Polymer processing

• Polymer processing is defined as the

‘‘engineering activity concerned with
operations carried out on polymeric
materials or systems to increase their
utility’’

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 Polymer processing - shaping
• Calendering (+cont. coating operations)
• Die forming (film, pipe, profile forming)
• Mold coating (dip/powder coating)
• Molding (injection, transfer, compression)
• Stretch shaping (thermoforming, blow
molding)

• Common in all: DEFORMATION

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Industrial calender and
calendered PVC foil

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Die forming: extruder line (pipe)

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Injection molding machine &
molded parts

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Thermoforming machine and parts

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 Machine and mold design,
process control
• The complex flow (rheological) properties
of polymeric melts play a dominant role in
shaping operations.

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Polymer processing product
fabrication operations

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 Polymer melt rheology
• The study of the response of fluids
(and solids as well) to applied stresses
is called RHEOLOGY
• Polymers are long macromolecules
with entanglements=> high resistace to
shearing forces
• High resistance => high viscosity (η)

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Polymer entanglements

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 Polymer melt rheology

• High viscosity => high shear forces

=> robust pumping equipment
• „Side effects”: high shear forces =>
mechanical molecular degradation
(rupture of covalent bonds) –
adversely affects reprocessibility

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The nature of polymer flow

Polymers exhibit a number of

characteristics that are present only in
polymers:
• Rod climbing or Weissenberg effect
• Extrudate swell
• Other (more complicated) effects

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 Rod climbing

Water (small molecular

weight liquid)

Silicon oil (polymer)

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Die (extrudate) swell

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 The nature of polymer flow
• The cause of these „unusual” behaviour is

ELASTICITY
(in the liquid state)

• Polymers are viscoelastic materials

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 Idealized behaviour of materials to
applied stresses
• Rigid solid – no deformation

• Elastic (Hookean) solid: linear

deformation (no yield, no
creep, recovers completely)

Stress-strain-time relationship of a Hookean solid

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Stress – strain relationship in
Hookean solids

τ = Gγ
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 Idealized behaviour of materials
to applied stresses
• Newtonian liquids:
direct (linear)
proportionality between
applied stress and
rate of strain

Stress-strain-time relationship of a
Newtonian liquid

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 Stress – rate of strain
relationship in Newtonian liquids
Shear Stress

Strain rate (Shear rate)

τ = ηγ&
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 Newtonian flow

F v
τ = = −η = −ηγ&
A H
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Newtonian viscosity as a
function of load and
temperature

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 Stress – rate of strain
relationship in polymer melts
Shear Stress Dilatant (Shear Thickening)
Newtonian

Pseudoplastic
(Shear Thinning)

Shear rate

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Power law (Ostwald-de Waele)
Model

η = mγ& n −1
=> τ = mγ •n

m:consitency n: flow index

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Power law (Ostwald-de Waele)
Model
Shear thickening
Newtonian

Shear thinning

Flow index values for the various material-behaviour

Most polymers are shear thinning

Filled polymers can be shear thickening
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 Power law Model

•Polymer melts behave as Newtonian liquids at very low and

very high strain rates

•In the strain rate range important in processing they obey

the Power law Model

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 Power law Model

Advantages of the Power low Model:

•Simplicity (the parameters are easy to
calculate)

Drawbacks of the Power low Model:

•Dimension of m depends on the
magnitude of n
•Predicts higher viscosity at lower strain
rates
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 Carreau Model

= [1 + (λγ& ) ]
η −η∞ n −1
2 2

η0 −η∞
η0 Zero shear viscosity

η∞ Viscosity at infinite shear rate

λ Time constant

n flow index

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Carreau Model parameters

slope= -n

1
λ=
γ&1
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 Carreau Model
Advantages of the Carreau Model:
• Describes well the very low and very high
shear rate behaviour
• The constants have physical meaning

Drawbacks of the Carreau Model:

• Non-linear even in the parameters (needs
numerical iteration methods)

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 Units of shear rate, shear stress
and viscosity (η)

Shear rate γ& [s ]

−1
•
• Shear stress τ [Pa ]
• Viscosity η [Pa ⋅ s ]
• Water at 20 °C: 0.001 Pas (1 mPas)

• Polymer melts: 50 to 10 000 Pas

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Common shear rate values in
polymer processing
Processing Shear rate (1/s)
Compression molding 1 to 10
Calendering 10 to 100
Extrusion 100 to 1000
Injection molding 103 to 104
Fiber spinning >104

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NP
 Fiber
spinning

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Rheological material („body”)
classes

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 Bingham
body
behaviour

•
τ = τ c +η γ
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Time dependent flow behaviour
Thixotropy: viscosity decrease in time
at constant shear rate (eg. paints, gel-
coat)
Rheopexy (or anti-thixotropy): viscosity
increase in time at constant shear rate
(eg. lubricants)

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Time dependent flow behaviour
Cause: Change in structure as a
result of applied strain (shear rate).

