility have a higher impact on travel kilometres than car and public transport
accessibility.
Austroads 2011
— 43 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
35 20
Average PKT by zone (model), km
30
15
25
20
R2 = 0.89 10
15
R2 = 0.57
10
5
5
- -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 - 5 10 15 20 25 30
Average PKT by zone (data), km Average PKT by zone (data), km
25 8
Average PKT by zone (model), km
20
6
15 R2 = 0.48
4
10
R2 = 0.51
2
5
- -
- 10 20 30 40 50 - 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Average PKT by zone (data), km Average PKT by zone (data), km
Figure 3.25: Average PKT by zone in Perth: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 44 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
45 18
Average PKT by zone (model), km
70 16
Average PKT by zone (model), km
12
50
10
40
8
30 R2 = 0.49
R2 = 0.77 6
20
4
10 2
- -
- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 - 5 10 15 20 25
Average PKT by zone (data), km Average PKT by zone (data), km
Figure 3.26: Average PKT by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data
APT 5
MS PT =
Acar + APT + Acycle + Awalk
where
Austroads 2011
— 45 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Mode shares estimated by the model were compared with mode shares determined from the MITM
and STEM databases. The correlation between the two is indicative of the relationship of
accessibility and mode share. Figure 3.27 and Figure 3.28 compare model estimates and data for
public transport and combined walking and cycling in Perth. Figure 3.29 and Figure 3.30 compare
model estimates and data for public transport and walking for Melbourne. The MITM database
does not have information on cycling in Melbourne. R2 of trend lines are shown in the figures.
The results are summarised in Table 3.8. A positive impact of accessibility on mode share is
apparent in work trips but could not be clearly identified for school and shopping and recreation
trips. It is possible that there are other factors that are stronger determinants of mode share than
accessibility for school and shopping and recreation trips.
Table 3.8: Relationship between accessibility and PT, walking and cycling mode share
Trip purpose City Public transport Walking and cycling (Perth)
Walking (Melbourne)
R2 Relationship of accessibility to R2 Relationship of accessibility
public transport share to walking and cycling share
Work Perth 0.56 Weak to strong(1) and positive(2) 0.63 Strong and positive
Melbourne 0.32 0.89
Primary and secondary Perth 0.04 Very weak but positive 0.42 Very weak to weak but positive
school
Melbourne 0.12 0.17
Tertiary school Perth 0.00 Very weak but positive 0.14 Weak to strong but positive
Melbourne 0.16 0.54
Shopping and Perth 0.13 Very weak but positive 0.08 Very weak but positive
recreation
Melbourne 0.20 0.22
1 Degree of relationship was assessed as follows: strong when R2 = 0.5 to 1; weak when R2 = 0.25 to 0.5; and, very weak when R2 = 0 to 0.25.
2 Positive relationship means that higher accessibility scores by a mode would increase its mode share. A negative influence would have an opposite effect.
Austroads 2011
— 46 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
60% 60%
Mode share by zone (model)
40% 40%
30% 30%
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
60% 60%
Mode share by zone (model)
40% 40%
30% 30%
R2 = 0.00 R2 = 0.13
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
Figure 3.27: Public transport share by zone in Perth: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 47 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
30% 40%
R2 = 0.63
Mode share by zone (model)
20%
10%
10%
R2 = 0.42
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
30% 40%
Mode share by zone (model)
R2 = 0.14 20%
10%
10%
R2 = 0.08
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
Figure 3.28: Walking and cycling share by zone in Perth: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 48 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
R2 = 0.32 R2 = 0.12
20% 20%
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
80% 40%
60% 30%
40% 20%
R2 = 0.20
20% 10%
R2 = 0.16
0% 0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
Figure 3.29: Public transport share by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 49 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
40% 40%
Mode share by zone (model)
R2 = 0.17
20% 20%
10% 10%
R2 = 0.89
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Mode share by zone (data) Mode share by zone (data)
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
2
R = 0.54
10% 10%
R2 = 0.22
0% 0%
0% 10% 20% 30% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Figure 3.30: Walking share by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 50 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
◼ no data ◼ no data
◼ < $400 000 ◼ < $260 000
◼ $400 000 – $600 000 ◼ $260 000 – $330 000
◼ $600 000 – $900 000 ◼ $330 000 – $400 000
◼ > $ 900 000 ◼ > $ 400 000
(b) unit/apartment
(a) house
The analysis used a simple property price model below. Two models were developed – one model
for house prices and another for units and apartment prices. Median prices were for the period
2007, 2008 and 2009 (Equation 6).
(
P = ln 0 + car Aˆcar + PT Aˆ PT + WC AˆWC ) 6
where
Âcar = average car accessibility score for four trip purposes of zone
Âcar = (A work
car + Acar
primary and secondaryeducation
+ Acar
tertiary education
+ Acar
shoppingand recreation
4 )
ÂPT = average PT accessibility score for four trip purposes of zone
ÂWC = (Aˆwalk )
+ Aˆcycle 2
Âwalk = average walk accessibility score for four trip purposes of zone
Âcycle = average cycle accessibility score for four trip purposes of zone
Austroads 2011
— 51 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
The above model assumes that property price is a function of accessibility alone. This is a
restrictive assumption because there are other factors that can also influence property prices. For
example, El-Geneidy and Levinson (2006) incorporated 23 explanatory variables in their analysis
of accessibility and property price. A more comprehensive database that includes these other
factors was not available for this study. The findings in this section are therefore considered to be
only indicative of the relationship between accessibility and property price. A more comprehensive
analysis is recommended
Table 3.9 shows the calibration results. Scatter graphs of modelled property price and property
price data are in Figure 3.32 for house prices and Figure 3.33 for apartment and unit prices. Both
models have moderate but positive correlation with the data with R2 values of 0.34 to 0.37.
Accessibility scores as explanatory variables were found to be statistically significant, with the
exception of car accessibility in the house price model. It can be therefore said that accessibility
appears to have a positive impact on property price. It is also noted that walk and cycle
accessibility have a stronger impact to property price than car and public transport accessibility.
In summary, it was determined that good accessibility appears to result in lower travel kilometers,
higher mode share for public transport, walking and cycling and higher property prices. The effect
of accessibility on mode share however is clearly apparent only in work trips but not for school,
shopping and recreation trips.
Austroads 2011
— 52 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1,000
800
600
400
R2 = 0.37
200
-
- 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
Thousands
MedianMedian
price inprice
zone,in($’000)
zone, $(data)
(data)
Figure 3.32: House prices by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data
500
Median price in zone, ($’000) (model)
Median price in zone, $ (model)
Thousands
400
300
200
R2 = 0.34
100
-
- 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Thousands
Median priceprice
Median in zone, ($’000)
in zone, (data)
$ (data)
Figure 3.33: Unit and apartment prices by zone in Melbourne: model results vs. data
Austroads 2011
— 53 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
GIS data was provided by respective local government agencies for the application of the AAM.
Neighbourhood analysis covers public transport, cycling and walking. Neighbourhood analysis did
not cover car-based accessibility because there is little variation in travel time by car from within a
small area. Therefore accessibility by car does not vary notably within a small area and is best
determined from the strategic level analysis.
Joondalup
(25 km from CBD)
Burwood Heights
(15 km from CBD)
Mandurah
(60 km from CBD)
4.1 Methodology
Application at the neighbourhood level requires a high resolution transport impedance matrix and
database of opportunities. These are not readily available and therefore need to be developed in
this study. The study area was subdivided into 100 m x 100 m cells. Each cell was connected to a
walking and public transport network. A walking network was created from the road centreline data.
