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CHAPTER-1
PUMPS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Pump is a machine or mechanical equipment which is required to lift liquid from low
level to high level or to flow liquid from low pressure area to high pressure area or as a
booster in a piping network system.
Principally, pump converts mechanical energy of motor into fluid flow energy. Pump
also can be used in process operations that requires a high hydraulic pressure. This can be
seen in heavy duty equipment’s. Often heavy duty equipment’s requires a high discharge
pressure and a low suction pressure. Due to low pressure at suction side of pump, fluid will
lift from certain depth, whereas due to high pressure at discharge side of pump, it will push
fluid to lift until reach desired height
A unit that transfers the mechanical energy of a motor or an engine into potential and
kinetic energy of liquid
By their action, the pumps require that energy must be expended and as such they belong
to the category of power absorbing machines. Further, since the temperature gradients are
minimal, pumps are the non- thermal machines .The expended energy enables the pump to
overcome the hydraulic resistance and make the fluid rise through a geodetic elevation.
Man’s economic and technical progress through the ages might be measured in terms of
development from the primitive pumping devices operated either by man or an animal to the
positive displacement and dynamic pumps he fashions today .Typically progress in the
development of pumps is found in municipal water works power plants agriculture transport
and many other utility services and industries.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from
wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry or water-cooling
band fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for
operating cooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes
in developing and manufacturing medicine and as artificial replacements for body parts, in
particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.
When a casing contains only one revolving impeller, it is called a single-stage pump.
When a casing contains two or more revolving impellers, it is called a double- or multi-stage
pump.
Dynamic pumps in liquid systems have nozzle loads defined for specific applications.
Any load applied to a pump may be transmitted through an isolating valve first.
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The
volume is constant through each cycle of operation
A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the
discharge side of the pump, because it has no shutoff head like centrifugal pumps. A positive
displacement pump operating against a closed discharge valve continues to produce flow and
the pressure in the discharge line increases until the line bursts, the pump is severely
damaged, or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is
therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer
normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is usually
used only as a safety precaution. An external relief valve in the discharge line, with a return
line back to the suction line or supply tank provides increased safety.
CHAPTER -2
DYNAMIC PUMPS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A Dynamic pump (centrifugal pump) transfers input power to kinetic energy of the
fluid being pumped. This energy, through the specifics of the pump design, is converted to
pressure energy that causes the fluid to flow. The most common type of centrifugal pump is
termed the “volute pump”. In this type of pump, fluid enters the pump at the center of a
rotating impeller. The rotating impeller causes a rapid radial acceleration of the fluid from the
eye of the impeller to the pumps circumferential casing. This creates a vacuum at the center of
the impeller, resulting in continual entry of more process fluid. The fluid exits the pump
through a discharge port located at the outer perimeter of the casing.
This principle can be explained with a simple example of coffee cup and spoon. The
spoon acts as an impeller when it is rotated. When the spoon is rotated, the liquid gets a
familiar surface curvature .which is related to the least pressure in the centre and highest at the
curvature as shown in the figure 2.1 which is related to the least pressure in the centre and
highest at the upper cup surface
Constructional details of centrifugal pump are as shown in the figure 2.2 and the
installation is shown in the figure 2.3
1. Impeller:
The impeller and shaft are the rotating parts of the pump that converts driver
energy into kinetic energy. This inbuilt rotating impeller is the main rotating part
used for pumping liquids without any complications. It provides centrifugal
acceleration to the fluids.
The impeller can be classified according to its mechanical construction. You
can find closed, open, semi-open or vortex type in fig 2.3.1 Closed impellers have
a drawback and that is they come up with a lot of maintenance issues whereas the
open and semi-open types of impellers do not clog, but usually need manual
adjustment.
Another important rotating component is the shaft whose basic purpose is to
transmit the torque that is encountered during operation. It also has to support the
impeller and other rotating parts.
Open impeller: Open impellers have the vanes free on both sides. Open impellers are
structurally weak. They are typically used in small-diameter, inexpensive pumps and
pumps handling suspended solids.