After stopping the shearing the

structure is rebuilt.

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Time dependent flow behaviour

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Time dependent flow behaviour:
Hysteresis
τ

Thyxotropy

.
γ

Rheopexy

.
γ

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 Effect of molecular weight on
viscosity

Above Mc

η 0 = kM 3 .4
w

Higher mol. weight

=> more entanglements
=> higher resistance to shearing

=> higher viscosity

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Effect of molecular weight on
viscosity: doubling Mw
3.4
η2 ⎛ M w2 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =2 3.4
≈ 10
η1 ⎝ M w1 ⎠

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 Effect of temperature on
viscosity
In general:
Increasing temperature decreases viscosity

The temperature sensitivity of various polymers

can differ considerably

10 °C temp. increase decreases the viscosity of

HDPE by 10 %
PA66 by 45 %
PMMA by 88 %

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 Effect of temperature on
viscosity: Arrhenius Equation
E
η (T ) = Ae RT A: material constant
E: activation energy of flow
R: gas constant (8.314 J/mol K)
T: (absolute) temperature

Arrhenius plot

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Effect of temperature on
viscosity: Arrhenius plot
1: poly-izobutilene
(PIB), Mw~8x104;
2: PIB, Mw~1x105;
3: butil rubber;
4: natural rubber;
5: SBR;
6: LDPE;
7: ethylene-propylene
copolymer;
8: PS, Mw~3,6x105

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 Effect of temperature on
viscosity: WLF Equation
η 0 (T ) − C1 (T − T0 )
lg aT (T ) = lg =
η 0 (T0 ) C2 + (T − T0 )

aT (T ) : Shift factor
C1, C2: material constants
T0: reference temp.
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 Effect of pressure on viscosity
As pressure increases, the molecules come
closer => the friction increases between
them
=> viscosity inreases

η p = η0 exp(α p ⋅ p )
αp : pressure dependence coefficient

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Effect of pressure on viscosity
α p =0.0033 [atm-1]

•n
τ = Kγ

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 Steady state flow in a tube:
simplifiing assumptions
1. The flow is steady state (time independent)
2. The flow is laminar, the inertia forces are low (can be
neglected) compared to the shear forces
3. The flow is isothermal (temp. is homogenious)
4. The flow channel is fully filled with the melt
5. The melt is incompressible
6. Gravity forces can be neglected
7. The flow is one-dimensional
8. Flow channel end effects (entrance/exit) can be
neglected
9. The no-slip condition (at the channel wall) holds

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 Steady state flow in a tube:
geometry for the force balance

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Steady state flow in a tube:
force balance

∑F z = 0 = F1 + F2 + F3

F1 = π r P
2

⎡ ∂P ⎤
F2 = −π r ⎢ P +
2
dz ⎥
⎣ ∂z ⎦

F3 = 2π rτ rz dz
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 Steady state flow in a tube:
Shear stress distribution
r ⎛ ∂P ⎞ r ⎛ PL − P0 ⎞ rΔP
τ rz = ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟=
2 ⎝ ∂z ⎠ 2 ⎝ L ⎠ 2 L
Valid regardless of the nature of the material !

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Steady state flow in a tube:
Shear stress distribution

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 Steady state flow in a tube:
Newtonian liquid
∂vz
τ = ηγ& ⇒ τ rz = −η
∂r

1 ΔP 2 2 1 ΔP ⎡ ⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
2

vz =
4η L
(R −r = ) ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟
4η L ⎢⎣ ⎝ R ⎠
⎥
⎥⎦

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Steady state flow in a tube:
Newtonian liquid

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 Steady state flow in a tube:
Volumetric flow rate
By integrating vz over the tube cross section:

1 ΔP 2 2 πR ΔP
( )
R R 4
Q = ∫ 2πrvz dr = ∫ 2πr R − r dr =
0 0
4η L 8ηL

This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation.