The walking network represents sidewalks and crossings. Off-road paths were added as well.
Public transport corridors were also added including stations. Figure 4.2 illustrates the cells and the
walking and public transport network for Mandurah study area as an example.
Austroads 2011
— 54 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
459
1.15 2 1.18
4578
1.17
4593
332 2.19
01
07
2.15
1 3
33
58
2.16 32
4587
3.14 3.15 3.16 328 3.18 7 3.21
316 08
7 332
3.19 8
58
5778
8
5771
4.14 4.17 4.19 4.20 554.22 4.23 4.24
2
246
5806
3204
95 3340
317
5.14 5.19 5.20 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29
5611
12
2494 5651
5620
5 5.21
0
44 562
59
5.165.17 5.22 5.24
6.13 6.1422
41
6.16 6.17 6.226.23 6.24 09 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29
3840
59
50
3237
47
22
324 12
5430 6.20
2516
30 6.21
32
58
7.13 7.14 7.17 5441 7.20 7.21 7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29
2
505
5
7.22
07
3 2 18
3864 7.18
1 9
25
38
21
21
5815735
6
83 169 17
592
8.128.13 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.29
32
34
32
7
590
3880
57
4635
252
18
9.119.12 9.16 9.18 9.19 9.21 9.22 9.24 9.25 9.26 9.27 9.29 9.31
57
59
05 3886 072
5680
6
9.23
32
4642 4515
26 42
5818 822
5914
3271 4833
23
10.11 10.19 10.2110.22
07
10.2310.24 10.2510.26 10.29 10.30 10.31
00
10.20 0 2
57
62
5729
207
17
4773
16
10.28
5
25
50
11.10 11.11
163 1 94 20 69 11.26 11.27 11.28 11.29 11.30 11.31
2088 2094 2092 4
3 674 1526 11.19 11.2311.24 11.25 9 8
3 3979 3988
12
5917
152
9
12.10 12.18 2752 12.19
479112.21 12.2312.24 12.25 12.29 12.30
58
47 2764882
57
26 1577
64
153996
8 12.28
4559
39
24
4548 12.22
1
12.27
50
1957
85
15 39
01
23
13.09 13.13 13.162 13.2313.24 13.25 13.29 13.30
86
53
3 66
58
2687
13
57
13.22
01 58
30
36
5
13.14 13.15 13.21
46
87
2720
14.14 14.1513 3390
89
19
6
0
14.0814.09 14.17 14.22 14.2314.24 14.29 14.30
12
3 479
8
15
142015541543
59
15
5
60
14.10 24 14.18
38
188
95 28
2137 347
4117 4115
1963
44
133748
15.08 214 15.22 15.23 7 15.29 15.30 15.31
71
15.25
5 5 4 489
18 26
34
23
212
12
29 26 8
15.21
59
15.19 15.24
054653
51
21
37
16.0316.04 16.0516.06 16.0716.08 24 1496 16.21 16.22 16.23
34 19 16.30 16.31
12
35
585 5841
46 1902
15 84
12
0
4651
5 16.20
3
7
1308
3459
1509
19 1970
3454
17.01 17.02
5146 6 17.06 17.07 90 1 17.11 13 17 183 17.18 17.2017.21 17.22 17.23 17.31 17.32
26
45
36
1322 6
37
16 507 4128
5073
17.05
19 1921
17.30
5151
28
95
27
6
17.16
82
2115 1170 378
18.09 18 0
18
75
18.01 18.0218.03 18.04 1183 1185 11 4 31
1138
69
4182
1153 4875 37 9
60
4198
3
4238
51
1157 3673
19 18
18.29 40
9
6
5147 558
99 53 19.31
111
10
19.19 4
265 69
1407
63 6
1849
19.18
36 52
374 730
3
4135
5851
35
4677
5343 1 5739 19.17
37
12
429
6 5749
14
265 11
6 84
8
10
2
1
20
20.01 20.02 20.17 20.19 43 20.25 20.28
6
3700
19
20.30
1
3763
1103 37
40
139
55
4
9 0
4
35 20.18 2
1
11 2 6
685 1
145 141 14
66
11
354 7
680
20.23
48
690 14 71
40
5
21.02 21.08 21.16 21.22 21.29 21.30
763 3024
2660
20
376 767 1100
471
2281
978
1081 21.15 21.21 49
78 21.28
20
21.03 21.0421.05 387 1086 1 21.26
389
46722.15 2196 292 1 3041 22.22 22.23 30 22.26
656
7
5854
5 362
22.0322.04 22.05 22.28 22.29
412 418 417 410 86 2 9 498
718
00
1820
23.05 23.23 23.24 23.2623.27 23.29
78
1077 7 11 23.28
16
35
20
22
483 478 489 487 485 1052
29
29
1057
994
231 5857
697
20
01
727
24.04 518 516 513 24.1024.11 1042 10 2 5 3 24.22 24.24 24.26 24.27 24.28
2679
79 24.21 35
2391
7
20
46 18 24.25
51
307 29 9
5310
24.09 9 3094 24.18 24.23
3069 61
545
7
1007
97
13
43
2352
25.12 31 07
05
34
25.04 25.06 25.09 25.17 25.27 25.28
11
19
1861 83 3118 236
616
44
51
25.05 523 25.08 526
20
6 3123 1 43
26.04 26.05 57 948 5878 46
783 780 785 781 808
03
5 83 26.13 26.15
26.23 26.27
775
0 26.26
20
28 4377
7
4443 5884
01
81 26.16 26.24
41
861 586
27.04 27.05 27.06 27.07 27.10 27.11 4 8 27.14 919 926 446 589727.26
45
11 910 1 27.22 5899
27
46
27.12 27.23
48
692 930
81 28.15 93 2
20
28.12 28.17 28.21 28.23 28.24 28.25 28.26
81
11
6 9
82
5
28.13 28.22
49 9
1
10
20 44
29.14 29.20 29.21 29.22 29.23 29.24 29.25 29.26
75
30
1
352 29.19
58
29
29.15 283
66 35 348 30.21 30.22 30.23 30.24 30.25
58 6
58
3552
4
355
30.19
31.14 33 31.19 31.21 31.22 31.23 31.24
58
48 336
4
6 0
335
20
Figure 4.2: High resolution transport network for accessibility study (Mandurah study area)
Transport impedance was then estimated using a shortest path search algorithm developed by the
ARRB team. To connect to zones that are outside the study area, exit points were established
along the boundary of the study area. Travel time from within the study area to the exit point was
calculated using the shortest path algorithm. The travel time from the exit point to zones outside
the study area was determined from the travel time estimates of strategic models (i.e. STEM or
MITM). For this study, individual public transport routes, i.e. information on transfer points and
frequency, were not considered. As a result, there are limitations on estimation of waiting and
transfer time, which was assumed to be uniform and constant. The analysis therefore did not
consider levels of service in public transport and is based only on the geographic scope of public
transport. These simplifying assumptions suffice for the purpose of demonstration. With further
resources, individual routes can be encoded to improve estimates of public transport travel time.
The location of key attractors such as schools, retail and employment areas were available in the
GIS database provided by the three LGAs. The 100 m x 100 m cells were overlaid on the map of
key attractors and cells that fall on a school, retail area or employment area were marked.
The number of opportunities (e.g. enrolment and jobs) by traffic zones in the MITM and STEM
database was used as the control total. The number of opportunities in a traffic zone was equally
distributed to cells that fall in the traffic zone and marked correspondingly to the type of
opportunity. Distribution of the control total by floor area would have been a better approach;
however the floor area could not be determined from the GIS maps. Instead, land area was used.