Semi-open impeller: The vanes are free on one side and enclosed on the other. The
shroud adds mechanical strength. They also offer higher efficiencies than open
impellers. They can be used in medium-diameter pumps and with liquids containing
small amounts of suspended solids. Because of minimization of recirculation and other
losses, it is very important that a small clearance exists between the impeller vanes and
the casing.
Closed impeller: The vanes are located between the two discs, all in a single casting.
They are used in large pumps with high efficiencies and low required Net Positive
Suction Head. The centrifugal pumps with closed impeller are the most widely used
pumps handling clear liquids. They rely on close-clearance wear rings on the impeller
and on the pump casing. The closed impeller is a more complicated and expensive
design is not only because of the impeller, but the additional wear rings are needed.
2. Casing:
Casing is an air tight passage which houses the impeller. The fluid enters at the
centre of the casing and flows outward due to the action of the rotating impeller.
During this process fluid gains kinetic energy .The cross sectional area of the
casing is gradually increases towards the discharge side. This causes decrease in
kinetic energy and hence increase in pressure energy of the fluid.
There are basically 3 types of casings used in centrifugal pumps they are
Volute casing
Vortex casing
receives the fluid being pumped by the impeller, maintaining the velocity
of the fluid through to the diffuser.
Vortex casing: When a circular chamber is introduced between the impeller
and casing, the casing is known as vortex casing.
3. Suction pipe :
It is the pipe on the upstream side of the centrifugal pump and the pressure is
negative in this pipe. Sometimes, to reduce the axial thrust, the suction pipe is
branched into two parts. Then liquid is allowed to enter the impeller from both sides.
Such a pump is called double suction pump.
The quantity used to determine if the pressure of the liquid being pumped
is adequate to avoid Cavitation is the net positive suction head (NPSH).
The net positive suction head available (NPSHA) is the difference between
the pressure at the suction of the pump and the saturation pressure for the
liquid being pumped.
Distance of the liquid source above or below the pump inlet, measured in
feet: can be positive OR negative. Positive suction head occurs when the
top of the water source is above the suction Inlet of the pump. Negative
elevation refers to suction lift (like from a pond, tank lower than the pump.
These both are shown in the fig 2.3.3
A foot valve is found at the end of a pipe line in a suction lift application. They
function as a check valve, but they also have a strainer affixed to their open end.
The check valve is spring assisted .This would result in the valve being stuck in
the open position, and all the fluid draining from the pump column.
5. Delivery pipe :
It is a pipe with one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and the other
end delivers the fluid at a required height.
Pumps help different types in which the fluid flow happens differently. The types of
Fluid flow in the pumps are as follows :
Pumps in which the fluid enters at the centre of impeller and the impeller blades
directs the flow at right angles outwards to the pump shaft are called radial flow type pumps.
This type of pumps provides high head and high efficiency.
Axial flow pump provides low head but large quantity of water. In this type of pump
the impeller pushes the fluid parallel to the shaft. Axial flow pump also called propeller pump
because of its operation is analogous to the propeller of boat so it is axial flow pump.
Mixed Plow Pumps
These types’ pumps has qualities of both radial and axial flow pumps. When the fluid
travels through the impeller the Blades of impeller will push the fluid outwards from the
pump shaft to the pump suction angle greater than 90 degree. Mixed flow pumps mainly used
for irrigation.
2. Type of Casing
There are two type of casing
Volute Casing
In the volute casing the area of casing will be increased from impeller to outlet. This
will cause the decrease in the velocity of the fluid. The decreased velocity will finally increase
the head.
Vortex Casing
In this casing a circular chamber is introduced between the impeller. This circular
chamber is called vortex and casing is called vortex casing.
In the centrifugal pump one or more than one impeller shaft can be used. Based on this
pumps can be classified in following categories
In the single stage centrifugal pump one impeller is used in the pump shaft. The type
of pump is used where low head is required.