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 Steady state flow in a tube:
Power law fluid
τ = mγ • n

• 1
n+1 ⎡ n+1
⎤
n ⎛ ΔP ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
R n ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
n n
vz = ⎜ ⎟
1 + n ⎝ 2mL ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ R⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
nπR ⎡ RΔP ⎤ 3 1/ n

Q =
1 + 3 n ⎢⎣ 2 mL ⎥⎦

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Steady state flow in a tube:
velocity distributions

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Steady state flow in a tube:
Bingham material

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Flow in a slit die
• dv
τ = η ⋅ γ = −η
dy
v(y) =
Δp 2
2ηl
(
h − y2 )
The velocity
distribution is parabolic
(for Newtonian liquids).

2 bh 3 ΔP
Q=
3 η l

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Pressure flow in various ducts

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Measuring the viscosity: the capillary
rheometer – const. pressure type

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Measuring
the
viscosity:
the capillary
rheometer –
piston
driven type

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 Measuring the viscosity:
experimental (measurable) data
• Vollumetric flow rate (Q, from crosshead
speed and geometry)
• Pressure drop (ΔP, from force and
geometry)

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 Measuring the viscosity:
calculated parameters

• From Q => γ&

• From ΔP => τ

• Recall that while the shear stress

distribution is independent of material
behaviour, the velocity distribution is
dependent on it!

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 Rabinowitsch analysis
• We need a method to calculate the shear
rate without the knowledge of the material
behaviour – this is the Rabinowitsch
analysis (or Rabinowitsch correction)
•
• 3 • 1 • d ln γ a
γ w = γ a+ γ a
4 4 d ln τ
• 4Q
γ a = 3 (apparent shear rate)
Rπ
• The calculated rheological parameters still
depend on the die geometry!
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Capillary geometry dependency
of the viscosity

log η

capillary 1
capillary 2
capillary 3

.
log γ

Cause: non-uniform pressure profile inside the capillary

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Pressure drop along the capillary axis

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 Bagley correction
• Corrects for the entrance (and exit)
pressure drops.

Entrance ΔP

ΔP RΔP
τw = R =
2(l + l ) 2(l + nB R)
*
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 Drag (Couette) flow

V
vx ( y) = y
H
H H
V WHV
Q = ∫ W v x ( y )dy = ∫ W ydy =
0 0
H 2
Q is independent of material type.
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The melt index test (MFI, MFR)
• „Single point” capillary rheometer
(constant pressure type).
• Standardized (ISO R1133, ASTM D 1238)
• Quality control of plastics (rough indicator
of processability)

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Melt Flow Indexer Apparatus

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 Unit of MFI

MFI=4.0 (2.16/190) means that the flow index of the material

is 4 g/10 min at a temperature of 190°C and a load of 2.16 kg.

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Unit of MVR

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 MFI requirements of various
processing operations
Processing MFI [g/10 min]
Operation
Injection molding 5…100
Rotomolding 5…20
Film extrusion 0,5…6
Blow molding 0,1…1
Profile extrusion 0,1…1

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Plastics and Rubber Machinery
– a historical overview
Modern polymer processing methods and
machines are rooted in the 19th-century
rubber industry and the processing of
natural rubber.

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Polymer processing product
fabrication operations

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Plastics and Rubber Machinery

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Plastics and Rubber Machinery

The Rubber and Plastics Technology century of 1850 - 1950

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The Historical Evolution of
Polymer Processing

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Postreactor polymer processing

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Polymer ccompounding operations

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Reactive thermoplastic polymer
processing

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Discovery of polymers vs.
polymer modificfation

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Polymer blend formation
operations

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Plastic product fabrication
operations

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 In-line polymer processing
operations

Advantage: less „thermomechanical experience” of the

polymer => less degradation

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 Thermo-
plastic
polymer =>

molded
plastic part

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 Thermo-
setting
polymer =>

molded
plastic part

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 Extrusion
Material is melted and forced under
pressure through an orifice (die) that
shapes the extrudate to a desired cross
section

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Main Elements of the Single Screw
Extruder

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Main Elements of the Single Screw
Extruder

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Main Elements of the Single Screw
Extruder

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Extruder screw sections

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Basic elements of an extruder
screw

