Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

DOI 10.1007/s13762-017-1498-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Assessment of environmental impact of open burning of scrap

tyres on ambient air quality
L. A. Jimoda1 • I. D. Sulaymon1 • A. O. Alade2,3 • G. A. Adebayo1

Received: 18 January 2017 / Revised: 20 May 2017 / Accepted: 25 July 2017

Ó Islamic Azad University (IAU) 2017

Abstract Open burning of scrap (bicycle, motorcycle, car
and truck) tyres (OBST) was simulated in the laboratory to
investigate their impact on the ambient air quality. The tyre
samples were burnt in combustion chamber, and gaseous
pollutants (CO, NO2 and SO2) emitted were quantified,
while concentrations and elemental compositions of emit-
ted total suspended particulates (TSP) were determined.
Emission level of SO2 from all the tyre samples exceeded
USEPA allowable (156.74 lg/m3) limit. CO due to car and
truck tyres exceeded USEPA allowable (10,285.71 lg/m3)
limit, while NO2 concentration was below the allowable
limit (56.33 lg/m3) only in bicycle tyre. 25% of all the
gaseous pollutants emitted are within the Air Quality Index
range of 101–150. TSP concentrations from all the tyre
samples were higher than the Federal Ministry of Envi-
ronment standard (250 lg/m3) for ambient TSP. There is
strong correlation (R) of 0.885, 0.949 and 0.802 among all
the gaseous (CO/NO2, CO/SO2 and NO2/SO2) pollutants,
respectively, while the highest (0.999) and lowest (0.079)
positive correlations were observed between Mg and Mn as
Editorial responsibility: U.W. Tang.
& A. O. Alade
aoalade@lautech.edu.ng
1
Environmental Engineering Research Laboratory,
Department of Chemical Engineering, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, P.M.B 4000, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
2
Bioenvironmental, Water and Engineering Research Unit
(BWERU), Department of Chemical Engineering, Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B 4000, Ogbomoso,
Nigeria
3 Health impacts of scrap tyres attract more attention in
Science and Engineering Research Group (SAERG), Ladoke
Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B 4000, Ogbomoso,
Nigeria
well as Cd and Zn, respectively. The results of this study
show that OBST emits hazardous pollutants, which pose
serious threat to human health and environment.
Keywords Air quality  Environmental impact  Heavy
metals  Open burning  Scrap tyres  Suspended
particulates
Introduction
Volume of scrap tyre is on the increase in major towns and
cities in Nigeria due to rapid urbanization and changing
lifestyles. Rate of scrap tyres discarded in most of the
industrialized nations has reached one per year per capital
(EPA 2010), and this is expected to increase with
increasing new tyre production, which was expected to hit
three billion in 2015. The potential of scrap tyres for reuse
in various applications has been reported. Tyre-derived fuel
(TDF) has gained significance in major incinerators and
other facilities such as cement kiln and utility boilers
(Clark et al. 1991) where high heat energy is required.
Recoverable heat energy from scrap tyre (37,600 kJ/kg) is
higher than that from coal source, which gives 27,200 kJ/
kg (Pirnie 1991). Scrap tyres have been used in com-
pounding other materials such as asphalt and polymers in
order to improve or upgrade their targeted engineering
properties. This process of reuse has not reduced the vol-
ume of scrap tyres considerably as expected (Anf and
Emad 2014), and this may be unconnected to environ-
mental concerns such as emission of hazardous gases and
particulate matter (Anf and Emad 2014).
Sub-Sahara Africa where landfill is managed poorly and
scrap tyres are discarded indiscriminately. Prevalence of

