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To cite this article: Marcela Pardo & María-José Opazo (2019): Resisting schoolification from the
classroom. Exploring the professional identity of early childhood teachers in Chile / Resistiendo
la escolarización desde el aula. Explorando la identidad profesional de las docentes de primera
infancia en Chile, Cultura y Educación, DOI: 10.1080/11356405.2018.1559490
Article views: 10
Abstract: This article presents a study which aimed to explore the profes-
sional identity of early childhood teachers in Chile, applying a sociocultural
approach. Relying on an exploratory qualitative design, data were collected
through focus groups and photo-narratives. The findings show that these
teachers understand that child-centred pedagogy is the pillar of their profes-
sional identity; that they perceive that this is under threat from the school-
ification of early childhood education; and that they admit that their capacity
to resist this tendency is limited to the classroom. These findings suggest
that, having scarce resources available to negotiate their professional identity
in their working context, early childhood teachers in Chile have a limited
capacity for agency.
Keywords: early childhood teachers; professional identity; agency; educational
reforms; schoolification
Since 2000, early childhood education has become the subject of high priority
within the public policy agendas of many countries, as we can observe in the
numerous government initiatives carried out to promote its expansion and quality
(Adlerstein & Pardo, 2017; Oberhuemer & Schreyer, 2018). This increase can be
explained by the abundant scientific multidisciplinary evidence showing the
positive impact of early childhood education at both the individual and the social
level (Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, & Barnett, 2010; Melhuish et al., 2015; Ruhm &
Waldfogel, 2011), thanks to which it has tended to lose its historical association
with goals which were more welfare or recreational, and has started to be
recognized for its educational value (Weikart, 2000). At the same time, alongside
the growing political concern for the unsatisfactory performance of primary
school students, early childhood education has also started to be seen as
a powerful platform for fostering the early development of the basic skills
needed at school. In this context, early childhood education is being increasingly
commended with the task of preparing children for primary schooling, thus
ensuring that they begin school without disadvantages (Moss, 2012b).
Within this scenario, various authors have shown concern about the emer-
gence of the so-called ‘schoolification’ of early childhood education in different
countries, such as, for example, England (Moss, 2002), New Zealand (Alcock &
Haggerty, 2013), Iceland (Gunnarsdottir, 2014) and Denmark (Brogaard Clausen,
2015). This phenomenon has emerged from a restricted approach to preparing
young children for primary school, tending to emphasize early literacy and
mathematics skills, to the detriment of socio-emotional development and the
well-being of children, privileging the use of instructional methods that relegate
the play-based methodology that has traditionally characterized early childhood
education (Moss, 2012a; OECD, 2006; OMEP, 2010).
While the schoolification of early childhood education is not at all a recent
phenomenon, with over five decades of literature having been dedicated to the
subject, it has intensified across the world over the last 20 years. For some
authors, this tendency is due to the influence of standardized international school
learning achievement tests (e.g., PISA), which, even when applied to older
students, have influenced the curriculum and the methodologies of the entire
school system (Tager, 2017).
The evidence available shows that schoolification has been resisted among
early childhood teachers, who consider it to be at odds with their professional
identity. Thus, for example, Siraj-Blatchford (1993) suggests that educational
reforms in the United Kingdom have led early childhood teachers to feel under-
mined, due to the serious restriction on their professional autonomy and the lack
of power they have to challenge the imposed changes. Ortlipp at al. have also
(2011) pointed out that the national curriculum for early childhood education in
Australia has generated resistance among teachers, since the prescription of
required learning results contradicts their professional identity, which is oriented
more flexibly towards the development and care of young children.
Similar findings have reported the scarce studies carried out to address this
issue in Latin America. According to Mieles-Barrera, Henríquez-Linero, and
Resistiendo la escolarización desde el aula 3
Conceptual framework
In general terms, professional identity has been defined as individuals’ concep-
tions of themselves as professionals, in terms of, for example, their meanings,
4 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
to take them into account at all times (Eteläpelto & Saarinen, 2006; Eteläpelto,
Vähäsantanen, Hökkä, & Paloniemi, 2013, 2014).
In the field of early childhood education, a number of studies have shown that
educational reforms constitute one of the strongest contextual factors in terms of
requiring teachers to renegotiate their professional identity. For example, Dalli
(2017) shows how recent governmental reforms in early childhood education in
New Zealand have put a strain on teachers’ work, since the design of these new
policies imposes constraints that prevent them from guaranteeing professional-
ism. In Spain, analysing the life story of an early childhood teacher, Sarceda
Gorgoso (2017) concludes that her professional identity had been significantly
influenced throughout her career by the working context in which she had
worked, alongside the support of her family and the teachers she had during
her training. Complementary to this, López (2013) found that early childhood
teachers in Mexico defined their professional identity on the basis of the theore-
tical frameworks provided in the national curriculum, despite perceiving that the
policies conceived them as mere applicators of these proposals, without the
capacity to carry out the task creatively.