Austroads 2011
— 55 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
4.2 Joondalup
The study area for the City of Joondalup included the suburbs of Kinross, Currambine and
Joondalup. The transport network and the location of key attractors in the study area are shown in
Figure 4.3.
(a) Employment
(b) Primary and secondary schools
Figure 4.3: Transport network and key attractors in Joondalup study area
Table 4.1 summarises the AAM for the study area. This is compared with Perth’s average values.
An assessment was made based on how the study area compared with Perth’s average values.
Overall, it was determined that accessibility in the study area was close to the norm in Perth. To be
at par or better with the norm in Perth in specific aspects, the study area needs improvement in
accessibility to work by cycle, accessibility to primary and secondary school by walking and
accessibility to shopping and recreation by walking.
Accessibility maps of the Joondalup study area, highlighting locations with low accessibility are as
follows:
▪ accessibility by public transport: Figure 4.4
▪ accessibility by walking: Figure 4.5
▪ accessibility by cycle: Figure 4.6.
Austroads 2011
— 56 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Austroads 2011
— 57 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Austroads 2011
— 58 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
◼ 003. – 0.004 100 m x 100 m grid ◼ 0.2 – 0.33 100 m x 100 m grid
Legend Legend
TrainLine TrainLine
FOOTPATHS_Culdesacs_BU FOOTPATHS_Culdesacs_BU
BR_ONE
(a) Work (b) Primary & secondary school
BR_ONE
Joon_7Sep_v3 Joon_7Sep_v3
WA_Emp WA_Pri_Sec
0.000039 - 0.005126 0.000000 - 0.022365
Austroads 2011
— 59 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
◼ 0.02 – 0.08
◼ 0.005 – 0.08
◼ 0.08 – 0.15
◼ 0.08 – 0.2
◼ 0.15 – 0.25
◼ 0.2 – 0.35
◼ 0.25– 0.35
◼ 0.35 – 0.5
◼ 0.35 – 0.45 100 m x 100 m gridLegend
TrainLine ◼ 0.5 – 0.7 100 m x 100 m grid
Legend
FOOTPATHS_Culdesacs_BU
TrainLine
BR_ONE
FOOTPATHS_Culdesacs_BU
Joon_7Sep_v3
BR_ONE
CA_Tertiar
(c) Tertiary school0.017334 - 0.076296 (d) Retail & recreation
Joon_7Sep_v3
CA_Retail
0.076297 - 0.159457
0.005013 - 0.080014
0.159458 - 0.248095
0.080015 - 0.205677
0.248096 - 0.352384
Figure 4.6: Cycle accessibility
0.352385 - 0.432595 in Joondalup study area, Perth 0.205678 - 0.357990
0.357991 - 0.513445
0.513446 - 0.680440
Austroads 2011
— 60 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
4.3 Mandurah
The study area in the City of Mandurah is bounded by Meadow Springs Dr, Lakes Rd and Pinjara
Rd. The transport network and the location of key attractors in the study area are shown in
Figure 4.7.
Low density
employment
(a) Employment
(b) Primary and secondary schools
Figure 4.7: Transport network and key attractors in Mandurah study area
The summary of AAM scores for the study area is in Table 4.2. Perth’s average values are
compared with those of the study area.
Austroads 2011
— 61 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Overall, the Mandurah study area was assessed to have problems in accessibility. It is below
average in almost all aspects reviewed, except accessibility to primary and secondary school by
public transport and cycle.
Accessibility maps of the Mandurah study area, highlighting locations with low accessibility are as
follows:
▪ accessibility by public transport: Figure 4.8
▪ accessibility by walking: Figure 4.9
▪ accessibility by cycle: Figure 4.10.
Austroads 2011
— 62 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Legend Legend
(a) Work Train_Line_Mandurah
(b) Primary & secondary school Train_Line_Mandurah
BR_Links_RouteIDs Mandurah_Routes_ONE_Clean2
Footpaths_withBusStopSplitsBU Footpaths_withBusStopSplitsBU
Internal_zones_v2 Internal_zones_v2
A_Att_jobs A_Att_PriS
Accessibility score 0.015583 - 0.038583 Accessibility score 0.189783 - 0.416589
Austroads 2011
— 63 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Accessibility score
Accessibility score
◼ 0 – 0.015
◼ 0 – 0.002
◼ 0.015 – 0.05
◼ 0.002 – 0.004
◼ 0.05 – 0.1
◼ 0.004 – 0.008
◼ 0.1 – 0.15
◼ 0.008– 0.012
◼ 0.15 – 0.25
◼ 0.012 – 0. 017
100 m x 100 m grid
100 m x 100 m grid
Mandurah_Routes_ONE_Clean2 Mandurah_Routes_ONE_Clean2
Internal_zones_v2 Internal_zones_v2
WA_Att_Ter WA_Att_Ret
0.000000 - 0.014647
0.000000 - 0.004682
0.014648 - 0.046155
0.004683 - 0.016427
0.046156 - 0.097437
0.016428 - 0.032664
0.097438 - 0.159996
0.032665 - 0.054137
0.159997 - 0.238062
0.054138 - 0.072207
Austroads 2011
— 64 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Austroads 2011
— 65 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Figure 4.11: Transport network and key attractors in Burwood Heights study area
Table 4.3 summarises the AAM scores of the study area. Melbourne’s average scores are included
in table for comparison.
Austroads 2011
— 66 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Overall it was judged that the study area has above average accessibility levels. Improvement in
accessibility to primary and secondary school by walk and shopping and recreation by walk is
recommendable.
Accessibility maps of the Burwood Heights study area, highlighting locations with low accessibility
are as follows:
▪ accessibility by public transport: Figure 4.12
▪ accessibility by walking: Figure 4.13
▪ accessibility by cycle: Figure 4.14.
Austroads 2011
— 67 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
acc_cells_v2 acc_cells_v2
◼ 0.9 – 0.95 A_Att_jobs ◼ 0.75 – 0.83 A_Att_PriS
0.972965 - 0.984000
◼ 0.95 – 0.97 ◼ 0.83 – 0.87
0.507611 - 0.641597
0.641598 - 0.713761 0.984001 - 0.990928
acc_cells_v2
acc_cells_v2
Figure 4.12: PublicA_Att_Ter
transport accessibility in Burwood Heights study area, Melbourne
A_Att_Ret_
0.759286 - 0.832924
0.925909 - 0.948275
0.832925 - 0.876168
0.948276 - 0.969020
0.876169 - 0.912539
0.969021 - 0.982695
0.912540 - 0.943114
0.982696 - 0.991329
0.943115 - 0.989540
0.991330 - 0.998375
Austroads 2011
— 68 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Legend
ALL_BusRoutes
Legend
Footpaths_Tracks_PTconnectors ALL_BusRoutes
WA_Att_job acc_cells_v2
◼ 0 – 0.03 0.005589 - 0.011613
◼ 0 – 0.012 WA_Att_Pri
Legend Legend
Figure 4.13: Walking accessibility in Burwood Heights study area, Melbourne ALL_BusRoutes
ALL_BusRoutes
Footpaths_Tracks_PTconnectors
Footpaths_Tracks_PTconnectors
acc_cells_v2 acc_cells_v2
WA_Att_Ter WA_Att_Ret
0.001315 - 0.012224
0.000110 - 0.034571
0.012225 - 0.024678
0.034572 - 0.120435
0.024679 - 0.037291
0.120436 - 0.235166
0.037292 - 0.055235
0.235167 - 0.371997
0.055236 - 0.084076
0.371998 - 0.503205
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
Legend Legend
Accessibility score ALL_BusRoutes Accessibility score ALL_BusRoutes
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
5 COMPARISON OF METRICS
This section examines the differences between AAM and three other accessibility metrics as
follows:
▪ Koenig accessibility metric (KAM): Section 5.1
▪ LUPTAI: Section 5.2
▪ NZTA accessibility metric (NAM): Section 5.3.