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 Standard extruder screw

• Total length 20D – 30D

• Feed zone length 4D – 8D
• Metering zone length 6D – 10D
• Helix angle 17.66°
• Flight width (land) 0.1D
• Feed zone depth 0.1D – 0.2D
• Compression ratio 2–5

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Functions of the extruder screw
• Receive solid polymer pellets
• Dispersively mix pellets and fillers,
additives
• Completely melt the polymer
• Raise pressure (to overcome resistance of
the die)
• Pump distributively mixed melt throught
the die

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 Sections (zones) of a single-
stage extruder screw

• Feed
• Compression (transition)
• Metering (melt pumping)

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 Feed zone
• Resin pellets are compressed, ingredients
are mixed.
• The first few flights are the solids
conveying zone, followed by a
• delay zone.

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 Transition zone
• Channel depth is tapered uniformly
• Completely melts the plastic
• Comression ratio (CR)= the ratio of flight
depth in the feed section to that in the
metering section (usually 2:1 to 6:1)

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 Metering zone
• Melt is homogenized and stabilzed
(distributive mixing). Pressure usually
raises here.

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 Lead (pitch)
• Distance between corresponding points on
two adjacent flights is the lead or pitch. It
usually equals screw O.D.
• => Square Pitch screw (helix
angle=17.66°)

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Extruder screws with mixing elements

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Grooved, conical solids conveying zone in
single screw extruders

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Extruder configurations

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 Extruder barrel
• Clearance between barrel and screw is
small:
• Radial clearance ranges from 0.0005D to
0.002D (new extruder)
• (for a 110 mm dia. screw => ~0.1 mm)

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 Extruder barrel
• Inner dia. ranges from 10 to 300 mm.
• Length/dia. (L/D) ranges from 5:1 to 40:1
(for thermoplastics from 20:1 to 30:1)

• Barrel material is harder than screw

material.
• Bimetallic barrels.

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Breaker plate, screen pack

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Tadmor Melting Model
(transition zone)

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Barrier screws
(Maillefer)

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Two stage vented extruders

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Pressure profile of a venting screw

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In-line tube/pipe extrusion die

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Tube die

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Tube extrusion line

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Tube extrusion line

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Tube extrusion

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Calibrators (sizing dies)
Internal pressure type

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Calibrators (sizing dies)
Vacuum type

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Corrugating tool

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Extruders for flexible corrugated
hoses

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 Wire covering dies

High pressure Low pressure

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Sheet extrusion – Coathanger die

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Film extrusion

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Flat film dies

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Film extrusion

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Blown film extursion

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Blown film extursion

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Blown film extursion

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 Spiral mandrel die
(blown-film extrusion)

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 Spiral mandrel die
(blown-film extrusion)

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Co-extruded blown film processing

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Co-extruded blown film processing

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Extruded profiles

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 Basic rod die design

•Flow must be laminar

•With a) and b): melt fracture

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 Basic profile die design

Problem: uneven die swell

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Melt flow components in single srew
extruders

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 Melt flow components in single srew
extruders

Qr=Qd-Qp-Qcl

Qr= Resultant volumetric flow rate

Qd= Drag flow (points to discharge)
Qp= Pressure flow (opposite direction)
Qcl= Clearence flow (opposite direction,
small, can be neglected)

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Drag flow

v0
vd ( y ) = y
h
h h
v0 bhv0
Qd = ∫ bvd ( y )dy = ∫ b ydy =
0 0
h 2

Qd ≈ bhn ≈ hn

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Pressure flow

⎡
Δp ⎛ h ⎞
2
⎤
v p ( y) = ⎢⎜ ⎟ − y ⎥
2

2ηl ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1 bh 3 Δp bΔph 3 Δph 3
Qp = ≈ ≈
12 η l ηl ηl

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Resultant velocity distribution

Qp
a=
Qd

a=0:=> no Qp
a=1:=> no Qr (Qp= Qd )
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 Velocity distribution for different
Qp/Qd ratios

Qp
a=
Qd

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 Screw characteristics equation of
the extruder
Δph 3
Qr = Qd − Q p ≈ Chn −
ηl

n: screw rotational speed

h: flight depth
l: length of the metering section

Longer metering section and shallower depth is more

advantageous.

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Screw characteristics as a function of n,
h and l

Qr Qr

Qr

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 Δp – n relationship of the screw

Qp 1 h 2 Δp
v= =
bh 12 η l
l
Δp = 12 2 ηv ≈ ηn
h

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Die characteristics
R 4π Δp
Qdie =
8l η

Qdie

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Operational diagram of the extruder
(simplified)

n1<n2

η1<η2

Qeconom.