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mosquitoes in Sub-Sahara Africa is essentially linked to
their breeding spaces of which scrap tyres by virtue of their
large cavity for water and colour are attractive habitat
(USEPA 2012; Reschner 2008). Scrap tyres serve as
breeding habitat for other dangerous insects and pests such
as scorpion, rodents and snakes (USEPA 2012; Reschner
2008). Piles of scrap tyres littering conspicuous places in
most Nigerian towns and cities usually disfigure the natural
and municipal aesthetics of these areas (USEPA 2012).
Residents often result in burning of these scrap tyres in
order to ameliorate these challenges, and the practice has
become very rampant in Third World countries (Anf and
Emad 2014).
Tyre is composed of natural and synthetic rubber, sul-
phur, filler, accelerators, antioxidants, fabrics and option-
ally steel wires as well as other industrial chemicals
targeting the desired specification (Anf and Emad 2014;
Hassanien 2007). Majority of these components are of
hydrocarbon origin, and when subjected to very high
temperatures during combustion processes, the emissions
from such operations are most likely to contain air pollu-
tants. Tyre also contains various heavy metals, such as
aluminium, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cad-
mium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, magnesium,
manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, silicon, tin, tita-
nium and zinc (EPA 1995).
The disposal process and air emissions from the open
burning of scrap tyres have been the environmental prob-
lems associated with scrap tyres (Lewtas 2007). Large
toxic residues and hazardous gaseous emissions are gen-
erated because of thick black toxic smoke, which emanates
from open burning of scrap tyres. Toxic residues and
gaseous emissions from burning tyres may lead to envi-
ronmental harm and pose serious threats to public health
and safety (Hassanien 2007). Black carbon was also found
to be a major pollutant from open burning of scrap tyres
(Bond et al. 2004). Most of these pollutants, especially
dioxins, are carried over long distances from their emission
sources, and they persist in the atmosphere for decades
without breaking down into less harmful compounds and
accumulate in soil, water and food sources (Lee et al.
2003, 2005).
Various health challenges such as nervous system dis-
order, dermal and eye irritations, respiratory complications
among others have been linked to the length and the degree
of exposure to the emissions from open burning of scrap
tyres (Anf and Emad 2014). Environmental experts have
developed and used emission factors to quantify the aver-
age rate at which pollutants are released from scrap tyre
combustion into the atmosphere (Akagi et al. 2010;
Lemieux et al. 2004). Thus, many countries are studying
the problems of open burning of scrap tyres with regard to
the local air quality and human risks (CDHS 2003).
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Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
Therefore, this study was carried out to investigate the
emission of gaseous pollutants (CO, NO2 and SO2), total
suspended particulate (TSP) and heavy metals from the
combustion of tyres.
Materials and methods
Collection of tyre samples
Scrap tyre samples were collected from tyre repairing
workshops. The aggregate samples comprising of mixtures
of the shreds of the various makers of tyres were selected
(Table 1). The reason for choosing these vehicle types as
representative for this study is that light vehicles (passen-
ger cars, motorcycles and bicycles) are used dominantly
within towns and cities while heavy vehicles (trucks) are
used to transport goods between northern and southern
regions of Nigeria. The tyre samples were washed, cleaned
and shade-dried to remove any adhered foreign materials
and shredded to uniform sizes (Shakya et al. 2008;
Lemieux and Ryan 1993).
Experimental set-up
Laboratory simulations using a flux chamber approach,
which is an effective way to develop emission factors, was
adopted for this study (Lemieux et al. 2004; Lemieux and
Ryan 1993). This process facilitates the use of small
amounts of the representative material while the quality of
the emitted products can be effectively characterized
(Lemieux et al. 2004). The combustion chamber was fab-
ricated with stainless steel to reduce the effect of corrosion.
It has two parts: the cylindrical and a detachable inverted
funnel-like part with a conductive tube, 2 cm in diameter
attached directly to the top of the cylinder. The combustion
chamber has a diameter of 15.5 cm and a height of 46 cm
(the length of the cylinder and the inverted funnel is 18 and
28 cm, respectively). The volume of the chamber is
4000 cm3. Combustion chamber was purged by scrubbing,
and air was blown into it using air blower in order to make
the chamber free of any contaminant (Shakya et al. 2008;
Lemieux and Ryan 1993). Shredded samples (50 g) each
were weighed and burnt for 20 min. In the experimental
Table 1 Description of representative tyre samples used for the study
Types of vehicle tyres sample Abbreviation Average weight (kg)
Bicycle tyre BT 1.4
Motorcycle tyre MT 6.5
Car tyre CT 9.1
Truck tyre TT 45.4
Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.
process, ambient air was introduced into the chamber
through the pores at the lower part of the chamber to
maintain pressure equilibrium within the chamber
(Lemieux and Ryan 1993). The smoke released from the
combustion chamber was taken from the flue through a
conductive tube, which was attached to the top of the
chamber (Lemieux and Ryan 1993).
Sampling of total suspended particulates (TSP)
The TSP measurement was made by gravimetric air sam-
pling method using Negretti air sampler (Model NR 700).
In this method, air samples were drawn from combustion
chamber using a vacuum pump with a rate of 12 l/min