7
ln X j exp (− Ci , j )
1
Ai =
j
where
The KAM utilises only one parameter () which is derived from a gravity model with an exponential
distribution function. It was calibrated using the Perth and Melbourne data and determined to be
0.07 by the ARRB team.
The comparison uses work accessibility by car in Melbourne as the case study. The three types of
comparison were conducted as follows.
▪ accessibility level assessment of Melbourne (Section 5.1.1)
▪ change in accessibility levels in Melbourne due to Eastlink (Section 5.1.2)
▪ sensitivity analysis (Section 5.1.3).
One difficulty in comparing AAM and KAM is that the units are different. The same problem exists
in comparing AAM with LUPTAI and NAM. In this report, metrics were sometimes rescaled using
the lowest and highest accessibility levels as reference points such that its values range from 0 to
1 similar to AAM for the purpose of comparison.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
2500
Zone rank based on Koenig metric
2000
Rank of zone by KAM
1500
1000
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Zone rank based
Rank ofon NS1586
zone metric
by AAM
Figure 5.2: Rank of zones based on work accessibility using KAM and AAM
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
0.9
190
0.8
0.75
180
KAM score – rescaled
0.7
NS1586 accessibility
KAMaccessibility
0.6
AAM score
score
170
0.50
Koenig
KAM 0.5
160
Koenig
0.4
NS1586
AAM
0.2
140
0.1
0.0
130 -
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Zone
(from highest to lowest accessibility based on NS1586 metric)
Zones, sorted from highest to lowest AAM score
Figure 5.3: Relative magnitude of work accessibility using KAM and AAM
Changes in accessibility as a result of Eastlink are plotted in Figure 5.4. The impact of Eastlink on
accessibility based on AAM and KAM are similar. The zones that benefited most from Eastlink are
zones along the Eastlink corridor. Figure 5.5 is a scatter plot of the change in accessibility level
due to Eastlink using the two metrics. There is a close correlation, indicating that the two metrics
show similar impacts of Eastlink on accessibility.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
Figure 5.4: Change in accessibility due to Eastlink using AAM and KAM
14
metric
by zone
12
Koenig
10
score
using
8
in KAM
accessibility
6
Change inChange
-
-0.10 - 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
-2
Change in acessibility using NS1586 metric
Change in AAM score by zone
Figure 5.5: Change in accessibility by zone due to Eastlink using AAM and KAM
Austroads 2011
— 74 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Transport impedance
Origin Destination
(all employment is here)
Figure 5.8 illustrates the impact on accessibility of a destination with 200 000 jobs given varying
levels of transport impedance. The KAM continues to assign a notable impact to the destination
when it is more than 60 min from the origin. The impact of the destination only becomes near zero
when it is at least 200 min or 3 h 20 min away from the origin. The AAM assigns a near zero
accessibility impact beyond 60 min. The two metrics suggest very different sizes of hinterlands for
the destination. A hinterland is defined as the geographical area serviced by a particular land
development. The difference in the hinterland defined by AAM and KAM could influence policy
analysis. The AAM hinterland was judged to be a more reasonable guide than KAM based on the
following:
▪ 97% of car work trips in Perth and 90% of car work trips in Melbourne are within 1 h.
▪ The studies by Morris and Young (1981) and Redmond and Mokhtarian (2001) indicate that
the level of satisfaction of travel time is very low beyond 50 min of commuting time.
Figure 5.9 illustrates the impact of the destination 10 min away from the origin given varying levels
of jobs available at the destination. The KAM saturates more quickly than the AAM. According to
the KAM, accessibility would be close to maximum when jobs at the destination reach 30 000. The
AAM accessibility metric requires more than 180 000 jobs at the destination to achieve a
reasonably high level of accessibility, say AAM = 0.75.
The two metrics would have different guidance on the satellite town development. In the case of
KAM, a satellite town with 30 000 jobs would be enough to induce containment i.e. people will be
able to find suitable employment within the satellite town. On the other hand the AAM suggests it
requires a far bigger employment pool of 180 000 to induce containment. Figure 5.7 shows the
number of jobs within an LGA and their corresponding average PKT by car in Melbourne. The
typical number of jobs in a suburban LGA is approximately 50 000 and the average PKT is around
20 km. Monash is the suburban LGA with the highest number of jobs within its borders, i.e.
100 000 jobs, and it has an average PKT of 15 km. Melbourne LGA contains 350 000 jobs and the
average PKT is about 8 km. LGAs near the Melbourne LGA also have low average PKT. Given
that containment is not apparent in the suburban LGAs, a satellite town would require a higher
number of jobs than 50 000 to induce containment. The number of jobs needed to induce
containment appears to be between 100 000 and 350 000. It was therefore judged that the AAM
guidance on the saturation of opportunities for employment is more realistic than that of KAM.
It is noted that different parameter in KAM can be used, which can potentially improve KAM. This
will however only change its effect on transport impedance but not on the number of opportunities.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
400,000 40
350,000 35
300,000 30
Jobs within LGA
250,000
Ave PKT 25
Jobs within LGA
Average PKT
200,000 20
150,000 15
100,000 10
50,000 5
- 0
Melbourne
Port Phillip
Maribyrnong
Yarra
Stonnington
Boroondara
Glen Eira
Kingston
Darebin
Moreland
Monash
Whitehorse
Moonee Valley
Bayside
Banyule
Greater Dandenong
Manningham
Hobsons Bay
Whittlesea
Brimbank
Knox
Maroondah
Hume
Casey
Frankston
Wyndham
Mornington Peninsula
Yarra Ranges
Melton
Cardinia
Nillumbik
Figure 5.7: Jobs within LGA and average PKT by car in Melbourne
200 0.80
180
160
0.60
140 KAM
AAM score
KAM score
120 AAM
100 0.40
80
60
0.20
40
20
0 -
0 50 100 150 200 250
Travel time, min
Figure 5.8: Comparison of the effect of transport impedance on work accessibility using KAM and AAM
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
200 1.0
180
160 0.8
140
KAM score
AAM score
KAM
120 0.6
AAM
100
80 0.4
60
40 0.2
20
- -
0 100 200 300 400 500
Thousands
Jobs at destination
Note: Assuming constant 10 min transport impedance between origin and destination.
Figure 5.9: Comparison of the effect of employment on work accessibility using KAM and AAM
5.2 LUPTAI
The Land Use and Public Transport Accessibility Index (LUPTAI) package was developed by the
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland as a user friendly software that provides a
measure of transport accessibility for planners (TMR 2010). It does this by evaluating how easy it
is for people to access key activities such as employment, retail, health, school and recreation from
their homes via the public transport and walking network. The LUPTAI methodology is based on
random utility and Monte Carlo simulation, which randomises choice sets in order to derive the
expected utility of the destination type.
The LUPTAI tool assists planners to respond to the challenges of urban growth by comparing
effectiveness of variables including changes to residential population density, different land uses
and improvements in public transport infrastructure, services, and frequencies. For communities
throughout Queensland this means greater choice in accessing the people, places and things that
are important to them.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
LUPTAI calculates accessibility scores separately for primary and secondary school, while AAM
calculates a combined score. The average LUPTAI score for primary and secondary school was
used in the comparison. LUPTAI calculates retail accessibility only, while AAM includes retail and
recreation. For this comparison to be consistent, AAM scores were calculated for retail only.
