Helping Higher Level

Learners to write Exam Type

Discursive Essays through
Product Writing

Background essay: LSA2 – Skills - Writing

Number of words: 2523

Date of submission: 24/07/2017

Candidate name: Svetlana Kuznetsova

Centre number: RU006

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 1

Table of Contents

Chapter Page

Title Page 1

Table of Contents 2

1. Introduction 3

2. Analysis 4
2.1 Types of discursive essays
2.2 Features of formal writing 4
2.3 Organisation and paragraphing 5
2.4 Writing sub-skills and assessment scales 5
2.5 Approaches to teaching writing 5

3. Issues for learners and teaching suggestions 9

4. Bibliography 13

5. Appendix 1 14

6. Appendix 2 15

7. Appendix 3 16

8. Appendix 4 17

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 2

1 Introduction

Discursive essays are a feature of many English language examinations

and academic programmes. Even though this type of writing is rarely
practised outside the classroom (Byrne, 1988: 111), there is a need to help
our learners to develop the skills required to maximise their writing exam
score and to succeed in academic programmes (Zemach, 2005: 4).
Despite the fact that most course books and exam handbooks provide
learners with clear sample essays and step-by-step guides on their
completion, most learners still find it extremely difficult to write essays
without due assistance.

I have decided to focus on the topic of discursive essays because I work

in the academic environment and I have to help my students to develop
their essay writing skills for exams or for their further studies in English-
language contexts.

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 3

Analysis

Discursive essays
2.1 Types of essays

Discursive essays are seldom written outside educational or exam

environment. Hyland calls such types of writing “pedagogic” (2003:113).
A discursive essay is a piece of formal writing which discusses a
particular issue, situation or problem from the writer’s personal point of
view (Evans, 1998). There are three main types of discursive essays:

 For and Against essays;

 Opinion essays;
 Problem and Solution essays;

A for and against essay presents both sides of an argument and discusses
points in favour of and against a particular issue. Each point should be
supported by justifications, examples and/or reasons. The writer’s opinion
is usually presented only in the last paragraph (e.g. “Smoking should be
banned in all public places.” Provide arguments for and against the
statement).

An opinion essay presents the writer’s personal opinion regarding the

issue stated. It usually includes only two main elements: statement of
belief and reason (Hinkel, 2004: 11). At more advanced levels of writing,
anticipation of counterarguments may need to be included in a separate
paragraph and then proved to be unconvincing. (e.g. “Shopping centres
have improved the way we shop”. Express your opinion and support it
with reasons and examples).

A problem-solution essay formulates a problem or problems associated

with some particular issue and analyses possible solutions specifying how
they can be achieved and what results can be expected. According to
Hoey (1979), it is one of the most common structures in academic
discourse. (e.g. topic: “What could be done to improve the lives of the
elderly?”)

2.2 Features of formal writing

Since a discursive essay is a formal piece of writing, conventions of

formal writing have to be respected:

 Writing should be impersonal (apart from opinion essays), passive

voice and impersonal constructions should be used;

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 4

  Overgeneralisations (e.g. All people need……, Everybody
believes……..) should be avoided;
 Informal language (colloquialisms, slang and emotive words) and
simplistic vocabulary should be substituted with more neutral
equivalents or/and more advanced formal lexis (e.g. go up –
increase, kids – children, harmful – detrimental);
 Formal linking words and discourse markers should be used (e.g.
furthermore, however, nonetheless, moreover, despite the fact that);
 Complex sentences with a variety of links and dependent clauses
should be used;
 Contractions should be avoided (e.g. haven’t - have not, don’t - do
not, it’s - it is);
 Language for texting can not be used (e.g. asap – as soon as
possible, pov – point of view);

2.3 Organisation and paragraphing

Paragraphing reflects the “psychological units” of textual information and

is intended to signal a coherent set of ideas, typically with a topic theme
and supporting details (Grabe & Kaplan:1996: 353). Logical and coherent
organisation of paragraphs is one of the most important components in
essay writing.