through pre-weighed cellulose filter (Whatman) of size
2.5 cm diameter (Lemieux and Ryan 1993). Prior to use,
the filters were desiccated and tarred and then placed in an
aluminium foil and a zip-lock bag (Anf and Emad 2014).
After sampling, the filters were desiccated (to remove any
moisture content) and re-weighed using a high-precision
balance (Mettler Toledo XP6) (EPA 1999) to determine
change in the weight of the filter. The mass concentration
of the total suspended particulate collected from the com-
bustion process was evaluated using Eq. (1). The volu-
metric flow rate of the sampler is 12 l/min (0.72 m3/h), and
the concentration is expressed in microgram per cubic
metre (lg/m3).
ðwf  wi Þ
TSPconcentration ¼  106 ð1Þ
Qt
where wf = final weight (g) of the filter after sampling,
wi = initial weight (g) of the filter before sampling,
Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/h) of inlet air, t = sampling
period (h), 106 is the conversion factor from gram to
microgram.
Estimation of the toxicity potentials of the emitted
TSP
The toxicity potential (TP) expresses the ratio of the
measured/extrapolated concentration of the pollutant to the
statutory concentration limit of the pollutant (Fakinle et al.
2013). The toxicity potential of the measured/extrapolated
pollutants was computed using Eq. (2) (Fakinle et al.
2013). Because of the proximity of residential houses,
workshops and offices to the plume path, the probability of
human health effects exists. By definition, TP exceeding
unity ([1) gives cause for concern (Fakinle et al. 2013).
CiðtÞ
TPi ¼ ð2Þ
SLi ðtÞ
where TPi represents the toxicity potential of pollutant ‘i’,
Ci is the measured/extrapolated concentration of pollutant
‘i’ at time ‘t’, SLi is the statutory concentration limit of
pollutant ‘i’ at time ‘t’.
Determination of elemental composition
The filters containing the TSP of the tyre samples were
analysed for the presence and concentration of heavy
metals. The filters were digested using a mixture of nitric
acid (HNO3) and perchloric acid (HClO3) in ratio 2:1 (Anf
and Emad 2014). The content was heated on a hot plate at
105 °C for about 1 h until the colour changed from reddish
brown to colourless under a fume cupboard. The solution
was allowed to cool, filtered with a Whatman No. 42 filter
paper and made up to 25 ml with distilled water. 25 ml of
the digest was used to determine the concentrations of
heavy metals using Buck Scientific Atomic Absorption
Spectrometer (AAS Buck Scientific VGP 210 Model) at the
Central Research Laboratory, University of Ibadan, Nige-
ria. The instrument was calibrated with appropriate stan-
dards to obtain calibration curves. The metals determined
include Co, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd, Mg, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn, which
are found, commonly, in tyre composition (EPA 1995).
Quantification of the gaseous pollutants
A validated Testo 350 XL flue gas analyser (Fig. 1) was
used for quantification of the gaseous pollutants emitted
from the smokes of the burning scrap tyres. This is a
portable multi-gas detector designed to analyse criteria air
pollutants in hazardous environments. It offers detection of
up to six gases in a compact, rugged solution and capable
of withstanding harsh environments. Air was withdrawn,
continuously, from the combustion chamber and sent to the
gas analyser through probe for the quantification of the
gaseous pollutants. There are modules of different gases in
the analyser. When module of a gas is inserted, the con-
centration of the gas is measured and displayed on the
screen. In this study, modules for CO, NO2 and SO2 were
used to measure their concentrations in the air sample in
lg/m3.
Fig. 1 Testo 350 XL flue gas analyser
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 Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Computation of Air Quality Index (AQI) of gaseous
emissions from OBST
An Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used by govern-
ment agencies to communicate to the public how polluted
the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become
(EPA 2000). As the AQI increases, an increasingly large
percentage of the population is likely to experience
increasingly severe adverse health effects (Anf and Emad
2014; EPA 2000). Computation of the AQI requires an air
pollutant concentration over a specified averaging period,
obtained from an air monitor or model. The AQI values
were obtained using Eq. (3).
Ihigh  Ilow
I¼ ðC  Clow Þ þ Ilow
Chigh  Clow
where I = Air Quality Index, C = pollutant concentration,
Clow = concentration breakpoint that is BC, Chigh = con-
centration breakpoint that is CC, Ilow = index breakpoint
corresponding to Clow, Ihigh = index breakpoint corre-
sponding to Chigh.
tested tyre samples emitting TSP levels was
CT [ TT [ MT [ BT which is similar to the trend
observed for the emission of NO2. TSP concentrations were
generally higher than the FMEnV (Federal Ministry of
Environment) standard for ambient TSP (250 lg/m3) in all
the tyre samples investigated. Recent research works have
linked high TSP concentration with premature death. In
addition, both aged and people with pre-existing heart and
respiratory diseases could be at the greatest health risk (Anf
and Emad 2014). Particulate matters (PMs) are harmful to
human health and can cause harmful effect on human
respiratory track and skin (Anf and Emad 2014). Inhalation
of particulate matter can aggravate various respiratory and
cardiovascular problems as well as causes death, at extreme
ð3Þ cases (Carleton et al. 2003; EPA 2000). TSP from sources
of open burning of scrap tyres reaches surrounding areas
with high concentration despite distance and meteorologi-
cal factors (Anf and Emad 2014). High concentrations of
TSP detected in this study indicate the level of environ-
mental impact of scrap tyre burning on the environment
and human health.