The following figures compare public transport accessibility maps developed using AAM and
LUPTAI:
▪ work accessibility: Figure 5.12
▪ primary and secondary school accessibility: Figure 5.13
▪ tertiary school accessibility: Figure 5.14
▪ retail accessibility: Figure 5.15.
AAM and LUPTAI results are further compared using scatter graphs in Figure 5.10. The patterns of
high and low accessibility scores are broadly similar.
LUPTAI has a minimum and maximum value of 0 and 120. LUPTAI values were rescaled such that
a LUPTAI score of 0 and 120 would have a value of 1 and 0 respectively, similar to AAM (note that
AAM and LUPTAI are inversely proportional). Scatter graphs comparing the rescaled LUPTAI and
AAM are illustrated in Figure 5.11. The figures demonstrate that it is possible to estimate LUPTAI
scores from AAM scores using a logarithmic function. There is therefore a surprisingly neat
relationship between AAM and LUPTAI. The correlation is however not perfect. Factors that can
cause noise in the correlation between AAM and LUPTAI are as follows:
▪ there is a difference in zoning system where AAM was calculated using zone-based data
from BSTM while LUPTAI used nodes which are finer than zones
▪ the Monte Carlo simulation used by of LUPTAI utilises random variables
▪ travel time matrix inputs are not the same where AAM uses data from the BSTM and LUPTAI
utilises its own model
▪ BSTM travel time inputs used in AAM calculations utilise service headways whereas LUPTAI
uses a timetable
▪ difference in methodologies.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
AAM
AAM
R2 = 0.66
0.4 0.4
R2 = 0.84
0.2 0.2
- -
- 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 - 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
LUPTAI, min LUPTAI, min
(a) Work (b) Primary and secondary school
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
AAM
AAM
R2 = 0.65 R2 = 0.77
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
- -
- 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 - 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
LUPTAI, min LUPTAI, min
Austroads 2011
— 79 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
LUPTAI rescaled
LUPTAI rescaled
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
y = 0.13Ln(x) + 0.91 y = 0.10Ln(x) + 0.92
R2 = 0.84 R2 = 0.66
0.2 0.2
- -
- 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
AAM AAM
1.0 1.0
y = 0.0957Ln(x) + 0.8483
R2 = 0.6498
0.8 0.8
LUPTAI rescaled
LUPTAI rescaled
0.6 0.6
y = 0.12Ln(x) + 0.92
R2 = 0.77
0.4 0.4
y = 0.10Ln(x) + 0.85
R2 = 0.65
0.2 0.2
- -
- 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
AAM AAM
(c) Tertiary school (d) Retail
Austroads 2011
— 80 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
0 5 10 20 30 0 5 10 20 30
km km
± ±
◼ 0 – 0.2 ◼ 86 – 120
◼ 0.2 – 0.45 ◼ 48 – 86
◼ 0.45 – 0.7 ◼ 28 – 48
◼ 0.7 – 0.85 (a) AAM ◼ 17 – 28 (b) LUPTAI
Legend Legend
◼ 0.85 – 1.0 Summary_Bri ◼ 2 – 17 min Summary_Bri
A_w_base L_w_base
0.000508 - 0.191758 86.619367 - 120.000000
Figure 5.12: Brisbane work PT accessibility: AAM and LUPTAI
0.191759 - 0.441400 48.720385 - 86.619366
0.441401 - 0.680974 28.433528 - 48.720384
0.680975 - 0.862296 17.109151 - 28.433527
0 5 10
0.862297 - 0.992027 20 30 0 5 10
2.307345 - 17.109150 20 30
km km
± ±
◼ 0 – 0.25 ◼ 75 – 120
◼ 0.25 – 0.55 ◼ 42 – 75
◼ 0.55 – 0.75 ◼ 24 – 42
◼ 0.75 – 0.95 ◼ 15 – 24
◼ 0.95 – 1.0 (a) AAM
Legend ◼ 6 – 15 min (b) LUPTAI
Legend
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
A_ps_base L_ps_base
Figure 5.13: Brisbane
0.000000 - 0.248934 primary and secondary school PT accessibility: AAM- 120.000000
75.857059 and LUPTAI
0.248935 - 0.536483 42.942997 - 75.857058
0.536484 - 0.758923 24.619804 - 42.942996
0.758924 - 0.933054 15.508217 - 24.619803
0.933055 - 1.000000 6.651239 - 15.508216
Austroads 2011
— 81 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
0 5 10 20 30 0 5 10 20 30
km km
± ±
◼ 0 – 0.2 ◼ 90 – 120
◼ 0.2 – 0.45 ◼ 54 – 90
◼ 0.45 – 0.7 ◼ 32 – 54
◼ 0.7 – 0.85 ◼ 18 – 32
(a) AAM (b) LUPTAI
◼ 0.85 – 1.0 Legend ◼ 3 – 18 min Legend
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
A_tt_base L_tt_base
Figure 5.14: Brisbane tertiary school PT accessibility: AAM and
0.000000 - 0.199831 LUPTAI
90.834359 - 120.000000
0.199832 - 0.452761 54.196621 - 90.834358
0.452762 - 0.691789 32.052764 - 54.196620
0 5 10
0.691790 - 0.874852 20 30 0 5 10
18.837894 - 32.052763 20 30
0.874853 - 0.993194 km 3.287959 - 18.837893 km
± ±
◼ 0 – 0.2 ◼ 78 – 120
◼ 0.2 – 0.5 ◼ 44 – 78
◼ 0.5 – 0.7 ◼ 25 – 44
◼ 0.7 – 0.9 (a)Legend
AAM ◼ 14 – 25 Legend
(b) LUPTAI
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
◼ 0.9 – 1.0 ◼ 2 – 14 min
A_s_base L_r_base
0.000547 - 0.215039 78.374193 - 120.000000
0.215040 - 0.493232 44.893989 - 78.374192
Figure 5.15: Brisbane retail PT accessibility: AAM and LUPTAI
0.493233 - 0.710754 25.261091 - 44.893988
0.710755 - 0.894892 14.334559 - 25.261090
0.894893 - 1.000000 2.206505 - 14.334558
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
Accessibility scores were recalculated based on improved travel time as a result of the project. The
difference between the base case and the project case was determined for each zone and plotted
as follows:
▪ change in work accessibility: Figure 5.16
▪ change in primary and secondary school accessibility: Figure 5.17
▪ change in tertiary school accessibility: Figure 5.18
▪ change in retail accessibility: Figure 5.19.
A difference between the two metrics was noted is in the case of changes in work and retail
accessibility due to the project. LUPTAI recorded reductions in accessibility levels around the
Darra and Chelmer stations (Figure 5.16 and Figure 5.19). Meanwhile AAM recorded
improvements in accessibility levels. According to TMR (2010), the main causes of degradation of
LUPTAI scores around Darra and Chelmer stations are as follows:
▪ small changes in the service timetable can make small changes in interchanges and
penalties leading to localised effects
▪ the random variables used in the Monte Carlo approach means that there is some natural
variation in comparisons.
The majority of the changes in accessibility would arise from changes to the service timetable and
frequency. The frequency of trains passing through both the Darra and Chelmer stations would
have altered slightly.