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Operational diagram of the extruder (real)

Borderline of homogeneity
Q

Qeconom.

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Pressure drop (compression) in a single
screw extruder

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 Thermal conditions in the extruder

Heat from electrical barrel heaters: Qh

Qh = mcΔT
heat flux ( power ) : Q& h = m& cΔT
Q& h Q& h 1
ΔT = ≈ ≈
m& c n n

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Thermal conditions in the extruder

Heat frorm (material inner) friction: Wkin

Wkin = fΔl
f = τA
Δl = γl
Wkin = τAγl
power : P = W& kin = τAγ&l = ηγ& 2V ≈ ηγ& 2 ≈ ηn 2
P
ΔT ≈ ≈ ηn ≈ n
n

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Thermal conditions in the extruder

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History of injection moulding

Hyatt’s vertiacal
injection moulding
machine

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 History of injection moulding
The nozzle of Eichengrün’s
machine

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History of injection moulding

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Piston type plasticating unit

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Injection with piston, pre-plasticating with
screw

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Reciprocating screw plasticating unit

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Small injection moulded products

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 Some examples of injection molded parts

- Probably the most common, most important, most economical process

Typical reciprocating screw injection molding machine

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Injection Molding Sequence

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Non-return valve

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 Process & machine schematics
*

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm
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Mechanical clamping system

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Types of Molds used in Injection Molding

Types of molds used in injection molding: (a) two-plate mold; (b) three-plate mold;
and (c) hot-runner mold.
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Designing injection molds: mold in action

Nozzle

Nozzle Knob

Runner

Runner
Cavity
Cavity Cavity
Part

Part Part
Stripper
plate

[source: Lec notes, Prof T. Gutosky, MIT]

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 Injection molding cycle on
the pvT diagram

– 1-2: The polymer melt fills the mould cavity (injection),

– 2-3: Switchover to holding pressure,
– 3-4: Holding pressure, applied till the thinnest part of the product is
frozen (point 4, – usually at the gate),
– 4-5: The melt – at constant specific volume – cools, while pressure
decreases,
– 5-6: Isobar cooling,
– 6: Removing of the product,
– 6-7: The product cools and shrinks further in the open air
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Injection pressure history

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Injection temperature history

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Gate freeze-off

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Effect of gate number & location

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Fiber orientation

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Fiber orientation

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Weld lines

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 Gas-Assist Injection Molding (animation)
www.bauer-compressors.com.sg/ gasaim.htm

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 Calendering
Origin: Two-roll mills (rubber industry)

• Pair of rollers with a vertical ‘nip’ between them

• Two-roll mill mixing started with rubber processing, now
exist for various functions
• The polymer and additives are subjected to high shear in
the nip as the rolls rotate in opposite directions

Schematic illustration of two-roll mill

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Calendering

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 Calendering Uses

• High surface finish films and sheets

• Coating various fabrics with thin layers of
rubber or plastics
• Producing films/sheets from heat
sensitive polymers

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 Calendering Uses

• Major plastic material

is PVC
• Also produced are:
– Wall coverings
– Upholstery fabrics
– Reservoir linings
– Agricultural mulching
materials
– Rubber sheet
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http://www.allproducts.com/machine/shinekon/02.jpg
 Coating and Impregnating Fabrics

• Industrial process
used to produce:
– Car tires
– Conveyor belts
– Inflatable rafts
– Waterproof cloth
tents
– Rain coats

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©2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P. Groover. “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturin
2/ ”
 Calender types

I L F Z
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Calender

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Typical Calender Line

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Calender line

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Flow and pressure profiles in the
calender gap

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Methods for the compensation of calender
roll bending

a): roll-crossing b): roll-bending NP

Methods for the compensation of
calender roll bending

c:) Crowning

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 Materials

amorphous
• PVC
• PS, ABS
• Cellulosics
semicrystalline (only with additives)
• PE
• PP

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 Calendering sheet defects

• Dimensional Non-uniformities
– Thickness variations in the sheets due to roll bending with large separation
forces. Compensated with crowned rolls – larger diameter in center than at
ends.
• Structural Anomalies
– Particulate and crystalline structure changes under the influence of high
temperature and stress
• Mattness
– Micro-irregularity or loss of surface gloss on the surface not in contact with the
roll when leaving the calender gap. Onsets at a wall shear stress value of
5x108 Pa.
• V-shapes
– Surface thickness variations with vertex of v-shape at center of sheet. Due to
undulating motions in the melt bank from the center to edges.
• Air Bubbles
– Captured in the melt bank. Can be prevented from passing through the
calender rolls through high pressure.