In Chile, Viviani (2016) found that early childhood teachers understood their
professional role, contradicting the view of representatives of the provider
institutions. Specifically, while the representatives show that early childhood
teachers lack specialized knowledge, they consider themselves capable or suita-
bly qualified despite this. Also in Chile, Galdames (2017) found that the daily
activities carried out by early childhood teachers break away from normative
discourses — present in public policies and other areas of the field — that link
their professional identity with patriarchal views.
Methodology
Participants
A total of six female early childhood teachers participated in the study, all of
whom had labour experience ranging between seven and 25 years. All partici-
pants worked in childcare centres and primary schools providing early childhood
education, and serving children from low-income families in Santiago de Chile,
with some providing conventional modalities and others non-conventional.
6 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
Results
Responding to the questions that guided this study, the main findings obtained
are presented below, introducing textual citations from the participants in order
to support our analysis.
To get rid of this bias, they say that we prepare children for school. I state quite
clearly that we have our own role. This is our [educational] level. We aren’t
thinking about going to first year [of primary]. Or at least I personally don’t
think we should be thinking about preparing these children to start another level.
We have to foster this child, to foster their qualities. (Teacher ‘D’, childcare centre)
I can do theoretical work just as well as play-based work, because I also have to
normalize these children who are soon going to join elementary education [pri-
mary] and who are going to have to face up to a kind of education which is totally
different to the one I see right now in the preschool level. (Teacher ‘A’, school)
We are not just carers. What we do is to teach; to help them foster themselves. Our
job also involves thinking and we use our mind a lot. You have to create learning
instances. (Teacher ‘C’, school)
I think that many times it is not being improved [early childhood education] but,
rather, because of these famous goals [governmental] that they impose in the
educational part [to ensure the quality of educational provision]; [the problem is
8 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
that] we’re not making a product here, we’re educating children, people. And that’s
why I refuse [to use schoolified methods]. (Teacher ‘D’, childcare centre)
When they see that the learning experiences, that the little ones are doing drama-
tizations; that we did a presentation on healthy eating; that when we celebrated the
week of transport we signposted the whole playground and we invited families and
the management teams. Actually, that’s when we get families and the managers of
the educational system to think in another way, when they see that the job of the
early childhood teacher is important. And that the job that the early childhood
teacher is doing in this centre is really having an impact on the school. (Teacher
‘A’, school)
A friend told me: ‘I got to the school and the head handed me a sheet: “right, you
have to teach these patterns, there you have the templates to work on”’. My
friend’s jaw fell off [she was dumbfounded] [… but] she found a way to speak
to this person and to say: ‘look, this is like this and that’ and this head listened to
her, so I think he valued her as a professional. (Teacher ‘E’, childcare centre)
On the other hand, the educational authorities of the country, according to the
participants, constitute the main threat to child-centred pedagogy since their
vision is transferred into national regulations upon which they have no influence
whatsoever. In this respect, particular mention was given to the SIMCE, since
pressures to raise students’ scores have introduced learning goals and pedagogi-
cal methods which are unsuitable for early childhood education.
Resistiendo la escolarización desde el aula 9
Nevertheless, all participants recognize that they have limited resources for
resisting the schoolification of early childhood education, with this being limited
to individual efforts, in contrast to what they think collective action could
achieve.
One is immersed in one’s own context; in a school with its own IEP [Institutional
Education Project], which has its own educational project with its own
Improvement Plan. And you also have to follow this. I mean to say that you’re
not completely free to say: ‘I’m going to do this, and I don’t want the children to
do this priming4, because I think the children can be primed in another way’.
(Teacher ‘C’, school)
In this sense, they raised a strong self-criticism of their profession regarding the
lack of actions to counteract public policies promoting the schoolification of
early childhood education. More specifically, the participants directed their
criticism at professional organizations, at initial teacher training programmes
and at provider institutions for their progressive inclination towards the school-
ification of early childhood education.