Toxicity potential of the emitted TSP from OBST

Results and discussion
Concentration of TSP in tyre samples
Concentration of TSP from BT, MT, CT and TT repre-
sentative tyres was 720, 830, 1670 and 1310 lg/m3,
respectively (Fig. 2). CT has the highest TSP concentration
while the lowest was observed in BT. The order of the
The computed FMEnV TP levels for TSP for BT, MT, CT
and TT samples (Table 2) were 2.88, 3.32, 6.68 and 5.24,
respectively. Since TP values of all the tyre samples
exceeded unity, such concentrations of TSP have great
tendency of causing harm to human health and environ-
ment and therefore should be avoided.

3000 Heavy metals concentration of particulate matter

2500
TSP (μg/m3)

2000 Analysis of the TSP samples revealed the presence of the

1500 selected heavy metals such as Co, Pb, Cr, Ni, Cd, Mg, Mn,
1000 Fe, Cu and Zn. High concentrations of heavy metals in the
500 atmosphere lead to adverse effects on human health and the
0 surrounding environment (Anf and Emad 2014). The con-
BT MT CT TT
centrations of these heavy metals in the particulate matter
Tyre Samples
in the emission from the burning of the representative scrap
Fig. 2 TSP concentration from representative tyre samples tyre samples are presented in Fig. 3.

Table 2 Air Quality Index AQI values Levels of health concern Frequency (%)
(AQI) of gaseous emissions
from OBST and their health CO (ppm) NO2 (ppb) SO2 (ppb)
concerns (EPA 2000)
0–50 Good 0.0 37.5 0.0
51–100 Moderate 75.0 37.5 75.0
101–150 Unhealthy (sensitive groups) 25.0 25.0 25.0
151–200 Unhealthy 0.0 0.0 0.0
201–300 Very unhealthy 0.0 0.0 0.0
301–500 Hazardous 0.0 0.0 0.0

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Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

