Application of Natural Coagulant in Water Treatment

Application of natural coagulant in water treatment
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluoride is naturally occurring element in minerals and natural water systems and enters food
chains through either drinking water or eating plants. Fluoride enters aqueous environment by
weathering of fluoride reach minerals and as through anthropogenic actions, for example,
industrial drains. Fluorine and its compounds are valuable and extensively used in industry such
as fertilizers, production of high purity graphite, semiconductors electrolysis of alumina. Fluoride
is beneficial in human body for the calcification of dental enamel and maintenance of healthy
bones when present within the permissible limit. But when fluoride is present in excess of 1.5mg/l,
it causes of molting of teeth and lesion of endocrine glands, thyroid, liver and other organs. The
most common symptom of fluoride exposures are skeletal fluorosis. This can lead to the permanent
bone and joint deformation and dental fluorosis. According to WHO, the permissible limits of
fluoride in drinking water is 1 mg/l [1].
It has been reported by WHO in 1981 that approximately three out of five persons in developing
countries do not have access to safe drinking water. India is among the 23 nations around the world
where health problems occur due to the consumption of fluoride contaminated water. The
Government of India during the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade,
(1981-1990), has undertaken to supply safe drinking water for country’s urban and rural pollution
[1] [2]. As per the survey conducted in 1998 by the Rajeev Gandhi National Drinking Water
Mission (RGNDWM), in India around 8700 villages were using mainly ground water sources for
culinary purposes. And are exposed to health risk related to excess fluoride contaminated which
varies from 1.0-48 mg/l. Due to such problems water standards are also being revised. WHO
guidelines are followed by many nations including India. Based on the prevalence of dental
fluorosis with 1mg/l of fluoride of drinking water. India reduced the upper limit of fluoride in
drinking water from 1.5 ppm to 1.0 ppm, with a rider, the lesser the fluoride the better, as fluoride
1 I Department of Chemical Engineering

is injuries to health. Due to high toxicity of fluoride to mankind there is an urgent need to treat
fluoride contaminated drinking water to make it safe for human consumption [3,8].
The most commonly used methods for defluoridation of water are adsorption, ion exchange,
precipitation, and electro dialysis. Among these methods, adsorption is most widely used method
for the removal of fluoride from water. Each approaches have their advantages and limitations and
worked productively under ideal condition to remove fluoride[8].
Many water treatment plants use a combination of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection to provide clean, safe drinking water to the public. Worldwide, a combination of
coagulation, sedimentation and filtration is the most widely applied water treatment technology,
th
and has been used since the early 20 century[4].
In a water treatment facility, the coagulant is added to the water and it is rapidly mixed, so that the
coagulant is circulated throughout the water. The coagulated water can either be filtered directly
through a medium filter (such as sand and gravel), it can be moved to a settling tank. In a settling
tank, or clarifier, the heavy particles settle to the bottom and are removed, and the water moves on
to the filtration step of the treatment process [5].
Coagulation can successfully remove a large amount of organic compounds, including some
dissolved organic material, which is referred to as Natural Organic Matter (NOM) or Dissolved
Organic Carbon (DOC). Coagulation can also remove suspended particles, including inorganic
precipitates, such as iron. A large amount of DOC can give water an unpleasant taste and odour,
as well as a brown discolouration [6].
It was found that coagulation and sedimentation can only remove between 27 and 84 percent of
viruses and between 32 and 87 percent of bacteria. Usually, the pathogens that are removed from
the water are removed because they are attached to the dissolved substances that are removed by
coagulation [4].
As coagulation does not remove all of the viruses and bacteria in the water, it cannot produce safe
drinking water. It is, however, an important primary step in the water treatment process, because
coagulation removes many of the particles, such as dissolved organic carbon, that make water
difficult to disinfect.

Coagulation removes some of the dissolved substances, less chlorine must be added to disinfect
the water. A municipal water treatment plant can save money by using less chlorine, and the water
will be safer [7].
Coagulants are two types-
1. Natural coagulants
 Moringa Oleifera(Drumstick Seeds)
 Okra (Ladys Finger )
 Calotropis Procera
 Cactaceous
 Cacuts
2. Chemical coagulants
 Aluminum Sulphate
 Ferric Sulphate
 Ferric Chloride
 Polymers
1.2 OBJECTIVE
1) To study different natural coagulant.
2) To study economics of filtration process.
3) To study process of coagulation by using natural coagulant.
4) To study the importance of natural coagulants in filtration process.

1.3 NECESSITY OF PRESENT STUDY
Dissolved and suspended particles are present in most of natural waters. These suspended materials
mostly arise from land erosion, the dissolution of minerals and the decay of vegetation and from
several domestic and industrial waste discharges. Such material may include suspended, dissolved
organic and/or inorganic matter, as well as several biological organisms, such as bacteria, algae or
viruses. This material has to be removed, as it causes deterioration of water quality by reducing
the clarity (e.g. causing turbidity or colour), and eventually carrying pathogenic organisms or toxic
compounds, adsorbed on their surfaces.
By using chemical coagulants in water purification many problems are created.
 Aluminum has also been indicated to be acausative agent in neurological diseases such
Foreign exchange problem as pre-seniledementia.
 There is a fear that ingestion of aluminum ions may induce Alzheimer’s disease.
 Sludge produced is voluminous and non-biodegradable after treatment and therefore
poses disposal problems leading to increase cost of treatment.
 The costs of these chemicals have been increasing at an alarming rate in developing
countries.
To overcome this problem natural coagulant is used. To separate the dissolved and suspended
particles from the water natural coagulants in flocculation processes are used. Natural coagulation
flocculation is relatively simple and cost-effective.
Natural coagulant removes some of the dissolved substances, so less chlorine must be added to
disinfect the water. A municipal water treatment plant can save money by using less chlorine, and
the water will be safer.