Austroads 2011
— 83 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
0 2 4 8
± 12 0 2 4 8
± 12
km km
Legend Legend
(a) AAM (b) LUPTAI
LinksBase_polyline LinksBase_polyline
LinksProject_polyline LinksProject_polyline
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
Notes: A_w_diff2 / none l_diff_w / none
AAM: Change in accessibility = accessibility score- 0.002541615
0.000000000 with project – accessibility score without project. -0.543395996 - -0.258924991
-0.258924990 - -0.054453999
LUPTAI: Change in accessibility = (accessibility score with project – accessibility score without project) x -1, note that high
0.002541616 - 0.010980409
scores indicate poor accessibility (in min).
-0.054453998 - 0.108324997
0.010980410 - 0.044516214
Figure0.044516215
5.16: Change
- 0.168169047
in work PT accessibility due to project: AAM 0.108324998
and LUPTAI - 0.492740005
0.492740006 - 1.00942004
0.168169048 - 0.492031551
0 2 4 8
± 12 0 2 4 8
± 12
km km
(a) AAM
Legend (b) LUPTAI
Legend
LinksBase_polyline LinksBase_polyline
LinksProject_polyline LinksProject_polyline
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
Figure 5.17: Change in primary and secondary school PT accessibility due l_diff_ps
A_ps_diff2 / none
to project: AAM and LUPTAI
0.000000000 - 0.005144848 -0.010752 - 0.023675
0.005144849 - 0.016727913 0.023676 - 0.078787
0.016727914 - 0.039647035 0.078788 - 0.170525
0.039647036 - 0.091573171 0.170526 - 0.247942
0.091573172 - 0.280723449 0.247943 - 0.537092
Austroads 2011
— 84 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
0 2 4 8
±12 0 2 4 8
±
12
km km
Legend Legend
(a) AAM (b) LUPTAI LinksBase_polyline
LinksBase_polyline
LinksProject_polyline LinksProject_polyline
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
FigureA_tt_diff2
5.18: Change
/ none in tertiary school PT accessibility due to project: AAM and LUPTAI
l_diff_tt
0.000000000 - 0.003758724 -0.085160 - 0.038821
0 2 4 8
±12 0 2 4 8
±
12
km km
Legend Legend
(a) AAM
LinksBase_polyline (b) LUPTAI LinksBase_polyline
LinksProject_polyline LinksProject_polyline
Summary_Bri Summary_Bri
Figure0.000000000
A_r_diff2 / none
5.19: -Change
0.008961392
in retail PT accessibility due to project: AAM and LUPTAI
l_diff_s / none
-0.213863000 - -0.123205997
0.008961393 - 0.035240925 -0.123205996 - -0.034954999
0.035240926 - 0.091310893 -0.034954998 - 0.093805999
0.091310894 - 0.305634423 0.093806000 - 0.347342998
0.305634424 - 0.622208936 0.347342999 - 0.815809011
Austroads 2011
— 85 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
Origin locations from which accessibility is measured can range from individual households to
census mesh blocks (aggregations of roughly 120 properties). Although computationally taxing,
measuring accessibility from individual household locations provides higher definition results,
especially for walking and public transport. The use of census mesh blocks is considered the
maximum aggregation level that still provides useful results.
The first seven of the core activities are ‘consumed’ activities, whilst a place of employment is
considered a ‘supplied’ activity. There is an important distinction when calculating accessibility
indices for consumed activities and supplied activities. The destinations can be customised and the
accessibility to any destination can be calculated for a particular accessibility project.
The NAM methodology is based on four transport modes – car, cycling, walking and public
transport. Accessibility is calculated by mode based on travel along the shortest path.
Before accessibility calculations are generated, a travel time matrix is developed. A ‘raw
accessibility value’, or RAV, is determined for each destination relative to an origin based on the
time it takes from an origin to a destination. The RAV is determined by a deterrence function which
is a negative exponential function of travel time. The NAM deterrence function for PT, walk, cycle
and car are illustrated in Figure 5.20.
Austroads 2011
— 86 —
Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
0.8
Raw accessibility value
PT
Walk
0.6 Cycle
Car
0.4
0.2
-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
travese route
Minutes to traverse route
Figure 5.20: NAM raw accessibility value by mode
The RAV for all destinations from an origin is combined to come up with an accessibility score. The
method of combining RAV considers that accessibility to a destination is of a certain value, but the
extra marginal value provided by additional opportunities decreases. Therefore, the accessibility
values for each origin-destination journey are weighted using a decreasing function. The RAV of
the closest destination has a weight of 1. The second closest destination adds only half its RAV.
The third closest destination adds only a third of RAV. Each destination adds only 1/n of its RAV,
where n is its rank. This methodology to combine RAV is applied for all ‘consumed’ activities which
includes all destination types, except employment.
Access to employment, a ‘supplied’ activity, is considered to have a special level of service as the
activities vary substantially between each instance of the activity. For employment, RAVs are
added without the use of weights as is undertaken in ‘consumed’ activities.
The weighted RAV in NAM is based on similar principles as the AAM. The difference is in the
choice of model forms and parameters. The unweighted RAV in NAM is different to AAM. The
unweighted RAV increases at a uniform rate thereby assuming that the saturation of opportunities
is never reached, i.e. constant returns. On the hand, the AAM assumes that accessibility will not
increase much when enough opportunities are available, i.e. decreasing returns.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
school. This was done by utilising a of 0.00067 instead of 0.00033 as prescribed in Table 2.2.
This is based on an assumption that the saturation point of 6000 combined enrolments for primary
and secondary school enrolments can be disaggregated into 3000 primary school enrolments and
3000 secondary school enrolments.
The comparison was based on a case study of Heretaunga Plains, Hawkes Bay. Table 5.1
summarises the average residential unit AAM and NAM score in the study area.
Table 5.1: Average residential unit accessibility score for Heretaunga Plains: AAM and NAM
Trip purpose Mode AAM score NAM score
Primary school Walk 0.29 0.79
Cycle 0.69 2.15
PT 0.99 1.75
Car 1.00 2.65
Secondary school Walk 0.15 0.35
Cycle 0.54 1.40
PT 0.94 1.07
Car 0.99 2.11
Work Walk 0.004 458
Cycle 0.04 5 889
PT 0.08 5 630
Car 0.20 16 684
A difference between AAM and NAM is that cycle accessibility in NAM is higher than PT
accessibility. In the case of AAM, PT accessibility is higher than cycle accessibility. The difference
can be explained by how AAM and NAM value the impact of transport impedance for cycle and PT.
In NAM, the curve for PT is above the cycle curve and the difference between the two is small as
shown in Figure 5.21. Accessibility by PT is constrained to destinations near PT stations while
cycle is flexible and can access any destination that is not easily reached by PT. Since PT and
cycle have more or less the same travel speed, the NAM score for an average residential unit in
Heretaunga Plains is higher by cycle than by PT.
In AAM, the curve for PT is also above cycle, but the difference between the two increases after
10 min travel time as shown in Figure 5.21. AAM considers that cycle has a limited geographic
range, perhaps constrained by the physical ability of the cyclist. Thereby, even with cycle’s
advantage of flexibility, its limited range resulted in lower accessibility scores than for PT.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0 1.0
PT - NAM
Cycle - NAM
NAM raw accessibility value
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
- -
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Travel time, min
Figure 5.21: Impact of transport impedance by PT and cycle in NAM and AAM (work accessibility)
The following compares the distribution of accessibility scores by AAM and NAM in Heretaunga
Plains:
▪ primary school by walk, cycle and PT in Figure 5.24 – Figure 5.26
▪ secondary school by walk, cycle and PT in Figure 5.27 – Figure 5.29
▪ work accessibility by walk, cycle, PT and car in Figure 5.30 – Figure 5.33.