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 Thermoforming

ƒ Form (draw) products from extruded sheet

ƒ The sheet is softened by heat

ƒ The softened sheet is forced against a mold

conture with the aid of vacuum or low
pressure (compressed air)

ƒ Simple shapes are economically made

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Thermoforming Variations

• Vacuum
• Pressure
• Plug assist
• Reverse draw
• Drape
• Snap-back
• Matched die

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 Vacuum Forming

• Vacuum draws the part against the mold

“cavity” (female mold)

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 Pressure
Vacuum assist forming
drape forming (female mold)
(male mold)

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Plug assisted vacuum forming (a)
Billow forming (b)
Pressuere bubble, vacuum snap-back forming (c)

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Some thermoformed parts

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 Matched die thermoforming

• No positive or negative air pressure

applied to mold
• All molding is done by mechanical means
• There is less detail than most of the other
processes

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 Twin Sheet Thermoforming

• Thermoforming of two sheets

simultaneously
• Multiple colors or textures

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Twin Sheet Thermoforming
can make hollow parts

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 Thermoformable plastics
Amorphous
• Styrenics (+copolymers, like ABS)
• Acrylics (PMMA)
• Cellulosics (CAB)
• Polycarbonate (PC) & copolymers
• Plasticized PVC
• PC/PET blend
• Poly(ether-imid)

Semicrystalline
• Polyolefins, Nylons (special
thermoformable grades)
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 Properties of thermoformable plastics

• Good hot elongation (500 – 600%)

• Good hot strength (HDT or HDTUL: Heat
Distortion Temperature [Under Load])
• Low hygroscopicity (or drying the sheet is
necessary)

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 Thermoformability –
thermomechanical curve

Amorpous
polymers

~20° to 100 °C above Tg

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Thermoforming temperature ranges
(amorpous polymers)

PS 95...135 °C

ABS 100...150 °C

PMMA 130...170 °C

PC 150...210 °C

PVC 90...150 °C

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Thermoformability – thermomechanical
curve

Semirystalline
polymers

Thermoforming temp. range is less than for amorpous polymers!

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 Thermoforming temperature ranges
(semicrystalline polymers)

• LDPE (ρ=0,92 g/cm3) 105...107 °C

• HDPE (ρ=0,96 g/cm3) 130...135 °C
• PP (ρ=0,90 g/cm3) 160...164 °C
• POM (ρ=1,41 g/cm3) 164...167 °C

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 Rotational molding
(rotomolding/rotoforming/rotocasting)
Thermoplastic pellets or powder is heated in
a closed, rotating mold.
The plastic fuses uniformly against the hot
mold surface.
While still rotating, the mold is cooled and
the part demolded.

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Rotomolding – some examples

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Rotomolding

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Rotomolding

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Rotomolding –the process

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 Rotomolding
• Strengths
– Small production runs
– Large part capability
– Low tooling costs
– ‘Stress-free” products
– Short product development lead times

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 Rotomolding
• Weaknesses
– Slow cycle times
– Limited material choices
– Difficult to automate
– Poor image
– Low technology culture

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 Materials
Others; 2%
PVC; 13%

LDPE; 2%
MDPE; 3%

XLPE; 8%

HDPE; 11%
LLDPE; 61%

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 Material properties
• Low Zero Shear Viscosity is required to
aid in the flow of the polymer within mold
• MFI
– Lower MFI resins – high strength products
– Higher MFI – good surface finish and surface
detail

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Temperautre control

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 Composites

Definition:
• Multi – phase (the components are separated by
boundary surface layers)
• Complex (at least 2 components)
reinforcing material (usually fiber/fabric)
bulk material called matrix
• There should be a very stong adhesion to exist between
fiber and matrix

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 Composites

• Matrix: thermosetting and thermoplastic

polymers (can be metal or ceramics)

• Fiber/fabric:
glass, carbon, synthetic (eg. Kevlar),
natural (hemp, flax, etc)

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Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics
εc = εf = εm („iso-strain” condition)
Fc = Ff + Fm
l F= σ·A, in general, so