4000

concentraon of heavy metals

3500
3000
2500
2000

(mg/kg)
1500
1000
500
0
Mg Mn
Co (mg/kg) Pb (mg/kg) Cr (mg/kg) Ni (mg/kg) Cd (mg/kg) Fe (mg/kg) Cu (mg/kg) Zn (mg/kg)
(mg/kg) (mg/kg)
BT 73.96 28.13 153.12 101.56 3.12 375 5.21 2963.53 71.88 51.56
MT 29.17 51.56 322.39 230.21 5.21 666.66 24.04 1687.49 22.4 22.4
CT 117.9 13.27 149.07 120.06 4.32 839.5 33.95 1648.14 60.19 3876.52
TT 44.58 5.83 110.83 190 1.25 429.17 16.67 1354.18 40.42 3208.36

Fig. 3 Concentration of heavy metals (mg/kg) in bicycle (BT), motorcycle (MT), car (CT) and truck tyre (TT) samples

The highest (5.21 mg/kg) and lowest (1.25 mg/kg) Cd
concentrations were detected in MT and TT, respectively.
These concentrations emitted from the tyre samples are
above USEPA standard value of 0.48 mg/kg (USEPA
2002) (Table 3). This result contradicts the result of a
similar study by Anf and Emad (2014). Health effects such
as diarrhoea, stomach pains, severe vomiting and repro-
ductive failure have direct link with high intake of cad-
mium through inhalation (Santamaria 2008). The highest
(322.39 mg/kg) and lowest (110.83 mg/kg) Cr concentra-
tions were detected in MT and TT, respectively, and are
above USEPA standard value of 11 mg/kg (USEPA 2002)
(Table 3), unlike the results of a similar study by Anf and
Emad (2014).
The highest (71.88 mg/kg) and lowest (22.40 mg/kg)
concentrations of Cu were detected in BT and MT,
respectively. The values obtained for Cu from the tyre
samples are below USEPA standard value of 270 mg/kg
(USEPA 2002). Copper is an essential nutrient for good
health; however, higher intake has been found to be
detrimental. Long-term exposure to copper could cause
anaemia, thinning of bones, heart diseases and malfunction
of thyroid gland. High inhale of copper can also cause liver
and kidney damage and even result to death (Anf and Emad
2014).
The highest (230.21 mg/kg) and lowest (101.56 mg/kg)
concentrations of Ni were detected in MT and BT,
Table 3 24-h toxicity potential (TP) of TSP in tyre samples
Tyre sample
BT
MT
CT
TT
respectively. The values obtained for Ni from the tyre
samples are above USEPA standard value of 72 mg/kg
(USEPA 2002). However, high level of inhaled nickel
compounds can lead to higher chances of development of
lung, nose, larynx and prostate cancers, respiratory failure,
birth defects, asthma, chronic bronchitis and heart disor-
ders (Santamaria 2008). The highest (51.56 mg/kg) and
lowest (5.83 mg/kg) concentrations of Pb were detected in
MT and TT, respectively. The values obtained for Pb from
the tyre samples are below USEPA standard value of
200 mg/kg (USEPA 2002). Pb has effect on brain and
intellectual development in infants and children, while
long-term exposure in both children and adults can also
cause damage to the kidneys, reproductive and immune
systems in addition to effects on the nervous system (Elihn
et al. 2011).
Zn has the highest (3876.52 mg/kg) and lowest
(22.40 mg/kg) concentrations in CT and MT, respectively.
The values obtained for Zn from CT and TT representa-
tives are above while those of BT and MT are below the
USEPA standard value of 1100 mg/kg (USEPA 2002).
This could be linked to the fact that in tyre manufacturing
process, Zn is commonly used as a curing element. The
result for CT is in agreement with the result of a similar
study by Anf and Emad (2014). Health problems such as
stomach cramps, skin irritations, vomiting and nausea have
been associated with high level of zinc intake (Santamaria
2008). The highest concentrations of Co (117.90 mg/kg)
and Fe (2963.53 mg/kg) were detected in CT while the
Toxicity potential (TP) lowest concentrations of Co (29.17 mg/kg) and Fe
(1354.18 mg/kg) were observed in MT. The highest con-
2.88 centrations of Mg (839.50 mg/kg) and Mn (33.95 mg/kg)
3.32 were detected in CT while the lowest concentrations of Mg
6.68 (375.00 mg/kg) and Mn (5.21 mg/kg) were observed in
5.24 BT.