Fig:1.1 Process of Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. S.V. Marutiprasad , B. Srinivasarao et al. on a low cost water treatment by using a natural
coagulant. In this paper they study on low cost water treatment by using a natural coagulant by
using jar test.
The purpose of this study is to provide information on low cost household water treatment using
seeds of the Drum stick tree. Present study deals with the suitability of coagulation-flocculation
process using Moringa Oleifera seeds as natural coagulant for purification of water for drinking
purpose. After treatment of water samples with Morigna Oleifera seed powder were analyzed for
the parameters like Turbidity and pH. There is an appreciable change in these parameters and the
values are within the range of W.H.O. standards. Application of this low cost Moringa Oleifera
seeds is recommended for eco-friendly, non-toxic, simplified water treatment where rural people
living in extreme poverty are presently drinking highly turbid and contaminated water.
Drumsticks are consumed almost all over India. The important traditional use of drumsticks that
not a lot of people know of water purification what do we do when we get turbid water from taps.
We generally boil it, sediment the larger particles and then filter the water using some cloth. adding
a little bit of powder obtained from drumstick seeds. In a matter of minutes, the drumstick particles
bind to the dirt and sediment the dirt down. This process also modifies the other parameters like
pH, conductivity and hardness of water.
In this present study an attempt has been made to check how Moringa Oleifera powder changes
various properties of drinking water in rural industrially developed areas, so that the
water is suitable to drink.
The results obtained show that the powder from seed kernels of Moringa Oleifera contains some
coagulating properties and acts as a flocculent, absorbent for the treatment of drinking water. It
reduces the turbidity after treatment. This lends support to earlier findings of the use of powder
processed from Moringa seeds as a coagulant in water purification system.

Fig:2.1 Moringa Oliefera pod
2. Ms. Renuka A. Binayke , Prof. M.V.Jadhav
Ms. Renuka a. Binayke , prof. M.V.Jadhav et. Al on application of natural coagulants in water
Purification. In this paper they show the problems formed due to chemical coagulant and how
natural coagulant are effective on it.
Drinking water is a vital resource for all human beings and the access to safe and clean drinking
water is a major concern throughout the world. Quality is the acceptability of the water for uses
like drinking, cooking bathing, and laundering. You may have concerns regarding taste, odors,
clarity even hardness. However, some dangerous contaminants in wate are not easy to detect.
Accurate water testing is needed to determine safety and quality. Water testing may be done by
private testing labs, county and state health laboratories, departments of health, and some local
environmental consulting companies.
Various problems due to impure water in developing countries

1. Large seasonal variation in raw water quality e.g. turbidity.
2. Water treatment chemicals are imported with scarce foreign currency.
3. High cost of water treatment chemicals which constitute in between 35% to 70% of recurrent
expenditure.
4. Inadequate supply of chemicals for water treatment.

5. Inadequate laboratory facilities to monitor process performances required to operate the plants,
inadequate funding, low revenue base.
6. Water supply considered as a social commodity rather than an economic resource inadequate
skilled manpower, Poor operational and maintenance schedules, Adoption of inappropriate
technology.
7. Inadequate supply to meet growing demand under dosing of chemicals leading supply of poor
quality water.
Problems arising due to use of chemicals in water treatment

1. Aluminum has also been indicated to be a causative agent in neurological diseases such
Foreign exchange problem as presenile dementia.
2. There is a fear that ingestion of aluminum ions may induce Alzheimer’s disease.
3. Sludge produced is voluminous and non-biodegradable after treatment and therefore poses
disposal problems leading to increase cost of treatment.
4. The costs of these chemicals have been increasing at an alarming rate in developing countries.
It was found that more the dosages of Alum, Moringa Oliefera, Okra and C.procera higher were
turbidity removal efficiencies for low, medium and high turbid waters .From the observations , it
was also concluded that when natural coagulants were used as a coagulant aid, the dosage of alum
can be reduced to almost 50% which can help to reduce the detrimental effects caused by chemical
based coagulants. Natural coagulant is sustainable and economical way of water treatment process.

Fig:2.2 Okra
3. Marcelo J. M. Silva, José E. S. Paterniani* and Adriana R. Francisco
Marcelo J. M. Silva, José E. S. Paterniani et al. on the use of natural coagulants for water
clarification has ecological and environmental importance, being a simple technology to apply in
third world regions. This research investigated the effect of natural coagulant obtained from the
seeds of Moringa Oleifera for clarification and disinfection of domestic wastewater treated in
wetlands system. The coagulant was used in a multistage filtration unit, which consists by dynamic
pre-filter, gravel pre-filter and slow sand filters. The results indicated a removal efficiency of 70.9
and 85.1% for apparent color and turbidity, respectively, and a removal efficiency of 96.1 and
82.8% for total coliform and Escherichia coli, respectively, indicating the potential use of Moringa
Oleifera coagulant to aid in wastewater treatment systems.
Low-cost technologies for water and waste water treatment are developed to assist small
communities without technical staff and with limited financial support. The main advantages of
these technologies are the minimal use of chemicals and non-specialized staffing for operation and
maintenance.
The use of coagulants of plant origin to clarify turbid coloured water is of great ecological and
environmental importance, once the plants contribute to solve ecology problems beautify

surroundings and improve the environment, besides producing molecular oxygen, which is an
essential component for all living organisms.
The use of Moringa Oleifera coagulant increased the removal efficiency for effluents. The best
removal efficiency for E. coli was obtained in the slow sand filter, with very high removal
efficiency. The present study indicated that Moringa Oleifera seeds have a potential on removing
total coliforms and E. coli when the coagulant solution is used for treating wastewater in wetlands
and multistage filtration. Analysis of variance showed moderate reliability between the treatments
studied, so the continuity of the study may improve these results.
Fig:2.3 Moringa Oleifera seed powder
4. Eman N. Ali*, Suleyman A.
Eman N. Ali*, Suleyman et al. on developing an efficient and cost effective processing technique
for Moringa Oleifera seeds to produce natural coagulant for use in drinking water treatment. The
produced natural coagulant can be used as an alternative to aluminum sulphate and other
coagulants and used worldwide for water treatment. This study investigates processing Moringa
Oleifera seeds to concentrate the bio-active constituents which have coagulation activity. Moringa
Oleifera seeds were processed for oil extraction using electro thermal soxhlet. Isolation and