A discursive essay usually consists of 4 to 6 paragraphs:

 An introductory paragraph states the topic to be discussed

 A main body clearly states different points in 2-4 separate
paragraphs;
 A conclusion summarises the main points of the essay, restates the
writer’s opinion and does not present any new points;

A paragraph starts with a topic sentence summarising the idea, which is

going to be presented in the paragraph. The topic sentence may identify a
problem, express a need for solution or state an opinion. Supporting
sentences develop the idea presented in the topic sentence and provide
examples and/or reasons that prove the main idea. A paragraph may also
contain a qualifying statement, which modifies the topic statement and
include specific conditions, which make it true.

Appropriate discourse markers should be used to link the paragraphs and

the sentences within the paragraphs.

2.4 Writing sub-skills and assessment scales

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 5

Writing involves encoding of a message of some kind aimed at a certain
reader (Hedge, 2005:11). Good writing acknowledges the reader
(Richards, 1990: 103). As for the discursive essays, the target reader is
usually a teacher or an examiner. What makes this role specific is that the
focus of the target reader’s attention is not the content of the text itself but
assessing how well a student’s final product measures up against a list of
criteria (Burgess, 2005:42).

For instance, the Cambridge writing mark scheme (Cambridge English

Proficiency Handbook for Teachers, 2015:28) includes four criteria:
 Content (relevance, target reader);
 Communicative achievement (genre, format, register, function,
purpose, ability to hold the reader’s attention and develop ideas);
 Organisation (linking words, cohesive devises, organisational
patterns);
 Language (vocabulary and grammatical forms: appropriacy and
range):

The criteria are based on writing micro- and macroskills. The table of
subskills for writing production compiled by Brown demonstrates that
exam criteria mirror the sub-skills listed in the table (2001: 342). (See
Appendix 5.)

Since there is a tight time limit at the exams, candidates do not have an
opportunity to draft and re-draft their essays. Therefore, they have to be
able to develop a clear plan of main and supporting statements before
starting to write. Another challenge is the inability to use autocorrecting
programs or to consult dictionaries. Therefore, there are two vital skills
for learners to develop: finding equivalents to words, which learners do
not know, and proofreading.

2.5 Approaches to Teaching Writing

Raimes (1993) identifies three major ways of approaching the task: focus
on form, focus on the writer and focus on the reader. A more common
way of referring to the aforementioned approaches is genre, process and
product writing. When teaching learners to write academic essays, it is
important to find a balance between product and process approaches to
writing (Brown, 2001:337).

Product Writing

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 6

In product writing, teachers present model texts for students to imitate
and adapt. The approach examines texts, either through their formal
surface elements or their discourse structure (Hyland, 2003:7)
According to Pincas (1982: 22), the four stages of product writing are:
1. familiarization
2. controlled writing
3. guided writing
4. free writing

Product writing is the most common approach when teaching academic

and exam-type discursive essays. Students first work on recognising and
identifying key writing structures from model paragraphs or essays. Then
they manipulate the structures in controlled tasks and finally apply them
to their own writing (Zemach, 2005: iv).
The main disadvantage of the approach is that it lacks creativity. The
model is often imposed on the students and they have to fit their writing
into a very rigid framework.
For example, the opinion essay format of the English State Exam in
Russia dictates the candidates the number of paragraphs, ideas and
supporting statements.

Process Writing
The process approach takes the writer rather than the text, as the point of
departure and allows the writer to focus on content and language (Byrne,
1988):
 prewriting (reading on the topic and discussing it, conducting
research, generating ideas, planning, free-writing);
 drafting (getting started, monitoring of one’s writing, peer
reviewing for content, teacher’s feedback, editing for errors);
 revising (writing the final draft and publishing it);

White & Arndt (1991:4) break the process into five stages:
 Generating ideas;
 Focusing;
 Structuring;
 Drafting;
 Evaluating;
 Re-viewing;

It is quite possible for teachers to go to an extreme in emphasising the

process to the extent that the product is ignored. However, such
techniques as generating ideas, structuring and planning can be adopted
from process writing when helping learners to master essay writing.