The key performance parameters of centrifugal pumps are capacity, head, BHP (Brake
horse power), BEP (Best efficiency point) and specific speed. The pump curves provide the
operating window within which these parameters can be varied for satisfactory pump
operation. The following parameters or terms are discussed in detail in this section.
Capacity
Head
Power (Brake Horse Power, B.H.P) and Efficiency (Best Efficiency Point, B.E.P)
Specific Speed (Ns) Affinity Laws
Capacity:
Capacity means the flow rate with which liquid is moved or pushed by the pump to the
desired point in the process. It is commonly measured in either gallons per minute (gpm)
or cubic meters per hour (m3 /hr). The capacity usually changes with the changes in
operation of the process. For example, a boiler feed pump is an application that needs a
constant pressure with varying capacities to meet a changing steam demand. The
capacity depends on a number of factors like: Process liquid characteristics i.e. density,
viscosity Size of the pump and its inlet and outlet sections Impeller size Impeller
rotational speed RPM Size and shape of cavities between the vanes Pump suction and
discharge temperature and pressure conditions For a pump with a particular impeller
running at a certain speed in a liquid, the only items on the list above that can change the
amount flowing through the pump are the pressures at the pump inlet and outlet. The
effect on the flow through a pump by changing the outlet pressures is graphed on a pump
curve. As liquids are essentially incompressible, the capacity is directly related with the
velocity of flow in the suction pipe. This relationship is as follows
Head:
The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as being caused by a vertical
column of the liquid due to its weight. The height of this column is called the static head and
is expressed in terms of feet of liquid. The same head term is used to measure the kinetic
energy created by the pump. In other words, head is a measurement of the height of a liquid
column that the pump could create from the kinetic energy imparted to the liquid. Imagine a
pipe shooting a jet of water straight up into the air, the height the water goes up would be the
head. The head is not equivalent to pressure. Head is a term that has units of a length or feet
and pressure has units of force per unit area or pound per square inch. The main reason for
using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is that the pressure
from a pump will change if the specific gravity (weight) of the liquid changes, but the head
will not change. Since any given centrifugal pump can move a lot of different fluids, with
different specific gravities, it is simpler to discuss the pump's head and forget about the
pressure. So a centrifugal pump’s performance on any Newtonian fluid, whether it's heavy
(sulfuric acid) or light (gasoline) is described by using the term ‘head’. The pump
performance curves are mostly described in terms of head.
The static head corresponding to any specific pressure is dependent upon the weight of
the liquid according to the following formula:f
𝑑𝑑
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 (𝑓𝑡)
𝑑𝑑
Newtonian liquids have specific gravities typically ranging from 0.5 (light, like light
Hydro carbons) to 1.8 (heavy, like concentrated sulfuric acid). Water is a benchmark having a
specific gravity of 10..
This formula helps in converting pump gauge pressures jo head for reading the pump
curves.
Static Suction Head (hS) : Head resulting from elevation of the liquid relative to the pump
center line. If the liquid level is above pump centerline, hS is positive. If the liquid level is
below pump centerline, hS is negative. Negative hS condition is commonly denoted as a
“suction lift” condition
Static Discharge Head (hd) : It is the vertical distance in feet between the pump centerline
and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid in the discharge tank.
Friction Head (hf) : The head required to overcome the resistance to flow in the pipe and
fittings. It is dependent upon the size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipe
fittings, flow rate, and nature of the liquid.
Vapor Pressure Head (hvp) : Vapor pressure is the pressure at which a liquid and its vapor
co-exist in equilibrium at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of liquid can be obtained
from vapor pressure tables. When the vapor pressure is converted to head, it is referred to as
vapor pressure head, hvp. The value of hvp of a liquid increases with the rising temperature
and in effect, opposes the pressure on the liquid surface, the positive force that tends to cause
liquid flow into the pump suction i.e. it reduces the suction pressure head.
Pressure Head (hp) : Pressure Head must be considered when a pumping system either
begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than atmospheric. The
pressure in such a tank must first be converted to feet of liquid. Denoted as hp, pressure head
refers to absolute pressure on the surface of the liquid reservoir supplying the pump suction,
converted to feet of head. If the system is open, hp equals atmospheric pressure head.