purification of bio-active constituents using chromatography technique were used to determine the
molecular weight of the bio-active constituents. The molecular weight of bio-active constituents
found to be in a low molecular weight range of between 1000 – 6500 Dalton. The proposed method
to isolate and purify the bioactive constituents was the cross flow filtration method, which
produced the natural coagulant with very simple technique. The turbidity removal was high using
low concentration of processed Moringa Oleifera seeds to treat low initial turbidity river water
without any additives. The microfiltration method is considered to be a practical method which
needs no chemicals to be added compared to other researchers proposed methods. The natural
coagulant produced was used with low dosages to get high turbidity removal which considered to
be a breakthrough in this study and recommended to be scaled up for industry level. The product
is commercially valuable at the same time it is minimizing the cost of water treatment.
Fig:2.4 Moringa oleifera husked seed kernels
The main concern in using Moringa Oleifera seeds for water treatment is the significant increase
in organic load, as organic matters originating from the seeds can be released into the water during
treatment. The presence of organic matter in treated water can cause problems of colour, taste, and
odour, and also facilitates the development of microorganisms upon storage. Jahn reported that
water treated with crude Moringa Oleifera seeds extract should not be stored for more than 24
hours. The crude extract is therefore not generally suit-able for large water supply systems where

the hydraulic residence time is very high. Oil extraction is of a great advantage here, to reduce the
organic load from the seeds, and to produce edible oil as a by-product. It is clearly possible to
extract oil first and then use the aqueous ex-tract as a coagulant. This dual exploitation is even
advantageous for isolation and purifying the active agents in the coagulation with Moringa Oleifera
seeds and also for the reduction of organic matter concentration in the treated water.
5. G. Vijayaraghavan*, T. Sivakumar*, A. Vimal Kumar
G. Vijayaraghavan, T. Sivakumar et al. review of plant-based coagulant sources, processes,

effectiveness and relevant coagulating mechanisms for treatment of water and wastewater is
presented. These coagulants are, in general, used as point of use technology in less developed
communities since they are relatively cost effective compared to chemical coagulants, can be
easily processed in usable form and biodegradable. These natural coagulants, when used for
treatment of waters with low to medium turbidity range, are comparable to their chemical
counterparts in terms of treatment efficiency. Their application for industrial wastewater treatment
is still at their infancy, though they are technically promising as coagulant for dyeing effluent as
afforded by Yoshida intermolecular interactions. These natural coagulants function by means of
adsorption mechanism followed by charge neutralization or polymeric bridging effect. Frequently
studied plant-based coagulants include Nirmali seeds (Strychnospotatorum), Moringa Oleifera,
Tannin and Cactus. Utilization of these coagulants represents important progress in sustainable
environmental technology as they are renewable resources and their application is directly related
to the improvement of quality of life for underdeveloped communities.

Fig: 2.5 Moringa oleifera husked seed kernels
The usage of natural coagulants derived from plant based sources represents a vital development
in grassroots sustainable environmental technology since it focuses on the improvement of quality
of life for underdeveloped communities. Fortunately, it is surprised that usage of these coagulants
is far more receptive by environmentalists worldwide since it avoids the common problem faced
by biofuels usage where skeptics feel that their benefits are outweighed by global food shortage
and deforestation caused by mass plantation of biofuel plants. Nonetheless, there are many
pressing issues that are hindering process development of these coagulants, namely, absence of
mass plantation of the plants that affords bulk processing, perceived low-volume market and
virtually non-existent supportive regulation that stipulates the quality of the processed coagulant
extracts. The cost-effectiveness of using the natural coagulant as simple POU technology. The last
factor is especially vital since it is normally difficult for regulatory authorities to endorse a product
for sale to the general public.
6. G.Jayalakshmi, Vara Saritha and Bhavya Kavitha Dwarapureddi
G.Jayalakshmi, Vara Saritha et al. on native plant based coagulants for Water Purification Potable,
wholesome water is only a basic entity but also basic right for every individual. Extensive and
exhaustive studies have been taken up previously; unfortunately complete solutions for drinking

water problem has not been achieved or not been made available for most of the population.
Nevertheless, every community has been bestowed with age old practices for treatment of water.
In the process of development these practices has been either forgot or neglected. Hence, there is
a need to search for the native materials which can be used for water purification as these can
provide technology near to the point of use that can be adapted by communities. In these lines, the
present study has been focused on reviewing natural coagulants for water treatment owing to the
disadvantages of chemical coagulants. International and National works on natural coagulants and
their efficiency was discussed in detail. This study will not only through light on the traditional
knowledge but also provide an insight of the available natural coagulants.
The seed kernels of Moringa Oleifera contain significant quantities of a series of low molecular
weight, water-soluble proteins which, in solution, carry an overall positive charge. The proteins
are considered to act similarly to synthetic, positively charged polymer coagulants. When added
to raw water the proteins bind to the predominantly negatively charged particulates that make raw
waters turbid. Under proper agitation these bound particulates then grow in size to form the flocs,
which may be left to settle by gravity or be removed by filtration.
In this review we have presented natural coagulants whose availability is innate, their efficiency
is also presented so that they can be considered for further study. It can be concluded that natural
coagulants bring with them advantages of being, low cost, copious, native and efficient for
treatment. Further studies in optimizing working parameter of the coagulants along with increasing
shelf life will benefit research in this area.
7. Ravikumar K, Prof. Sheeja A K
Ravikumar K, Prof. Sheeja A K et al. fluoride removal from water using Moringa Oleifera seed
Coagulation and Double Filtration.
The best available technologies for fluoride removal from water are generally considered to be
activated alumina adsorption and reverse osmosis. These methods are of high cost. Fluoride
removal by aluminium coagulation is cost effective. Its secondary pollution badly affects human
health. This will increase the residual aluminium concentration in treated drinking water.

Aluminum ions will cause anemia, hair loss and adverse neurological effects such as Alzheimer’s
disease. The important issue urgently to be solved is to develop new environmental coagulants
with satisfactory coagulation and little secondary pollution. Moringa Oleifera seed acts as a natural
coagulant, adsorbent and antimicrobial agent. It is believed that the seed is an organic natural
polymer. The coagulation mechanism of the Moringa Oleifera coagulant protein has been
described as adsorption, charge neutralization and interparticle bridging. It is mainly characteristic
of high molecular weight polyelectrolyte. In this study the advantage of proposing a sequential
process using coagulation with Moringa Oleifera seed and double filtration (Up-flow roughing
filtration followed by rapid filtration) for the removal of fluoride from water is analysed.
Moringa Oleifera is an environmentally friendly natural coagulant most suitable for the treatment
of water containing undesirable fluoride concentrations. Based on the experimental test results the
following conclusion can be drawn.
1. The coagulation condition was reached using Moringa Oleifera coagulant dose having good
efficiencies for fluoride reduction in the treated water.
2. The maximum turbidity removal efficiency of roughing filtration and double filtration were
good for defluoridated water. The final turbidity obtained was within acceptable limits for
drinking water production in all the five defluoridated water samples.
3. The process of up flow roughing filtration followed by rapid filtration is suitable for the
separation of the flocs formed using Moringa Oliefera seed coagulant.
4. The defluoridation efficiency increases as the initial fluoride concentration increases and the
final concentrations of fluoride in all the five de-fluoridated water samples after coagulation
with Moringa Oliefera seed coagulant were within the desirable limit.
5. It is an eco-friendly technology that is economically more advantageous than other treatment
alternatives.
In accordance with the above conclusions, it is suggested that tap water extracted Moringa Oleifera
seed powder and treatment with coagulation and flocculation followed by double filtration with
roughing filters followed by rapid filtration is considered in the event of expansion or construction
of small scale waterworks, presuming that an adequate amount of plantations are established.
8. V. D. Talnikar
V. D. Talnikar et al. on Natural coagulants for wastewater treatment.