AAM and NAM maps appear very similar. The scatter plot of NAM against AAM scores are
illustrated as follows:
▪ primary school by walk, cycle and PT in Figure 5.34
▪ secondary school by walk, cycle and PT in Figure 5.35
▪ work accessibility by walk, cycle, PT and car in Figure 5.36.
A clear pattern can be seen from the scatter plots indicating that there is a good correlation
between AAM and NAM. This is indicative that both metrics are conceptually equivalent. However,
there are differences, in particular, walk accessibility to secondary schools in cases identified by
dotted circle ‘A’ in Figure 5.35 (a). For some residential units, the relative accessibility score in
AAM and NAM are different. A unit with relatively higher accessibility score in AAM recorded a
relatively lower accessibility score in NAM. This difference between the two metrics was traced to
the difference in the shape of the deterrence functions used. This can be better explained using the
example residential units, i.e. residential unit 44 and 90, below.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
In the estimation of accessibility to secondary schools by walking, the NAM calculation was
constrained to only the two closest secondary schools. To be consistent, AAM was also
constrained to the two closest schools. In the case of Unit 44, the two closest schools were 4.4 min
and 20.8 min away. For Unit 90 the two closest schools were 7.5 min and 17 min away
(Figure 5.22).
School A School A
Residential Residential
unit unit 7.5 min
4.4 min
NAM =0.75 NAM =0.61
44 AAM = 0.33 90 AAM = 0.35
20.8 min
17 min
School B School B
The exponential function used as the deterrence function in NAM slopes down quickly and the
slope becomes gradual at higher levels of transport impedance. In effect, there is a significant drop
in the raw accessibility value for School A being 4.4 min away to School A being 7.5 min away as
shown in Figure 5.23(b). On the other hand, there is relatively little benefit for School B being
17 min away compared with being 20.8 min away. The net effect is that accessibility for Unit 44 is
higher than that for Unit 90 using NAM.
The S-shaped deterrence function used in AAM behaves differently. The slope is gradual at low
levels of transport impedance, reflecting a level of indifference to transport impedance to a certain
extent. The slope then increases as the impact of transport impedance increases, indicating that
people are more sensitive to higher levels of transport impedance. At even higher levels of
transport impedance people become insensitive to transport impedance because it starts to
exceed the maximum feasible level. Any improvement beyond the maximum level will not affect
people’s perception of accessibility. In other words, if it is 5 km away by walking, it might as well be
10 km away because almost nobody will walk 5 km anyway.
The S-shaped deterrence function used in AAM results in a relatively small drop in the weighting
factor for School A being 4.4 min away to School A being 7.5 min away as shown in Figure 5.23(a).
On the other hand there is a higher gain for School B being 17 min away compared with being
20.8 min away. The net effect is that accessibility for Unit 90 is higher than that for Unit 44. In this
case, AAM draws a different conclusion to NAM.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.0
DA School A
School A Unit 90
Unit 44
0.8
AAM weighting factor
0.6
DA < DB
0.4
School B
Unit 90 School B
Unit 44
0.2
DB
-
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25
Travel time, min
(a) AAM
1.0
School A
0.8 Unit 44
NAM raw accessibility value
DA School A
0.6
Unit 90
0.4
School B
DA > DB Unit 90 School B
Unit 44
0.2
DB
-
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25
Travel time, min
(b) NAM
Figure 5.23: Difference in valuation of impedance in AAM and NAM for Unit 44 and Unit 90
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
± ±
⚫ 0.27 – 0.51
⚫ 0.02 – 0.15
⚫ 0.51 – 0.69
⚫ 0.15 – 0.24
⚫ 0.69 – 0.86
⚫ 0.24 – 0.31
⚫ 0.86 – 1.03
⚫ 0.31 – 0.38
⚫ 1.03 – 1.37
⚫ 0.38 – 0.45
Legend
Acc2
(b) NAM
Legend
(a) AAM WK_PriIn_3
Acc2
0.271002 - 0.512783
Pri_WK
0.512784 - 0.695101
0.025459 - 0.152887
0.695102 - 0.860762
0.152888 - 0.239746
0.239747 - 0.313484
Figure 5.24: Primary school accessibility by walk: AAM and NAM 0.860763 - 1.037162
1.037163 - 1.371862
0.313485 - 0.382359
0.382360 - 0.451303
± ±
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Application of Accessibility Measures
± ±
⚫ 0.956 – 0.969
⚫ 1.19 – 1.43
⚫ 0.969 – 0.978
⚫ 1.43 – 1.60
⚫ 0.978 – 0.985
⚫ 1.60 – 1.74
⚫ 0.985 – 0.988
⚫ 1.74 – 1.88
⚫ 0.988 – 0.993
⚫ 1.88 – 2.13
Legend (a) AAM Legend (b) NAM
Acc2 Acc2
Pri_PT PT_PriIn_3
0.956074 - 0.969504 1.197407 - 1.433739
0.969505 - 0.978720 Figure 5.26: Primary school accessibility by PT: AAM
1.433740 and NAM
- 1.602151
0.978721 - 0.985298 1.602152 - 1.744649
0.985299 - 0.988512 1.744650 - 1.884086
0.988513 - 0.993110 1.884087 - 2.131803
± ±
Legend Legend
Acc2 (a) AAM Acc2 (b) NAM
Sec_WK WK_Secon_3
0.000012 - 0.040305 0.051309 - 0.176165
0.040306 - 0.107108 0.176166 - 0.313447
0.107109 - 0.183892 Figure 5.27: Secondary school accessibility by walk: AAM and NAM 0.313448 - 0.475593
0.183893 - 0.270586 0.475594 - 0.677555
0.270587 - 0.418610 0.677556 - 1.051644
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
± ±
⚫ 1.03 – 1.21
⚫ 0.23 – 0.36
⚫ 1.21 – 1.34
⚫ 0.36 – 0.46
⚫ 1.34 – 1.45
⚫ 0.46 – 0.56
⚫ 1.45 – 1.56
⚫ 0.56 – 0.62
⚫ 1.56 – 1.72
⚫ 0.62 – 0.74
Legend
Legend (a) AAM Acc2
(b) NAM
Acc2 CY_Secon_3
Sec_CY 1.036707 - 1.219074
0.231614 - 0.362074
± ±
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
0 175
±
350 700 m
0 175
±
350 700 m
± ±
0.005520 - 0.007714
527.765819 - 695.331484
0.007715 - 0.011758
695.331485 - 1036.454841
Legend
(a) AAM Legend
(b) NAM
Acc_work Acc_work
Acc_CY CY_Work__3
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
0 175
±
350 700 m
0 175
±
350 700 m
±
0.085234 - 0.089369
5724.082077 - 6168.885978
±
0.089370 - 0.097150
6168.885979 - 7109.212100
⚫ 0193 – 0.196
⚫ 15748 – 16217
⚫ 0.196 – 0.198
⚫ 16217 – 16548
⚫ 0.198 – 0.199
⚫ 16548 – 16925
⚫ 0.199 – 0.200
⚫ 16925 – 17499
⚫ 0.200 – 0.210
⚫ 17499 – 18593
(a) AAM (b) NAM
Legend
Legend
Acc_work
Acc_work Figure 5.33: Work accessibility by car: AAM and PV_Work__3
NAM
Acc_PV 15748.523052 - 16217.154034
0.193096 - 0.196073
16217.154035 - 16548.304453
0.196074 - 0.197878
16548.304454 - 16925.676994
0.197879 - 0.199754
16925.676995 - 17499.296056
0.199755 - 0.201998
17499.296057 - 18593.088495
0.201999 - 0.206379
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.5 2.8
1.2 2.4
2.0
NAM score
NAM score
0.9
1.6
0.6 1.2
0.8
0.3
0.4
0.0 0.0
- 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
AAM score AAM score
2.4
2.0
1.6
NAM score
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00
AAM score
(c) PT
Figure 5.34: Primary school accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and AAM
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1.2 2.1
1.8
0.9
1.5
A
NAM score
NAM score
1.2
0.6
0.9
0.3 0.6
0.3
0.0 0.0
- 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 - 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
AAM score AAM score
1.8
1.5
1.2
NAM score
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
AAM score
(c) PT
Figure 5.35: Secondary school accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and AAM
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
1200
8000
1000 7000
800 6000
NAM score
NAM score
5000
600
4000
400 3000
200 2000
1000
0
0
- 0.005 0.010 0.015
- 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
AAM score
AAM score
8000 19000
7000 18500
6000 18000
NAM score
1000 16000
0 15500
- 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.19 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21
AAM score AAM score
Figure 5.36: Work accessibility of residential units by mode: NAM and AAM
Transport impedance
Origin Destination
(all facilities are here)
Sensitivity to transport impedance was examined by assuming one secondary school with 1000
enrolments and one work centre with 20 000 jobs at the destination. AAM uses different functions
for work and school, while NAM uses only one deterrence function for work and school. Transport
impedance was varied and changes in accessibility score were recorded and illustrated as follows:
▪ walk accessibility: Figure 5.38
▪ cycle accessibility: Figure 5.39
▪ PT accessibility: Figure 5.40
▪ car accessibility: Figure 5.41.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
The transport impedance from origin to destination was varied and Figure 5.38(a). The hinterland
varies for different transport modes. As earlier mentioned, a hinterland is the geographical area
serviced by a particular land development. Observations are as follows:
▪ The hinterland of a work place by walk and cycle are similar for AAM and NAM, but for a
school AAM has a 10~15 min smaller hinterland than NAM.