Velocity Head (hv) : Refers to the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at some velocity
‘v’. It is the equivalent head in feet through which the water would have to fall to acquire the
same velocity, or in other words, the head necessary to accelerate the water. The velocity head
is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most high head systems. However, it can be a
large factor and must be considered in low head systems.
Total Suction Head (HS): The suction reservoir pressure head (hpS) plus the static
suction head (hS) plus the velocity head at the pump suction flange (hVS) minus the friction
head in the suction line (hfS).
Total Discharge Head (Hd): The discharge reservoir pressure head (hpd) plus static
discharge head (hd) plus the velocity head at the pump discharge flange (hvd) plus the total
friction head in the discharge line (hfd).
Hd= hpd + hd + hvd + hfd
The total discharge head is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to
feet of liquid.
Total Differential Head (HT): It is the total discharge head minus the total suction head or
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and the weight of the
liquid pumped in a given time period.
Pump input or brake horsepower (BHP) is the actual horsepower delivered to the
pump shaft.
𝐷𝐷
𝐵𝐻𝑃 =
𝐷𝐷
Mechanical efficiency of a centrifugal pump (ηm) is the ratio of theoretical power that
must be supplied to operate the pump to the actual power delivered to the pump .Mechanical
efficiency can be used to determine the power loss in bearings and other moving parts of a
centrifugal pump. It determines the actual power that must be supplied to a centrifugal pump
for desired result.
Hydraulic efficiency of a centrifugal pump (ηH) is defined as the ratio of the useful
hydro dynamic energy in fluid to Mechanical energy supplied to rotor.
Volumetric efficiency of a centrifugal pump (ηv) is defined as the ratio of the actual
flow rate delivered by the pump to the theoretical discharge flow rate (flow rate without any
leakage) that must be produced by the pump. Volumetric efficiency can be used to determine
the amount of loss of liquid due to leakage in a pump during the flow.
Overall efficiency of a centrifugal pump (ηo) is the ratio of the actual power output of
a pump to the actual power input to the pump. It is the efficiency that determines the overall
energy loss in a centrifugal pump.
ADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES:
CHAPTER-3
Pumps in this category range from simplex, with one cylinder, to in some
cases quad (four) cylinders, or more. Many reciprocating-type pumps are duplex (two)
or triplex(three) cylinder. They can be either single-acting with suction during one direction
of piston motion and discharge on the other, or double-acting with suction and discharge in
both directions. The pumps can be powered manually, by air or steam, or by a belt driven by
an engine. This type of pump was used extensively in the 19th century—in the early days of
steam propulsion—as boiler feed water pumps. Now reciprocating pumps typically pump
highly viscous fluids like concrete and heavy oil sand serve in special applications that
demand low flow rates against high resistance Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to
pump water from wells. Common bicycle pumps and foot pumps for inflation use
reciprocating action. These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the
suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the
cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity
collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of operation and the pump’s volumetric
efficiency can be achieved through routine maintenance and inspection of its valves.
o When the power source is connected to crank, the crank will start rotating and connecting
rod also displaced along with crank.
o The piston connected to the connecting rod will move in linear direction. If crank moves
outwards then the piston moves towards its right and create vacuum in the cylinder.
o This vacuum causes suction valve to open and liquid from the source is forcibly sucked
by the suction pipe into the cylinder.
o When the crank moves inwards or towards the cylinder, the piston will move towards its
left and compresses the liquid in the cylinder.
o Now, the pressure makes the delivery valve to open and liquid will discharge through
delivery pipe.
o When piston reaches its extreme left position whole liquid present in the cylinder is
delivered through delivery valve.
o Then again the crank rotate outwards and piston moves right to create suction and the
whole process is repeated.
o Generally the above process can be observed in a single acting reciprocating pump where
there is only one delivery stroke per one revolution of crank. But when it comes to double
acting reciprocating pump, there will be two delivery strokes per one revolution of crank
SUCTION STROKE:
When the crank turns in clockwise direction from A to B. The piston moves from left
to right creating vacuum (pressure below the atmospheric of the level) in the left space of the
cylinder .This vacuum causes suction of the liquid from the sump, opening the inlet valve the
suction stroke is completed ,when the crank reaches B.