The natural coagulants can treat water from high to low turbid water and having remarkable
removal efficiency that can be used for drinking purposes. Natural coagulants are usually supposed
safe in human health point of view. These natural coagulants are usually used as coagulant in
tanning Industry, dairy industry waste water treatment. A number of seed extracts, Maize,
Chitosan, Palm oil and vegetable oil, Bentonite etc. are the promising natural coagulants for
treatment of waste water. These treatments are also proved to be economical. A review of natural
coagulants its effectiveness, and its applications has been presented.
In order to decrease waste hazards and to restrict the resulted effects on the environment, research
for the wastewater treatment is necessary. The applicability and possibility of using new methods
and materials to treat wastewater is the demand. Coagulation and flocculation process are physical
and chemical methods that are extensively used in the treatment of waste water. Presently, the
prime concern of the environmental engineers is how to lower down the coagulants and flocculants
cost and to improve the characteristics of the produced waste for safe utilization.
The conclusion is as follows
1. The use of natural coagulants from plant based sources represents a vital development in
sustainable environmental technology as it focuses mainly on the improvement of quality of
life for underdeveloped communities.
2. The Coagulation process becomes more efficient and the cost of treatment is reduced.
3. It is helpful in turbid, color and heavy metals removal from wastewater.
4. Moringa Oleifera is an effective natural coagulant.
5. The study related to natural coagulants are limited and many researchers studied the Chitosan
and Moringa Oleifera for studying various parameters, a detail study with other natural easily
available coagulants is required.
9. Sunita Singh Thakur and Sonal Choubey
Sunita Singh Thakur and Sonal Choubey et al. on use of tannin based natural coagulants for water
treatment an alternative to inorganic chemicals.

In this study, a natural indigenous coagulant is suggested as a substitute for alum.Tannins are found
in the leaves, fruits, barks, roots and wood of trees. The coagulant characteristics of the tannins
obtained from Acacia catechu were examined and whether or not tannins could be used as a
primary coagulant was determined. The powdered material extract obtained from bark of acacia
catechu was used to test coagulant rate and dose. The turbidity and other physico-chemicals of
surface water sample were measured before and after the jar test by using portable instruments.
Turbidity meter was used to measure turbidity, while digital pH meter was used to measure pH.
Total suspended solids were analyzed using gravimetric method. The results have shown that
acacia catechu powder can remove turbidity up to 91% at the optimal dosage. On the other hand,
the powder of acacia catechu can remove total dissolve solids by 57.3% but not other parameters.
The aim of this study to investigate the feasibility of using widely distributed acacia catechu plant
as natural coagulant to purify surface water. It was evidenced from this study tannin derived
coagulant stands as real alternative to traditional inorganic metal coagulants in the removal of
turbidity and Total dissolve solids. It presents the functional working advantages that may
encourage further studies with regard to purifying and refining the active coagulant principal.
Extracts has a good potential to be used as a natural coagulant for its ability to remove turbidity.
The ability to remove total dissolve solids by 57.3%. It was another remarkable feature. The
potential for using bark powder of Acacia catechu extracts to remove total suspended solids in
drinking water. The pH reading was almost similar before and after treatment. Therefore, we can
suggest that bark powder of Acacia catechu extract could not be use as neutralizer for drinking
water.
10. S.N. Ugwu, A.F. Umuokoro, E.A. Echiegu, B.O. Ugwuishiwu and C.C. Enweremadu
S.N. Ugwu, A.F. Umuokoro et al. on Comparative study of the use of natural and artificial
coagulants for the treatment of domestic wastewater.

This work presented a comparative study of the effectiveness of natural coagulant (Moringa
Oleifera and hydrolyzed cassava) extracts and artificial coagulant (alum) as primary coagulants
for domestic wastewater Stock solutions of these coagulants were prepared, and jar test of their
varying mixing ratios used to obtain optimum dosages for Moringa, alum and cassava respectively.
The effects of these optimum dosages were tested against turbidity, pH, BOD, nutrients, hardness
and coli form. All tested parameters were significantly sensitive to concentrations of used stock
solutions. 100% Moringa seed extract resulted in all the treated parameters (except turbidity) being
within tolerable limits. The stock solution of 100% Alum also showed all tested parameters (except
pH) to be within the standards for drinking water. The result of the comparative test showed that
alum with its residual and health implications can be successfully replaced, partially or wholly,
with natural coagulants.
Coagulants from M. oleifera and M. palmate (cassava) were successfully extracted and tested at
different ratios and doses in comparison with the alum solution singularly or in combination with
each other. All coagulants tested reduced all the tested parameters considerably. Although the
results of combining Cassava and Moringa at varying ratios did not meet most of the WHO
standards, they all showed high potentials. Alum alone (A100) achieved reduction of the other
parameters, but increased acidity of the treated water and sludge. In the case of Moringa seed
extract alone (M100), all other parameters were brought within WHO tolerable level with less
sludge except turbidity. Combining the advantages of both Moringa and Alum (A50M50) yielded
overall best results with all parameters within WHO drinking water standards and ultimately
enabling reusability of domestic waste water. This combination minimizes negative impacts of
alum on the environment with respect to the production of non-biodegradable sludge after
treatment and its residual effect on treated water.
It is further recommended that increased doses of cassava, Moringa and other natural coagulants
as well as varying ratios be studied with a view to isolating the bioactive ingredients from these
natural coagulants at much cheaper cost than what is obtainable presently to attract usage at a
larger scale water and water treatment.
11. Lukman Aliyu1, Mukhtar L.W, S.I Abba