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 7

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 8
3. Issues for learners and teaching suggestions

Issue 1
Confusing types of essays
My advanced university learners often do not differentiate between the
three main types of essays. Instead of providing arguments for and
against a certain point, some learners start expressing their opinion. In
problem-solution essays, learners may state the problem and then start
describing the reasons for the problem in detail forgetting to provide
solutions.

Suggestion:
I agree with Evans (1998) that the most important point when dealing
with this issue is to teach learners to read the task instructions carefully
and to teach them to plan using the instructions. Learners often rush
straight into writing ignoring what they are actually asked to do in the
task.
 The first step to the solution of this issue is asking learners to read
the task carefully and to underline the main instructions (e.g.
present both sides of the argument, give your own opinion, describe
the problem and ways of solving the problem stated). (Appendix 1)
 The second step is asking learners to create a table or a mind map
for planning the essay. The table should only contain the
instructions stated in the task.
 The third step is to brainstorm ideas and fill them in the table.
 After the learners have finished their essays, they go back to the
task with underlined instructions and check their essay putting ticks
above each instruction.
In class, learners may be asked to create an instruction table and then to
check their tables in pairs. They may also be asked to exchange their
essays and do peer check using their tables and task instructions.

Rationale:
When learning to exploit the initial task for planning and organising their
ideas by underlining the main instruction verbs and creating simple
tables, learners have fewer chances of wandering from the instructions
and writing irrelevant points.

Issue 2
Developing a paragraph

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 9

In my experience, adult Russian students preparing for the First
Certificate often do not differentiate between main and supporting ideas
placing the topic sentence after the ones expressing details. Sometimes,
their paragraph consists of restating the main idea in several different
sentences and does not include supporting ideas. It is partially due to the
fact that in Russian, statements often come at the end of the paragraph.
Suggestion:
 One of the ways of dealing with this issue is to analyse the
structure of the paragraph and draw the learner’s attention to how
paragraphs are organised (Zemach, 2005). A helpful activity aimed
at differentiating between topic and supporting statements is
provided in Appendix 2. I will ask learners to analyse the structure
of the introductory paragraph and then find three general
statements in a list of jumbled sentences. Students then find three
supporting statements for each general statement. After the students
have done the task and checked with their partner, I will check the
answers at the plenary and ask them to justify their answers.
 The same type of activity can easily be arranged by cutting topic
and supporting sentences from sample essays into strips and asking
learners to arrange them in the correct order. Another way of
exploiting sample essays would be to leave blanks in the places of
topic statements and ask learners to think of a topic sentence for
each paragraph.

Rationale 2
By creating a text from isolated sentences, the learners’ attention is drawn
to organising information in paragraphs: from a general statement to
supporting statements. By putting the pieces of the text together, learners
begin to appreciate the structure of discourse and how to develop ideas
through a piece of writing (Hedge, 2005:113). By thinking of a general
statement for a paragraph, students learn to distinguish generalised
umbrella statements from more specific supporting statements.

Issue 3
Not keeping in mind assessment criteria
In my experience, at the beginning of the exam preparation course (First,
Advanced certificates), most higher-level learners are not familiar with
the exam marking scheme. It leads to ignoring some important writing
skills, e.g. holding the target reader’s attention or using less common
lexis. In Russia, learners are used to the idea that the only thing that
matters is grammatical and lexical accuracy and that no one really cares
about the content, paragraph development and the reader’s engagement.

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 10

Suggestion:
Students have to learn to check their essays using the required criteria.
For this, I suggest using sample essays, which can be found in collections
of past papers and handbooks for teachers. (Appendix 3). After
familiarising learners with the criteria, I hand out the sample essay and
ask them to mark each section (content, organisation, language, task
achievement), using the marking scheme. I ask them to provide examples
from the essay to justify their mark. Learners then check their marks in
pairs and discuss them and are then given the examiner’s comments to
compare. This technique should also be used for peer and self-checking
essays.
Rationale:
It is never enough to just introduce the learners to the marking scheme
and then not to use it when working in class and writing at home. By
using the marking scheme, learners become better aware of what they
have to focus on in terms of skills when writing. It is achieved by turning
learners into examiners and making them take an active part in analysing
someone’s work. It helps them to bear in mind all the criteria when
writing.

Issue 4
Using informal lexis
Higher level teenagers use a lot of simplistic and informal lexis when
writing essays for First Certificate or IELTS. It can be explained by the
fact that these learners are only starting to learn to write academic texts
and still have a limited vocabulary. Besides, a discursive essay is a new
format only introduced in high school.

Suggestion:
In order to push our learners to using less common and more formal lexis,
I suggest an activity in Appendix 4. Learners work in pairs. Each learner
gets a copy of an essay. They read their essays and suggest improvements
of simple and informal words (e.g. I think – I believe, etc). They check in
pairs. Since it is an information gap activity, the learners are safe to have
been provided with all the correct answers. I also encourage my learners
to self-check or peer-check essays and suggest synonyms for informal
lexis.

Rationale:
The learners figure out the equivalents of simple lexis by working in pairs
and helping each other with answers. It activates their lexical schema and

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 11

also enriches it if/when they do not know the answer and it is their peer
who tells them a more formal equivalent.

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 12

Bibliography

Brown, H.D, (2001) Teaching by Principles. An interactive approach to

language pedagody. (2nd ed.), White Plains: Longman. (referenced on pp.
6, 8)

Byrne D., (1988) Teaching Writing Skills. Essex: Longman. (referenced

on p. 3)

Cambridge English Proficiency, (2015) Handbook for Teachers,

Cambridge: CUP. (referenced on p. 6)

Evans, V., (1998), Successful Writing Proficiency. Berkshire: Express

Publishing. (referenced on p.3)

Grabe, W. & Kaplan, R. B. (1996). Theory & Practice of Writing.

Harlow: Longman (referenced on p. 5)

Hedge T., (2005), Writing. (2d ed.), Oxford: OUP. (referenced on pp.5,
10)

Hinkel, E. (2004), Teaching Academic ESL Writing. Mahwah: Lawrence

Erlbaum. (referenced on p. 4)

Hoey, M., (1983). On the Surface of Discourse. London: George Allen &
Unwin. (referenced on p. 4)

Hyland K., (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: CUP.

(referenced on p.4)

Raimes, A., (1993) Out of the Woods. Emerging Traditions in the

Teaching of Writing. Silberstein 237-260. (referenced on p. 6)

Richards, J.C., (1990) The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: CUP.

(referenced on p. 5)

Zemach D., Rumisek L., (2005), Academic Writing from paragraph to

essay. Oxford: Macmillan. (referenced on pp. 3, 7, 10)

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 13

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 14
Appendix 1

IELTS Past Papers 7, (2009:31). Cambridge: CUP.

Read the task carefully and underline the instructions.

Answer: (discuss both views, give your own opinion, include relevant
examples).
Create a table/mind map that will help you answer all the questions
Plan your essay and fill out the table
Write your essay
Go back to the task, read your essay and tick (V) each instruction
when you see it carried out in your essay.
Sample table:

People are born with talents Any child can be taught to

(music, sports) become a good athlete or
musician

Reason 1/example 1 Reason 1/Example 1

Reason 2/example 2 Reason 2/example 2

My Opinion
Examples to prove it
Self-designed by S_Kuznetsova

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 15

Appendix 2 (Hedge, (2005: 114), Writing. Oxford: OUP)

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 16

Appendix 3 (sample essay and comments. Comments are to be cut)

Certificate of Advanced English Handbook for Teachers (2015: 24), Cambridge: CUP.

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 17

Appendix 4

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 18

Appendix 5

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 19

Table of writing subskills (Brown, 2001:342)

Table 1.1. Microskills for writing

1. Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns.
2. Write at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns.
4. Use acceptable grammatical systems (e.g. tense, agreement, patterns, rules).
5. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
6. Use cohesive devices in written discourse.
7. Use rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
8. Accomplish the communicative functions according to form and purpose.
9. Convey links and connections between events (e.g. main idea, supporting idea,
exemplification)
10. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
11. Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.
12. Develop and use writing strategies (using pre-writing devices, writing the first
draft fluently, re-drafting, editing, using paraphrases and synonyms, etc).

Helping Higher-Level Learners to write Academic Discursive Essays 20