DISCHARGE STROKE:
When the crank further turns from B to A, the piston move towards left, increasing the
pressure inside the cylinder .The high pressure inside the cylinder causes the suction valves to
close and the delivery valve to open. Therefore, the high pressure liquid flows out of the
cylinder into the delivery pipe .The discharge stroke will be completed when the crank
reaches the position A.
In the single acting reciprocating pump, the suction and delivery strokes are alternately
carried out and pulsating output is obtained.
Cylinder
Piston and piston rod
Connecting rod and crank mechanism
Suction pipe with suction valve
Delivery pipe with delivery valve
Cylinder
Piston and piston rod
Connecting rod and crank mechanism
Two Suction pipes with two suction valves
Two delivery pipes with two delivery valves
Suction pipe connects the source of liquid to the cylinder of the reciprocating pump.
The liquid is suck by this pipe from the source to the cylinder.
3.6.2 Suction Valve:
Suction valve is non-return valve which means only one directional flow is possible in
this type of valve. This is placed between suction pipe inlet and cylinder. During suction of
liquid it is opened and during discharge it is closed.
3.6.3 Delivery Pipe:
Delivery pipe connects cylinder of pump to the outlet source. The liquid is delivered to
desired outlet location through this pipe
3.6.5 Cylinder:
A hollow cylinder made of steel alloy or cast iron. Arrangement of piston and piston
rod is inside this cylinder. Suction and release of liquid is takes place in this so, both suction
and delivery pipes along with valves are connected to this cylinder.
High efficiency
No priming needed
Can deliver water at high pressure
Can work in wide pressure range
Continuous rate of discharge
MAIN TERMS:
a) Brake Horsepower (BHP): Brake horsepower is the actual power required at the pump
input shaft in order to achieve the desired pressure and flow.
It is defined as the following formula:
BHP = (Q * Pd) / (1714 * Em) 102
Pumps Reference Guide where:
BHP = brake horsepower
Q = delivered capacity (gpm US)
Pd = developed pressure (psi)
Em = mechanical efficiency (% as a decimal)
b) Capacity (Q): The capacity is the total volume of liquid delivered per unit of time. This
liquid includes entrained gases and solids at specified conditions.
e) Displacement (D): Displacement (gpm) is the calculated capacity of the pump with no slip
losses. For single acting plunger or piston pumps, it is defined as the following:
Where:
s = stroke of pump, (in.) (half the linear distance the plunger or piston
moves linearly in one revolution)
These pumps are primarily used as power source in hydraulic control system and to
supply pressurized oil for lubrication of motors turbines and machine tools
The unit consists of two identical intermeshing spur gear with in volute teeth. One of
the gears is keyed to the driving shaft to the motor and the other gear revolves idly. These
gears rotate in opposite directions in a closely fitting stationary housing. The oil coming in at
the suction port fills the space between the teeth, is carried around the periphery of revolving
gears and is finally pushed out to the discharge port. The teeth of the gears have a perfect
meshing and that serves both to transmit the drive and to maintain a seal between the suction
and discharge side. Carries taken to ensure that the oil trapped between the successive lines of
contact does not build up pressure. A change in the flow direction can be affected by
reversing the direction of the gear assembles. But the spur gear pump delivers hydraulic fluid
always at right angle to the axis of rotation
The pump head is now nearly flooded, just prior to forcing the liquid out of the
discharge port. Intermeshing gears of the idler and rotor form locked pockets for the liquid
which assures volume control. Rotor and idler teeth mesh completely to form a seal
equidistant from the discharge and suction ports. This seal forces the liquid out of the
discharge port.
1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create an expanding volume on the inlet side of the
pump. Material to be pumped flows into this cavity. Rotation of the lobes past the inlet port
creates enclosed volumes of material between the rotors and the pump casing.
2. The material travels around the interior of the casing in these enclosed volumes between
the rotor's lobes and the casing it does not pass between the lobes.
3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes on the discharge side of the pump prevents the pumped
material from returning to the inlet side.. If the discharge port is restricted - such as
discharging a large volume of air into an engine's intake manifold - then pressure is created in
the discharge space. A lobe pump itself does not compress the material it pumps.
The simplest vane pump has a circular rotor rotating inside a larger circular cavity.
The centers of these two circles are offset, causing eccentricity. Vanes are allowed to slide
into and out of the rotor and seal on all edges, creating vane chambers that do the pumping
work. On the intake side of the pump, the vane chambers are increasing in volume. These
increasing-volume vane chambers are filled with fluid forced in by the inlet pressure. Inlet
pressure is actually the pressure from the system being pumped, often just the atmosphere. On
the discharge side of the pump, the vane chambers are decreasing in volume, forcing fluid out
of the pump. The action of the vane drives out the same volume of fluid with each rotation.
Multistage rotary-vane vacuum pumps can attain pressures as low as 10−6 mbar (0.0001 Pa).
CHAPTER – 4
PRIMING AND CAVITATION
4.2. PRIMING
When the centrifugal pump is not working, the liquid present in the casing and suction
line may flows back and these spaces will be filled with air. The pressure developed by the
centrifugal pump is directly proportional to the density of fluid in which the impeller rotates.
As the impeller rotates in air, it develops negligible pressure or air head. This pressure is not
sufficient to suck the water from the sump. To avoid this pump should be primed.
Priming is the operation of filling the casing, suction pipe and a part of delivery pipe
up to delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped.
The pump is started after priming keeping the delivery valve closed. When the
sufficient pressure built up, the delivery valve is gradually opened.
The following methods may be adopted for the priming of a centrifugal pump.
This method is adopted for small pumps. For priming a funnel and an air vent is
provided on the pump. Air vent is opened during priming to exit the air. Water is
poured through the funnel into the pump till the excess water comes out through the
vent hole. Excess flow of water indicates that the suction pipe and casing is
completely filled with water and priming is over. After priming the vent hole should
be closed.
Priming in larger pumps is done by the casing and suction pipe with vacuum pumps or
steam ejectors. Due to vacuum the water enters the suction pipe and casing.
The construction of these pumps is made such that the water is always available to
suction pipe which facilitates the automatic priming.
4.3 CAVITATION
Cavitation is the phenomenon of formation growth travel and collapse of vapour
bubbles. When the pressure at any point in the flow region fall below the vapour pressure of
the liquid, there will be local boiling and vapour bubbles will form. These vapour bubbles
may travel towards the zone of high pressure and collapse. The sudden collapse of vapour
bubbles will create very high pressure of about 100 atmospheres. This causes local
mechanical failure of solid surface.
Pitting and erosion of metal surface due to the impact of collapsing bubbles.
Sudden drop in the performance of hydraulic machinery such as pumps and turbines.
Vibration and noise due to collapse of vapour bubbles.
Cavitation can also occur, if the liquid contains dissolved gases. When the local pressure
decreases, jthese dissolved gases will be released in the same way vapour bubbles with the
same harmful effects.
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
Centrifugal pumps transports fluids, relatively with high speed.
Centrifugal pumps mostly used for commercial purpose.
Centrifugal pump have simple shape so ultimately it is cost efftective.
Less power consumption.
Working mechanism is simple.
Not used for volatile or viscous fluids.
Can be used to pump suspended or toxic fluids.
Postive displacement pumps physically entrap a quantity of liquid at the suctuion of
the pump, and push that quantity out the discharge of the pump.
A definate volume of liqid is delivered at each cycle of pump operation.
Positive displacement pumps can be griuped into 3 basic categeories based in their
design and operation.The 3 groups are reciprocating pumps,rotary pumps,and
diaphragm pumps.
Positive displacement opumps will always be more efficient than centrifugal pumps.
REFERENCES
Metallurgy by OP KHANNA