Lukman Aliyu1, Mukhtar L.W et al. on evaluation of coagulation efficiency of natural coagulants
(Moringa Oleifera, Okra) and Alum.
The chemical coagulants are widely used for turbidity removal in water but they have health’s
problems associated with them and are additionally uneconomical for use in developing countries.
The present work aimed to the assessment to the coagulation efficiency of natural coagulants in
water. Primarily the basic operational parameters are physical and chemical parameters, pH and
coagulants dosages will be optimized. Coagulation ability of both seeds extracts will be assess
with different natural coagulants by the use of standard jar test experiment in river water using
Moringa Oliefera. Its positive coagulation activity was measured on the basis of removal of
turbidity, total dissolved solid, suspended solids, pH, hardness, chloride and alkalinity. The
efficiency of the results will be compared to that of alum.
Moringa Oliefera seeds and Okra seeds act as a natural coagulant, flocculent for water treatment
based on the research. Both reduces the level of all tested parameters present in the water sample,
although Moringa seed is more effective than Okra seed with the highest purity in turbidity than
that of okra seeds. While Alum has good efficiency but produces more sludge than the natural
coagulants.
CHAPTER 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY
Using Natural Coagulant
Name pH Turbidity References

(NTU)
Before After Before After
treatment treatment treatment treatment
M. Oleifera 8.5 6.9-7.2 250 61-105 19
Okra 8.5 7.4-7.6 17 4.6-5.6 20
C. Procera 8.5 7.1-7.7 17 5-6 03
C. Arietinum 8.5 7.1-7.4 390 6.5-7.4 21
Comparative Study was done on various types of natural coagulants on the parameters such as pH,
Turbidity at room temperature. The conclusion was drawn by assuming results of waste water
before treatment and after treatment.
From the table it is concluded that the average pH for the natural coagulant is basic and the
percentage turbidity is between 70-99%. Temperature required to carry out the experiment was in
the range of 300-320K. It was seen that Moringa Oleifera seeds was efficient in all these Natural
Coagulant having a pH of 6.9-7.2 which can be utilized for drinking purpose. The temperature
required was not more than 303K and 99% Efficient. Hence it is one of the most efficient Natural
Coagulant in purification of waste water.
CHAPTER 4
CASE STUDY

MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 Materials:
Few materials were used in this study such as water, natural coagulants (M.Oleifera, Okra and
C.Procera), alum and clay materials. The detail descriptions of those coagulants are as given
below. There are three natural coagulants used in this present study. They are namely seeds of
Moringa Olifera, Okra gum and dry flowers of Calotropis procera. The descriptions of these
coagulants are given below:
4.1.1. M.Oleifera:
Plant species - Genus Moringa Family- Moringaceae. Common Name- Drum stick (Golden
shower) Moringa oleifera, known as Moringa, is native to north India but is now found throughout
the tropics. It grows fast and reaches up to 12m. The bark is grey and thick and looks like cork,
peeling in patches. Moringa is full of nutrients and vitamins and is good in your food as well as in
the food of your animals. Moringa helps to clean dirty water and is a useful source of medecines.
4.1.2.Okra:
Plant species – A.esculentus Family- Mavacae Common Name- lady’s finger or Gumbo Okra
Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench), is an economically important vegetable crop grown in
tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world. This crop is suitable for cultivation as a garden crop
as well as on large commercial farms. Okra gum is soluble in cold water. It is used in the food
industry as a good emulsifying and foam stabilizing agent. In the range of studied, it is observed
that whatever the volume of gumbo mucilage, the turbidity decreases when the pH increases. The
reduction in turbidity is significant when the volume of mucilage used, confirming the preceding
results. The mucilage, from its sticky nature, contains polymer molecules (Nacoulima et al, 2000).
The flocculating activity can be either due to a chemical reaction, or a complex formation.
4.1.3. Calotropis Procera: Plant species – C.Procera Family- Aclepiadaceae Common Name-
calotrope Calotropis procera are abundantly available in his tropics, mostly planted as ornamental
shrubs. Calotropis procera have been reported Ogundiwin nd Oke, (1983) and Aworh et al. (1994)
to contain calotropin, a very active non- toxic proteolytic enzyme used in curdling milk protein in

traditional cheese - making in Nigeria. Also, Kareem et al. (2002), reported the use of C. procera
latex for enzyme purification, a simple method based on precipitation for the cope with the high
costs due to declining revenues and funding.
The inability of local supplies to satisfy the demand due to competing uses for imported chemicals.
The use of alum as a coagulant in the treatment of water increases the aluminium concentration.
A high concentration of aluminium is also of concern because of its adverse effects on health.
Aluminium intake into the body has been linked with several neuropathological diseases including
percentile dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. There is also the problem of reaction of alum with
natural alkalinity present in water leading to reduction of pH and a low efficiency in coagulation
of cold waters. Under-dosing of chemicals so as to meet the increasing water demand leading to
production of poor quality drinking water. Using alum as well as other metallic salt coagulants
produces large sludge volumes which are also non- biodegradable. Ferric salts and synthetic
polymers have also been used as coagulants but with limited success because of the same
disadvantages manifested in the use of aluminum salts.
Use of natural herbs in purification of water Developing countries are facing potable water supply
problems because of inadequate financial resources. The cost of water treatment is increasing, and
the quality of river water is not stable due to a suspended and colloidal particle load caused by land
development and high storm runoff during the rainy season such is experienced in a country like
Malaysia and other countries. Due to many problems created by using the synthetic coagulants
such as aluminium sulphate which is used worldwide, there is a high demand to find an alternative
coagulant which is preferable to be a natural coagulant. Naturally occurring coagulants are usually
presumed safe for human health. Many researchers have reported on Moringa oleifera various uses
and as a coagulant specifically for the last 25 years have found that the Moringa oleifera seed is
non-toxic and good coagulant in water treatment. It is recommended to be used as a coagulant in
developing countries. Usually, the aluminum sulphate is the most used coagulant in water
treatment for coagulation- flocculation process. Aluminium sulphate is usually imported and this
adds extra cost to the water treatment industry. The lime for pH adjustment is added to the water
treatment process, which is considered as an additional cost for water treatment companies.
Therefore, this paper is focused on presenting the developed, efficient and cost effective processing
technique for Moringa oleifera seed and other natural coagulants to be used for drinking water