σc·Ac = σf·Af + σm·Am and because Al=V

σcVc = σf·Vf + σm·Vm /Vc (dividing by Vc)

and taking into account that Vc = Vf + Vm

and 1= Vf / Vc + Vm / Vc or with
1= φf + φm

σc = σf φf + σm (1 - φf )

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Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics

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 Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics
• Because of the iso-strain condition the
modulus of elasticity can be calculated
similarly:
Εc = Εf φf + Εm (1 - φf )

• This is the Voight approximation or

rule-of-mixtures

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Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics
σc = σf = σm („iso-stress” condition)

Δlc = Δlf + Δlm and because ε=Δl/l0

εclc = εf lf + εmlm and if the Hooke law holds (ε=σ/E)

σc σf σm
lc = ⋅l f + ⋅ lm or, because of the iso-stress condition
Ec Ef Em
lc lf l
= + m
Ec E f Em

and because Al=V is true

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Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics

Vc V f V m
= + from which
Ec E f Em

1 φ f 1−φ f
= + and
Ec E f Em

E f Em
Ec =
Emφ f + E f (1 − φ f )
is the Reuss approximation

It is valid only for the modulus, not for the strengeth! NP

Continuous fiber reinforcement theory -
basics

Load/fiber strength
parallel

perpendicular

φ fiber content, %

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Short fiber reinforcement theory - basics

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Short fiber reinforcement theory - basics

Force balance
dσ
σ ⋅ R π + τ ⋅ 2 RπΔz = (σ +
2
Δz ) R 2π
dz

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Short fiber reinforcement theory - basics
τ ⋅ 2dz = Rdσ
Lc / 2 σ fm
R
∫0 dz =
2τ ∫
0
d σ

Lc R
= σ fm
2 2τ
or

Lc σ fm
= Kelly - Tyson
D 2τ
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Short fiber reinforcement theory - basics

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 Short fiber reinforcement-
effect of adhesion on the critical fiber
length

τ (MPa) 5 25 50 100 250

Lc/D 175 35 18 9 4
Lc(mm), 1.2 0.25 0.13 0.07 0.03
D=7 μm

σfm=1750 MPa,

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 Application of Composites

Lance Armstrong’s 2-
lb. Trek bike, 2004
Tour de France

Pedestrian bridge in
Denmark, 130 feet
long (1997)

Swedish Navy, Stealth

(2005)

Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept.

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Ken Youssefi Mechanical Engineering Dept. 228
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 Application of Composites in
Aircraft Industry

20% more fuel efficiency

and 15,000 kg lighter

Ken Youssefi
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 Matrices - Polymeric
• Thermosets
– cure by chemical reaction
– Irreversible
– Examples
• Unsaturated polyester, vinylester
– Most common, lower cost, solvent resistance
• Epoxy resins
– Superior performance, relatively costly

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 Matrices - Thermosets
•Unsaturated polyester
Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical
properties and chemical resistance. Polyesters are
amenable to multiple fabrication techniques and are low
cost.

•Vinyl Esters
Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance. Vinyl
esters have increased resistance to corrosive environments
as well as a high degree of moisture resistance.

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 Matrices - Thermosets
•Epoxy
Epoxies have improved strength and stiffness properties
over polyesters. Epoxies offer excellent corrosion
resistance and resistance to solvents and alkalis. Cure
cycles are usually longer than polyesters, however no by-
products are produced.

Flexibility and improved performance is also achieved by

the utilization of additives and fillers.

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 Matrices - Thermoplastics
• Formed by heating to elevated temperature at
which softening occurs
– Reversible reaction
– Can be reformed and/or repaired - not common
– Commercial types are limited in temperature range to
150°C
• Examples
– Polypropylene
• with nylon or glass
• can be injected-- inexpensive
– Soften layers of combined fiber and resin and place in
a mold -- higher costs
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 Matrices - Others
• Metal Matrix Composites - higher
temperature
– e.g., Aluminum with boron or carbon fibers
• Ceramic matrix materials - very high
temperature
– Fiber is used to add toughness, not
necessarily higher in strength and stiffness

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 Important Note

Composite properties are less than that

of the fiber because of dilution by the
matrix and the need to orient fibers in
different directions.