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 Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Fig. 4 Gas (CO, NO2 and SO2) 300 12000

NO2 and SO2 emissions (µg/m3)

emissions from representative

CO emissions (μg/m3)
tyre samples. *USEPA 250 10000
allowable limit (lg/m3)
standards for gaseous pollutants 200 8000
(USEPA 2012)
150 6000

100 4000

50 2000

0 0
BT MT CT TT USEPA*
NO2 (µg/m3) 41.41 110.33 207.055 138.035 56.33
SO2 (µg/m3) 175.21 177.5 211.795 215.33 156.74
CO (µg/m3) 7401.415 8855.985 10698.165 10901.19 10285.71

Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations
The concentration levels of CO in the emissions from the
open burning of representative tyre samples (BT, MT, CT
and TT) were 7401.42 ± 126.45, 8855.99 ± 126.45,
10,698.17 ± 152.09 and 10,901.19 ± 19.13 lg/m3,
respectively (Fig. 4). TT has the highest (10,901.19 lg/m3)
CO concentration while the lowest (7401.42 lg/m3) was
observed in BT. The decreasing order of CO emission from
the tyre samples levels was TT [ CT [ MT [ BT. The
observed concentrations of CO from different samples and
qualities were found to vary quantitatively despite using
same mass and condition. It infers therefore that the
emission levels were dependent on either the material
compositions, the moisture content (not analysed although)
or both among the selected tyre samples. Shakya et al.
(2008) reported a similar trend of higher concentration of
CO in the opening burning of car and bicycle tyres.
may suggest that the nitrogen-based compound in car tyres
is relatively higher than that in truck tyres.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) concentrations
SO2 emission from the burning of BT, MT, CT and TT
representative tyres was 175.21 ± 10.46, 177.5 ± 11.46,
211.80 ± 42.36 and 215.33 ± 47.09 lg/m3, respectively
(Fig. 4). TT has the highest (215.33 lg/m3) SO2 concen-
tration while the lowest (175.21 lg/m3) was observed in
BT. The concentration levels of SO2 were also found to be
quantitatively low and negligible in comparison with those
of CO (Shakya et al. 2008). However, SO2 emission fol-
lowed similar trends with that of CO and the order of SO2
Table 4 Regulatory standard of heavy metals (USEPA 2002)
Heavy metals Tolerable level (mg/kg)

Cd 0.48
Cr 11
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations Cu 270
Ni 72
NO2 emission (Fig. 4) from BT, MT, CT and TT repre- Pb 200
sentative tyres was 41.41 ± 13.8, 110.33 ± 27.71, Zn 1100
207.06 ± 13.8 and 138.04 ± 13.81 lg/m3, respectively. Co ND
The highest (207.06 lg/m3) and lowest (41.41 lg/m3) NO2 Mg ND
concentrations were observed in CT and BT, respectively. Mn ND
The concentration levels of NO2 were found to be quan- Fe ND
titatively low and negligible relative to CO (Shakya et al.
2008), yet they both follow similar trend. These findings ND not determined
are in agreement with a similar study by Shakya et al.
(2008). The order of the tested tyre samples emitting NO2 Table 5 Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) of gaseous pollutants
from open burning of scrap tyres
was as CT [ TT [ MT [ BT. The observed concentra-
tions of NO2 from different tyre categories were found to CO (lg/m3) NO2 (lg/m3) SO2 (lg/m3)
vary significantly, despite burning the same mass of each
CO 1
sample under same experimental conditions. NO2 in CT
NO2 0.885 1
was found exceptionally highest unlike the trend in the
SO2 0.949 0.802 1
emission of CO, where the highest was observed in TT. It

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Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Table 6 Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) of heavy metal pollutants from open burning of scrap tyres
Co (mg/kg) Pb (mg/kg) Cr (mg/kg) Ni (mg/kg) Cd (mg/kg) Mg (mg/kg) Mn (mg/kg) Fe (mg/kg) Cu (mg/kg) Zn (mg/kg)