treatment. Purification of amylase from solid culture of Aspergillus oryzae using C. procera latex,
which have received little attention but have confirmed C. procera latex as a good clarifying agent
and unveils its potential as plant material for enzyme concentration.
4.2. PREPARATION OF HERBS:
4.2.1. M.Oleifera:
Good quality of M.Oleifera were allowed to completely dry on the tree and then its collected from
Adgaon region, Nasik. The seeds to be removed from the pods, keep for sun dry and external shells
will remove. Seeds powder is used as a coagulant dose. Dried and shelled MO seeds were obtained
from field. The shells were ground to a fine powder using a blender. The powder was then weighed
and dissolved in distilled water to make a 50 g/l solution. The solution was stirred for 20 minutes
using a magnetic stirrer, and finally filtrated through a Whatman filter no. 40. The filtered solution
is called a “crude extract” or “stock olution” and could be used for treating water without further
preparation.
4.2.2. Okra (lady finger): Good quality of Okra pods purchased from Nasik market and the okra
gum was obtained by aqueous extraction of the seedpod of okra plant. For mucilage obtaining,
approximately 5g of fresh inner okra gum were mixed in 100 mL water. The sticky liquid
(mucilage) obtained was centrifuged at 600 turns per minute during 20 min. in order to eliminate
the suspended particles.
4.2.3. Calotropis
procera- Good quality of C.Procera flowers are collected from Chandwad. The flowers are sun
dried naturally and grinded it in to blender and stock solution is prepared by adding 5gm of powder
mixed in 100 ml distilled water. The solution was stirred for 20 minutes using a magnetic stirrer,
and finally filtrated through a Whatman filter no. 40. The filtered solution is called a “crude
extract” or “stock solution”. Stock solution bottles were stored at 2000C for cooling and used it as
per required.

Preparation of synthetic turbid water- Synthetic turbid water for the jar tests was prepared by
adding clay materials to tap water. Clay materials collected from Chandwad area. About 30 g of
the clay materials was added to 1 liter of distilled water. The suspension was stirred for about 1
hour to achieve a uniform dispersion of clay particles. Then it was allowed to settle for at least 24
hours for complete hydration of the clay materials. The supernatant suspension of synthetic turbid
water was added to the sample water to achieve the desired turbidity just before coagulation. The
alum used in this study was reagent grade aluminium sulphate Al2( SO4) H2O. It was supplied by
Space Laboratories Ltd, Ambad, and Nasik.
4.3. Methods
The various methods used for the experimentation for different phases of the study are described
below:
4.3.1. Batch coagulation test:
Flocculation/coagulation experiments were conducted using a range of coagulant dosing from the
stock solutions and a control without coagulant addition. For repeatability, each experimental setup
was repeated 3 times. Laboratories jar test apparatus i.e. Jar Flocculator with timer and RPM
indicator is to be used with 1000 ml beakers as the flocculation/coagulation reactor volume. The
jars are injected with coagulant dosages and mixed to match flash mix & flocculation field
conditions as closely as possible, after mixing and settling the jars are observed to determine which
dosage produce the largest, strongest flock or which dosage produces the flock that settles the
fastest. Depending on the particular experimental set-up, dosing is to be set for the Moringa,
C.Procera, okra mucilage stock solution and alum stock solution. Turbidity test is to be carried out
on synthetic turbid water of low (15, 30 and 50 NTU), medium (100) and high (250 and 500 NTU)
turbidity. For different doses of coagulants, seven beakers were in used (6 at the applied dose and
1 control). Jar Tests were carried out for 500ml synthetic turbid water, turbidity to be measured
for the initial condition (raw water sample) prior to the coagulation. Immediately following
coagulant dosing, the beaker contents of 500 ml were mixed rapidly for 60 sec at 352 RPM; this
was followed by 20 min of gentle mixing at 40 RPM to aid in flock formation. The flocculated
suspensions were allowed to stand without disturbance for 30 min to simulate settling. The
supernatants thus formed were sampled and measured for turbidity. Jar tests were carried out on
prepared synthetic turbid water with the flocculent stock solution doses of 0mg/lit, 2.5mg/lit ,5.0

mg/lit, 7.5 mg/lit, 10 mg/lit, 12.5mg/lit and 15 mg/lit for M.oleifera, okra and c.procera Turbidities
were recorded after 30 minutes of the Jar test. The optimal dosage for each coagulant was obtained.
4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
Experimental work of this study has been divided in following phases
A. Batch coagulation tests by Alum, M.Oleifera, Okra and C.Procera on various turbid water.
B. Optimization of natural coagulants as coagulant aid in conjunction with alum on synthetic
turbid water.
1) A discussion of the results follows each phase of the experimental work and results are presented
in tabular and graphical form. Table 4.2: Performance of Alum, M.Oleifera, Okra and C.Procera
in Batch Coagulation-Test performance of Alum, M.Oleifera ,Okra and Procera in batch
coagulation test at optimum dose (based on supernatant turbidity) are analyzed in table 3.2

Table 4.1: Performance of Alum, M.Oleifera, Okra and C.Procera in Batch Coagulation-Test
4.1 Optimization of natural coagulants as coagulant aid in conjunction with alum. In the present
study was aimed to investigate the effects of natural coagulants like M.O. Okra and C.Procera as
a coagulant aid in conjunction with alum on the removal of turbidity. To reduce the disadvantages
associated with the usage of chemical-based coagulants such as ineffectiveness in low temperature,
relatively high procurement costs, detrimental effect on human health, production of large sludge
volume due to aluminium based coagulants it is more advisable to mix the chemical coagulant
with alum. In this research the conventional coagulant alum has been mixed with nearly 50% of
optimal dosages of each coagulant. Table 4.2 to Table 4.4 shows the observations of above study.
Table4.2: Performance of M.O., Okra and C.Procera as coagulant aids
4.2.1 Alum with Moringa Oleifera as a coagulant aid

Fig 4.1 Graph of Coagulant Doses Vs Residual turbidity
In this experiment nearly 50% of the optimal dosage of Moringa Oleifera was applied with various
dosages of alum. In this study among various ranges of turbid waters 50 NTU for was selected as
lower range, 100NTU as medium and 500NTU as higher range of synthetic turbid water. The
residual turbidities after the jar test have been tabulated as below. From the table 3.2 we can clearly
see that turbidity removal has been obtained by 7.5 mg/lit of alum with 5 mg/lit of M.O. dosages
and fig. 3.1 shows the effect of coagulant dosage on turbidity removal on lower turbid water of 50
NTU. This Fig 3.1 shows the effect of coagulant dosage on turbidity removal and so we can
conclude that the maximum turbidity removal was obtained when 7.5 mg/l of alum dosage with
5mg/l of M.Oleifera as a coagulant aid for lower turbid water (50NTU), as well as medium
(100NTU) and high turbid water (250NTU).