▪ The hinterland of a school by PT is similar for AAM and NAM, but for a work place the
hinterland given by AAM is 20 min greater than NAM.
▪ The hinterland of a school by car for AAM is smaller than NAM by 20 min, but the hinterland
of a work place for AAM is 10 min greater than NAM.
AAM and NAM will therefore assess differently the extent of impacts of land use development and
transport improvement.
Sensitivity to opportunities at the destination was also examined. The transport impedance to the
destination was fixed at 10 min. The number of opportunities at the destination was varied and the
change in accessibility score recorded and illustrated in Figure 5.42. Observations are as follows:
▪ For school accessibility, AAM estimates that accessibility needs of a resident at the origin will
be satisfied with five schools (i.e. saturation point = 5 schools). NAM estimates a much
higher number of school requirement of 10 schools.
▪ For work, AAM estimates that accessibility needs at origin will be mostly satisfied with
180 000 jobs at destination. On the other hand, NAM reckons that additional jobs will
contribute a consistent improvement in accessibility (i.e. no saturation point).
In planning, NAM will therefore suggest more schools than AAM to fully meet accessibility needs.
In work place distribution, NAM will tend to suggest creating new work places around areas with
the highest population density, such as the CBD. Overall improvement in accessibility will be
maximised in places with the greatest population regardless of currently existing jobs in the area.
In AAM this will not necessarily be the case. If there are already significant numbers of jobs in the
CBD, the optimal location may be in an area outside the CBD with high population but with low job
opportunities.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
NAM score
AAM score
AAM score
0.20 15,000
0.60 0.06
0.15 10,000
0.40 0.04
0.10
5,000
0.20 0.05 0.02
- - - -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Transport impedance, min Transport impedance, min
Figure 5.38: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM walk accessibility to transport impedance (school and work)
NAM score
AAM score
AAM score
0.20 15,000
0.60 0.06
0.15 10,000
0.40 0.04
0.10
5,000
0.20 0.05 0.02
- - - -
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Transport impedance, min Transport impedance, min
Figure 5.39: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM cycle accessibility to transport impedance (school and work)
NAM score
AAM score
AAM score
0.20 15,000
0.60 0.06
0.15
10,000
0.40 0.04
0.10
5,000
0.20 0.05 0.02
- - - -
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Transport impedance, min Transport impedance, min
Figure 5.40: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM PT accessibility to transport impedance (school and work)
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
AAM score
NAM score
AAM score
0.20 15,000
0.60 0.06
0.15
10,000
0.40 0.04
0.10
0.20 5,000
0.05 0.02
- - - -
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Transport impedance, min Transport impedance, min
Figure 5.41: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM car accessibility to transport impedance (school and work)
1.2 200,000
NAM score
NAM score
AAM score
AAM score
0.6 0.6
1.0
NAM: Car (school) 150,000
0.8
AAM: Car (school) 0.4 0.4
0.6 100,000 NAM: Car (work)
AAM: Car (work)
0.4 0.2 0.2
50,000
0.2
- - - -
0 5 10 15 20 25 - 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Secondary schools at destination Jobs at destination (thousands)
Figure 5.42: Sensitivity of NAM and AAM car accessibility to opportunities at destination (school and work)
5.4 Summary
The comparison of AAM with KAM, LUPTAI and NAM demonstrated a degree of correlation
between metrics which underlines the common principles adopted by the four metrics. Key
differences are as follows:
▪ AAM results in a more realistic assessment of the hinterland of developments than KAM.
▪ AAM establishes a more realistic benchmark for the scale of opportunities to induce
containment than KAM.
▪ There was a situation where AAM and LUPTAI resulted in diverging accessibility results. This
was attributed to differences in inputs used in the calculations and to some extent the
variations inherent in the random utility theory and Monte Carlo simulation approach of
LUPTAI.
▪ AAM is more applicable to large metropolitan areas than the NAM for employment
accessibility because AAM has the property of diminishing returns for employment whereas
the NAM has assumes constant returns for employment.
▪ The AAM and NAM account travel time and opportunities differently. The AAM model forms
and parameters were calibrated using data from Melbourne and Perth, while the NAM was
based on New Zealand conditions.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
6 CONCLUSIONS
This project has laid down a framework for accessibility monitoring and policy analysis. The ARRB
accessibility metric (AAM) was developed in this study. It covers accessibility by four mode types
including car, public transport, cycle and walk. It also includes four different types of destination
including work, primary and secondary school, tertiary school, and retail and recreation. The AAM
was calibrated to Australian metropolitan conditions.
Case studies on strategic application of AAM were conducted in Perth and Melbourne. Baseline
accessibility indicators were established. Areas of high and low accessibility were identified. The
relationship of accessibility as defined by AAM to travel distance, mode share and land price was
examined in Perth and Melbourne. The findings underscored a potential link between accessibility
and tangible benefits to society.
Three case studies on the application of the AAM at the neighbourhood level were conducted.
These include study areas in Joondalup (WA), Mandurah (WA) and Burwood Heights, City of
Whitehorse (Victoria). The analysis included public transport, cycle and walk accessibility. It did not
cover car accessibility because there is little variation in travel time by car from within a small area.
The case studies demonstrated the utility of the AAM to assess accessibility on a neighbourhood
scale by identifying aspects of accessibility the needs improvement.
The AAM was compared with three other accessibility metrics – the KAM, LUPTAI and NAM. The
comparisons demonstrated a broad correlation between metrics which highlighted the similar
principles employed in the four metrics. Comparisons at a finer scale revealed differences in the
metrics. The difference arose from various aspects including difference in formulations, inputs,
applicability, and calculation techniques.
Austroads 2011
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Application of Accessibility Measures
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INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Keywords:
Abstract: