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Rosalin Franklin: Female scientist (x-ray crystallographer) who took the picture of DNA
James Watson and Francis Crick: Solved the structure of DNA from information obtained by other
scientist. The obtained the Nobel prize for their work.
Maurice Wilkins: X-ray crystallographer friend of Watson and Crick help them solved the structure of
DNA.
Erin Chargaff: He found that the amount of Thymine equals the amount of Adenine and the amount of
Guanine equals the amount of Cytosine
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U).
A, T, C and G are found in DNA.
A, U, C and G are found in RNA (uracil replaces thymine here).
The combination of a phosphate, sugar and a base forms a compound called a nucleotide.
Structure of DNA
1 DNA is a double stranded molecule, which has a structure of a twisted ladder (double helix).
2. The two polynucleotide chains in a molecule of DNA are not identical but are complementary. The
bases always pair up in a specific fashion; adenine always pairs with thymine, cytosine always pairs with
guanine.
Structure of RNA
RNA is a single-stranded polynucleotide. There are three different types of RNA in the cells, each with a
particular structure and function.
DNA REPLICATION
A major requirement of genetic material is that it should be able to replicate so that its messages can be
passed on from cell to cell as an organism develops and also from one generation to the next. It is also
vital that during replication, identical copies of DNA are made so that the correct genetic messages are
passed on.
DNA replication takes place during interphase of the cell cycle, so that by the time nuclear division starts,
two identical copies of each DNA molecule are already present for distribution into daughter cells.
DNA Replication
1 3
2
1. The protein (enzyme) Helicase unwinds (opens up) the double stranded DNA molecule.
2. The protein (enzyme) DNA Polymerase makes copies of the DNA strands
3. DNA a is replicated
Proteins are made up of amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids commonly found
in proteins. .
DNA must therefore carry a coded message that determines not only the number and types of amino acids
that appear in a polypeptide, but also their precise sequence in the chain.
Each amino acid is in fact coded for by a sequence of 3 consecutive nucleotide bases in the DNA chain.
Each triplet of bases is called a codon.
The genetic code is usually represented in the form of RNA that would be complementary to the DNA in
the gene. This is because it is messenger RNA that is directly involved in protein synthesis and not the
genes (DNA) themselves.
The Genetic Code
Each triplet of bases represents a sequence in mRNA. Each sequence codes for the amino acid shown.
U C A G
AMINO ACIDS
Phe = phenylalanine Leu = leucine
Ile = isoleucine Met = methionine (is also start sequence)
Ser = serine Pro = proline
Thr = threonine Ala = alanine
His = histidine Tyr = tyrosine
Cys = cysteine Gln = glutamine
Try = tryptophan Asn = asparagine
Arg = arginine Lys = lysine
Gly = glycine Asp = aspartic acid
Val = valine Glu = glutamic acid
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Transcription
This is the first stage in protein synthesis. The genetic information required for protein synthesis is
contained in DNA which remains in the nucleus. Protein synthesis however, occurs at the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm (rough endoplasmic reticulum). Therefore, a messenger molecule (mRNA) is made, which
carries the required genetic information from the nucleus to the ribosomes. The process by which mRNA
is made is called transcription.
Translation
This is the process by which the genetic information in mRNA directs the protein synthesis.
This involves a species of RNA called transfer (t) RNA. Its function is to decode the message carried by
mRNA by correctly positioning amino acids into the growing polypeptide chain according to the sequence
of nucleotides in mRNA.
Protein Synthesis
What is a mutation?
Mutations can be caused by mutagens- a physical or chemical cause of mutation. Examples: UV light,
radiation, drugs.
Mutages can also be carcinogens – anything that causes cancer.
Substitution
A single nucleotide is altered. Can change one amino acid in a protein
Milk – Mile
GGACAATCA GGACCATCA
proline -valine-serine proline-glycine-serine
Insertion
GGACAATCA GCGACAATCA
proline -valine-serine arginine-cysteine-stop
Deletion
GGACAATCA GGAAATCA
proline -valine-serine proline-leucine