Fig 4.2 Dosage Vs Removal Efficiency
From Fig. 4.2 we can conclude that the maximum turbidity removal efficiency of 88%, 95% and
98% were obtained for 7.5mg/l of alum dosage with 5mg/l of M.O. as a coagulant aid for low,
medium and high synthetic turbid water samples respectively. In the next experiment 50% of
optimum dosage obtained in batch coagulation test that is of 5mg/lit of okra was mixed with
various dosages of alum. Jar tests were conducted and residual turbidities were noted after 30
minutes.

Fig 4.3 Graph of Coagulant Doses Vs Residual turbidity
Fig. 3.3 illustrates the effect of dosages on turbidity removal. From this table we can conclude that
the maximum turbidity removal for 10 mg/l of alum dosage with 5mg/l of okra gum as a coagulant
aid. From
Fig 4.4 Doses of coagulant Vs Removal Efficiency

Fig. 4.4 we can conclude that the maximum turbidity removal efficiency of 96%, 97% and 98%
were obtained for 10 mg/l of alum dosage with 5mg/l of Okra as a coagulant aid for low, medium
and high synthetic turbid water samples respectively.
Table 4.4: Performance of M.O., Okra and C.Procera as coagulant aids in conjunction with
alum (Higher Turbidity-250NTU)
Table 4.4 shows the observations taken when C.Procera was used as a coagulant aid during
experimentation. In this experiment 50% of optimum dosage obtained in batch coagulation test
that is of 7.5mg/lit of C.Procera was mixed with various dosages of alum. Jar tests were conducted
and residual turbidities were noted after 30 minutes. It also illustrates the effect of dosages on
turbidity removal. From this table we can conclude that the maximum turbidity removal for 10
mg/l of alum dosage with 5mg/l of okra gum as a coagulant aid.
Table 4.3: Performance of M.O., Okra and C.Procera as coagulant aids in conjunction with
alum (Medium Turbidity- 100NTU)

From table 4.3 and Fig. 4.5 we can conclude that the maximum turbidity removal efficiency of
98%, 97% and 97.2% were obtained for 10 mg/l of alum dosage with 5mg/l of C.Procera as a
coagulant aid for low, medium and high synthetic turbid water samples respectively. The results
obtained from this study revealed that coagulant aid should be added one minute after the addition
of alum. The use of Moringa, okra and C.Procera as coagulant aids decreased the alum dose
7.5mg/l to 10 mg/l and dropped the residual turbidity which is nearer to the value recommended
by WHO. Table 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 shows the performance of Moringa, okra and C.Procera as
coagulant aids in conjunction with alum for turbid water treatment. So the use of coagulant aid
reduces the dosage of alum, the residual turbidity obtained from this phase of study was nearer and
lesser to 5 NTU (recommended value by WHO).
Fig.4.6 Doses of coagulant Vs Removal Efficiency
4.5 CONCLUSION
From the first phase (Batch Coagulation Test) of the study, it was found that the optimum dosages
of Alum, Moringa Oliefera, Okra and C.procera were 10 mg/l , 7.5 mg/l , 10 mg/l and 15 mg/l with
the maximum turbidity removal efficiencies of 96% , 76% , 54 % and 64 % for low turbid waters
and 92% , 87% , 68% and 73% for medium turbid waters and 98% , 92% , 74% and 86.8% for
high turbid water respectively. The supernatant turbidities obtained at the end of this phase for
medium turbid water were 8NTU, 13 NTU, 32 NTU and 27 NTU when Alum, S.Potatorum, Cactus
and C.Indica were applied as a coagulant respectively. These values are greater than 5 NTU (value
recommended by WHO). From the second phase of the study, it was found that when nearly and

equal to 50% optimum dose of each coagulants ( 5 mg/l in the case of Moringa Oliefera, 5 mg/l in
the case of Okra and 7.5 mg/l in the case of C.Procera ) were applied with varying dosages of alum
(2.5 mg/l , 5 mg/l , 7.5 mg/l , 10 mg/l , 12.5 mg/l , 15 mg/l 17.5 mg/l and 20mg/l) it was found that
alum of 5 mg/l gave the maximum turbidity removal efficiencies. The supernatant turbidities
obtained at the end of this test were 5 NTU, 2 NTU and 3 NTU for Moringa Oliefera, Okra and
C.Procera respectively which are equal to and less than 5 NTU. From the observations taken it was
also concluded that when natural coagulants were used as a coagulant aid, the dosage of alum can
be reduced to almost 50% which can help to reduce the detrimental effects caused by chemical
based coagulants. Natural coagulant is sustainable and economical way of water treatment process.

CONCLUSION
Natural coagulants are more effective than chemical coagulants. It is found that natural
coagulants can remove between 27 and 84 percent of viruses and between 32 and 87 percent
of bacteria. Usually, the pathogens that are removed from the water are removed because they
are attached to the dissolved substances that are removed by coagulation.
Natural coagulants remove some of the dissolved substances, so less chlorine must be added
to disinfect the water. A municipal water treatment plant can save money by using less
chlorine, and the water will be safer.
The seeds of M.Oleifera exhibited the fastest turbidity and colour removal potential. These
studies have also confirmed that the seeds are highly effective in removing suspended particles
from water with medium to high levels of turbidity.
M.Oleifera seed is not giving any toxic effect. It is ecofriendly method of purification of water
and consequently it is being recommended for large scale water treatment use in the rural
industrially developed area where no facilities are available for the treatment of drinking water.
REFERENCES