Co 1
Pb -0.992 1
Cr -0.879 0.931 1
Ni -0.795 0.864 0.988 1
Cd -0.429 0.537 0.808 0.889 1
Mg 0.363 -0.246 0.126 0.276 0.686 1
Mn 0.334 -0.216 0.156 0.306 0.708 0.999 1
Fe -0.021 -0.102 -0.459 -0.589 -0.894 -0.939 -0.949 1
Cu 0.734 -0.812 -0.969 -0.995 -0.928 -0.366 -0.394 0.663 1
Zn 0.867 -0.799 -0.523 -0.386 0.079 0.779 0.759 -0.517 0.298 1

emission was TT [ CT [ MT [ BT. These concentrations
are relatively high compared to values obtained by Shakya
et al. (2008) where the level of NO detected was attributed
to atmospheric NO. The level of NO in this study is
therefore traceable of the tyre types investigated.
The results obtained from this study showed that the
emission level of CO due to CT and TT exceeded USEPA
allowable limit (10,285.71 lg/m3) (USEPA 2012). The
emission level of SO2 in all the tyre samples investigated
exceeded USEPA allowable limit (156.74 lg/m3) which
may suggest the increase in the use of sulphur in vulcan-
ization of the tyres. NO2 concentration was below the
allowable limit (56.33 lg/m3) only in BT while other types
(MT, CT and TT) exceeded the limit. The obtained values
for these hazardous gases are worrisome because as pri-
mary pollutants, they are capable of having harmful effects
on public health and environment (Treebox 2004; Lemieux
and Ryan 1993; Palmer 1974).
Air Quality Index (AQI) of gaseous emissions
from OBST
The EPA Air Quality Index (AQI) values of CO, NO2 and
SO2 emissions from open burning of scrap tyres are shown in
Table 4. About 75, 37.5 and 75% of CO, NO2 and SO2
emitted from open burning of scrap tyres are within the AQI
range of 51–100 and are categorized as ‘moderate’ Levels of
Health Concern (EPA 2000). Only NO2 (37.5%) falls within
AQI range of 0–50, which is categorized as ‘good’ Levels of
Health Concern (EPA 2000). Characteristically, 25% of all
the investigated gaseous pollutants (CO, NO2 and SO2)
emitted from open burning of scrap tyres are within the AQI
range of 101–150. They are categorized as ‘unhealthy for
sensitive groups’, Levels of Health Concern (EPA 2000);
thus, people with heart disease, asthma or other respiratory
diseases, the elderly and children are the groups most at risk
of exposure to these gaseous emissions from open burning of
scrap tyres (Dibofori-Orji and Braide 2013; Carleton et al.
2003; EPA 2000).
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R) of pollutants
from open burning of scrap tyres
Pearson’s correlation (R) of 0.885, 0.949 and 0.802 was
obtained for CO/NO2, CO/SO2 and NO2/SO2, respectively
(Table 5), and this indicates a strong correlation among all
the gaseous pollutants detected in the emissions from the
burning scrap tyres. Thus, increase in concentration of any
of the gaseous pollutants (CO, NO2 and SO2) in the
emissions invariably means increase in concentration of
other gaseous pollutant and vice versa. The Pearson’s
correlation matrix among the elemental composition of the
particulate matter obtained from the emissions of open
burning the scrap tyre samples is presented in Table 6.
All positive and strong correlations indicate relationship
among the elements in the same trend such that increase in
the concentration of any suggests increase in concentration
of the other. The negative correlation suggests impairment
in the concentrations of any pair of the elements detected in
the emission; thus, increase in one may reduce the release of
the other. Significantly, the highest (0.999) and lowest
(0.079) positive correlations were observed between Mg and
Mn as well as Cd and Zn, respectively. The highest (0.992)
and lowest (0.021) negative correlations occurred between
Co and Pb as well as Fe. This indicates high tendency of Co
in suppressing the release of Pb and Fe in the particulate
matter in emission from open burning of scrap tyres.
Conclusion
The health and environmental impacts of open burning of
scrap tyres have been assessed. This study has significantly
established that gaseous pollutants (CO, NO2 and SO2) are
present at varying concentrations in all categories of tyres

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