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 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
OF COMPOSITES
• Composite materials have succeeded remarkably in their
relatively short history. But for continued growth,
especially in structural uses, certain obstacles must be
overcome. A major one is the tendency of designers to
rely on traditional materials such as steel and aluminum
unless composites can be produced at lower cost.

• Cost concerns have led to several changes in the

composites industry. There is a general movement
toward the use of less expensive fibers. For example,
graphite and aramid fibers have largely supplanted the
more costly boron in advanced–fiber composites. As
important as savings on materials may be, the real key
to cutting composite costs lies in the area of processing.
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• The processing of (thermosetting matrix) fiber reinforced
laminates can be divided into two main steps:

) Lay–up
) Curing

• Curing is the drying and hardening (polymerization and

cross-linking) of the resin matrix of a finished
composite. This may be done unaided or by applying
heat and/or pressure.

• Lay–up basically is the process of arranging fiber–

reinforced layers (laminae) in a laminate and shaping the
laminate to make the part desired. (The term lay–up is
also used to refer to the laminate itself before curing.)
Unless prepregs are used, lay–up includes the actual
creation of laminae by applying resins to fiber
reinforcements.
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• Laminate lay–up operations fall into three main groups:

A. Winding and laying operations

B. Molding operations
C. Continuous lamination

• Continuous lamination is relatively unimportant.

In this process, layers of fabric or mat are passed
through a resin dip and brought together between
cellophane covering sheets. Laminate thickness and
resin content are controlled by squeegee rolls. The
lay–up is passed through a heat zone to cure the resin.

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 Winding Operation
The most important operation in this category is filament
winding. Fibers are passed through liquid resin, and then
wound onto a mandrel. After lay–up is completed, the
composite is cured on the mandrel. The mandrel is then
removed by melting, dissolving, breaking–out or some
other method.

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 Manufacturing - Filament
Winding
• Highly automated
– low manufacturing
costs if high
throughput
– e.g., Glass fiber pipe,
sailboard masts

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 Molding Operations
Molding operations are used in making a large number of
common composite products. There are two types of
processes:

A. Open–mold
(1) Hand lay–up
(2) Spray–up
(3) Vacuum–bag molding
(4) Pressure–bag molding
(5) Thermal expansion molding
(6) Autoclave molding
(7) Centrifugal casting
(8) Continuous pultrusion and pulforming.
B. Compression molding (closed mold)
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 Hand Lay-up
Hand lay–up, or contact molding, is the oldest and
simplest way of making fiberglass–resin composites.
Applications are standard wind turbine blades, boats,
etc.)

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 Spray-up
In Spray–up process, chopped fibers and resins are
sprayed simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications
are lightly loaded structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies,
truck fairings, bathtubes, small boats, etc.

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 Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuum–bag process was developed for making
a variety of components, including relatively large
parts with complex shapes. Applications are large
cruising boats, racecar components, etc.

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 Pressure-Bag Molding
Pressure–bag process is virtually a mirror image of
vacuum–bag molding. Applications are sonar domes,
antenna housings, aircraft fairings, etc.

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Thermal Expansion Molding
In Thermal Expansion Molding process, prepreg layers
are wrapped around rubber blocks, and then placed in
a metal mold. As the entire assembly is heated, the
rubber expands more than the metal, putting pressure
on the laminate. Complex shapes can be made
reducing the need for later joining and fastening
operations.

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 Autoclave Molding
Autoclave molding is similar to both vacuum–bag and
pressure–bag molding. Applications are lighter, faster
and more agile fighter aircraft, motor sport vehicles.

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 Continuous Pultrusion

Continuous pultrusion
is the composite
counterpart of metal
extrusion. Complex
parts can be made.

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Pulforming is similar to pultrusion in many ways.
However, pultrusion is capable only of making straight
products that have the same volume all along their
lengths. Pulformed products, on the other hand, can be
either straight or curved, with changing shapes and
volumes. A typical pulformed product is a curved
reinforced plastic car spring. (shown in figure.)

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 Prepregs
(semi-finished materials)

• Prepreg and prepreg layup

– “prepreg” - partially cured mixture of fiber and
resin
• Unidirectional prepreg tape with paper backing
– wound on spools
– Cut and stacked
– Curing conditions
• Typical temperature and pressure in autoclave is
120-200°C, 7 bar

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 Sheet Molding Compound
(SMC)
– Chopped glass fiber added to polyester resin
mixture

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 Manufacturing - Layups
compression
molding

vacuum bagging

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