[1] Ravikumar K, Prof.Sheeja A K - Fluoride Removal from Water using Moringas Oleifera
seed Coagulation and Double Filtration.
[2] Marcelo J. M. Silva, José E. S. Paterniani* and Adriana R. Francisco - Application of Moringa
Oleifera natural coagulant for clarification and disinfection of treated wastewater in wetlands and
multistage filtration.
[3] Ms. RenukaA. Binayeki, Prof. M.V.Jadhav- Application of Natural Coagulants in water
purification.
[4] Eman N. Ali*, Suleyman A. Muyibi, Hamzah M. Salleh, Md Zahangir Alam, Mohd Ramlan
M. Salleh - Production of Natural Coagulant from Moringa Oleifera Seed for application in
treatment of low turbidity water .
[5] S.V. Maruti Prasad, B. Srinivasa Rao - A Low cost water treatment by using a natural
Coagulant.
[6] G.Jayalakshmi, Vara Saritha , Bhavya Kavitha Dwarapureddi -A Review on native plant
based coagulants for water purification .
[7] G. Vijayaraghavan, T. Sivakumar, A. Vimal Kumar - Application of plant based coagulants

for waste water treatment.
[8] V. D. Talnikar - Natural Coagulants for Wastewater treatment
[9] Arama Peter Futi, Wagai Samuel Otieno, Ogur Joseph Acholla, Walter Atieno Otieno, Owido
Seth Ochieng and Mahagayu Clerkson Mukisira - Harvesting surface rainwater
purification using Moringa oleifera seed extracts and aluminum sulphate.
[10] Suleyman A. Muyibi and Lilian M. Evison - Moringa Oleifera seeds for softening hardwater.

[11] Md. Asrafuzzaman, A.N.M. Fakhruddin and Md. Alamgir Hossain “Reduction of Turbidity
of Water Using Locally Available Natural Coagulants Reduction of Turbidity of Water Using
Locally Available NaturalCoagulants”.
[12] Amir Montakhab, Abdul Halim Ghazali, Megat Johari Megat Mohd. Noor, Thamer Ahmed
Mohamed, Badronnisa bt.Yusuf , “Effects of Drying and Salt Extraction of Moringa Oleifera on
Its Coagulation of High Turbidity Water’’.
[13] Jed W. Fahey, Sc.D. “Moringa oleifera: A Review of the Medical Evidence for Its Nutritional,
Therapeutic, and Prophylactic Properties. Part 1” [online] Trees for Life Journal a forum on
beneficial trees and plants.
[14] Davy Nkhata, Zambia, “The use of Moringa oleifera can offer an alternative option to these
coagulant” .
[15] Malay Chaudhuri and Putri Sarah Aainaa Binti Khairuldin “Coagulation-Clarification of
Turbid Coloured Water by Natural Coagulant (Moringa oleifera) Seed Extract.
[16] Herbert Mpagi Kalibbala “Application of indigenous materials in drinking water treatment”
[17] Anuradha Mishra , Malvika Bajpai “Flocculation behaviour of model textile wastewater
treated with a food grade polysaccharide”
[18] Abaliwano, J. K., Ghebremichael, K. A., Amy, G.L. “Application of the Purified Moringa
Oleifera”
[19] Meenakshi M, B M manjunatha “Performance Assessment of M.Oleifera in Clarification of surface

water”.
[20] Kumari Anjali Jadhav, Sandhya Gawas, Shalu Yadhav “Coagulation Efficiency of Okra Seed Exttract
for surface water treatment”.

[21] M.v.Jadhav “Assesment of natural coagulants”

Application of Natural Coagulant in Water Treatment

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Application of Natural Coagulant in Water Treatment

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Application of natural coagulant in water treatment

1 I Department of Chemical Engineering

2 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Coagulants are two types-

1) To study different natural coagulant.

2) To study economics of filtration process.

3) To study process of coagulation by using natural coagulant.

4) To study the importance of natural coagulants in filtration process.

3 I Department of Chemical Engineering

1.3 NECESSITY OF PRESENT STUDY

By using chemical coagulants in water purification many problems are created.

4 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig:1.1 Process of Coagulation, Flocculation and Sedimentation

5 I Department of Chemical Engineering

6 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig:2.1 Moringa Oliefera pod

2. Ms. Renuka A. Binayke , Prof. M.V.Jadhav

Various problems due to impure water in developing countries

4. Inadequate supply of chemicals for water treatment.

Problems arising due to use of chemicals in water treatment

8 I Department of Chemical Engineering

3. Marcelo J. M. Silva, José E. S. Paterniani* and Adriana R. Francisco

9 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig:2.3 Moringa Oleifera seed powder

4. Eman N. Ali*, Suleyman A.

10 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig:2.4 Moringa oleifera husked seed kernels

11 I Department of Chemical Engineering

5. G. Vijayaraghavan*, T. Sivakumar*, A. Vimal Kumar

G. Vijayaraghavan, T. Sivakumar et al. review of plant-based coagulant sources, processes,

12 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig: 2.5 Moringa oleifera husked seed kernels

6. G.Jayalakshmi, Vara Saritha and Bhavya Kavitha Dwarapureddi

13 I Department of Chemical Engineering

7. Ravikumar K, Prof. Sheeja A K

14 I Department of Chemical Engineering

V. D. Talnikar et al. on Natural coagulants for wastewater treatment.

15 I Department of Chemical Engineering

9. Sunita Singh Thakur and Sonal Choubey

16 I Department of Chemical Engineering

17 I Department of Chemical Engineering

11. Lukman Aliyu1, Mukhtar L.W, S.I Abba

18 I Department of Chemical Engineering

19 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Using Natural Coagulant

Name pH Turbidity References

Okra 8.5 7.4-7.6 17 4.6-5.6 20

C. Procera 8.5 7.1-7.7 17 5-6 03

C. Arietinum 8.5 7.1-7.4 390 6.5-7.4 21

20 I Department of Chemical Engineering

MATERIALS AND METHODS

21 I Department of Chemical Engineering

22 I Department of Chemical Engineering

4.2. PREPARATION OF HERBS:

23 I Department of Chemical Engineering

24 I Department of Chemical Engineering

4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Experimental work of this study has been divided in following phases

25 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Table4.2: Performance of M.O., Okra and C.Procera as coagulant aids

4.2.1 Alum with Moringa Oleifera as a coagulant aid

26 I Department of Chemical Engineering

Fig 4.1 Graph of Coagulant Doses Vs Residual turbidity

5. G. Vijayaraghavan, T. Sivakumar, A. Vimal Kumar