When [President] Piñera passed reforms, when he took on, it was established that
we would have more children and less adults in the classroom, [and] we didn’t say
anything. I mean what did the OMEP [World Organization for Preschool
Education] say? Being early childhood teachers, and with loads of experience in
research, and with the weight they have in early childhood education, there wasn’t
a single statement from them. The JUNJI [National Board for Early Childhood
Education], nothing, having the higher percentage of children. Integra [Foundation]
nothing either […] And, when I asked in training sessions, I said: ‘How come
JUNJI doesn’t make a statement?’ (Teacher ‘B’, childcare centre)
10 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
Overall, the results obtained cannot be considered conclusive since they have
been withdrawn from an exploratory study and, therefore, require further
research. However, by revealing the idea that their professional identity is
being threatened by the current educational context, these findings can be
taken as a wake-up call for early childhood teachers. In this sense, they represent
a warning on the need to problematize their own professional identity in the
current educational context, pursuing ways to strengthen their collective capacity
to negotiate this identity in the different spheres of the field.
Notes
1. While the official title given to the profession in Chile is ‘nursery school educator’,
this article refers to them as ‘early childhood teachers’ to facilitate understanding in
the international sphere. Likewise, they are referred to using the female gender, in
order to facilitate reading, and in view of the composition of the profession, which
is almost entirely female in this country, notwithstanding the participation of some
males.
2. The Preferential School Subsidy is a form of monetary aid that the state provides to
educational centres, in order to support four- and five-year-old groups, and older
students as well, who are defined as a priority — i.e., low socio-economic status.
Upon receipt of this subsidy, the provider undertakes to implement an Educational
Improvement Plan, establishing objectives, goals and actions to improve the learn-
ing of all students (Ministerio de Educación, 2018).
3. SIMCE is a standardized test that assesses learning achievements in the subjects of
language and vommunication (reading comprehension and writing), mathematics,
natural sciences, history, geography and social sciences and English. These are
applied to students of the second, fourth, sixth and eighth grades of primary
education, and the second and third of secondary education (Agencia de Calidad
de la Educación, 2018).
4. The term ‘prime’ refers to preparing children under six to acquire the skills that will
enable them to perform satisfactorily when they move up to primary education. In
Chile, this is equivalent to the concept of school readiness that can be found in the
literature (Pianta, Cox, & Snow, 2007; UNICEF, 2012).
12 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
Referentes conceptuales
La identidad profesional ha sido definida, en términos generales, como las
concepciones de los sujetos sobre sí mismos en tanto profesionales, en
términos de, por ejemplo, sus significados, valores, creencias, proyecciones,
actitudes, y prácticas, vinculándolos con sus contextos de trabajo de forma
dinámica (Rodgers & Scott, 2008; Vahasantanen & Billet, 2008).
Un eje central del debate actual sobre identidad profesional gira en torno a la
importancia relativa de la agencia individual, por un lado, y del contexto del
lugar de trabajo como determinantes primarios de este fenómeno. Es decir, según
un polo del debate, en qué grado los individuos tienen la capacidad de construir
su identidad profesional por sí mismos, con independencia de las dinámicas
y estructuras presentes en su lugar de trabajo. O, según el otro polo, cuán
fuertemente las estructuras y condiciones del contexto laboral definen la identi-
dad profesional de los individuos que trabajan, avasallando sus creencias, valores
y aspiraciones personales (Davey, 2013; Eteläpelto, Vähäsantanen, Hökkä, &
Paloniemi, 2014).
Nuestra visión de culturales ponen de relieve la centralidad de las condiciones
materiales y socioculturales del lugar de trabajo en la construcción de la identidad
profesional, entendiendo que ésta se sitúa en un contexto laboral particular, donde
tienen lugar ciertos significados y prácticas de orden sociocultural. Desde este punto
de vista, las concepciones de los individuos sobre su trabajo son construidas dentro
de un marco de significados y prácticas de orden sociocultural (Davey, 2013).
Desde la perspectiva sociocultural, la identidad profesional se construye
a través de la participación y construcción de significado del individuo en su
lugar de trabajo. Es decir, el lugar de trabajo representa un contexto que
influye en la construcción de la identidad profesional, por cuanto proporciona
herramientas y recursos sociales y culturales — es decir, un repertorio de
valores, normas y prácticas sociales que permiten al individuo hacer sentido
y participar en él. Esto implica que, si bien la identidad profesional de un
individuo refleja sus propios significados, valores, creencias, proyecciones,
actitudes y prácticas, éstos, por su parte, son continuamente construidos
Resistiendo la escolarización desde el aula 15
Metodología
Participantes
Participaron en la investigación seis docentes de primera infancia de sexo
femenino, con una experiencia laboral que fluctuaba entre siete y 25 años.
Todas ellas se desempeñaban en jardines infantiles y escuelas primarias con
educación de la primera infancia anexa que atienden a niños provenientes de
familias de bajos ingresos en Santiago de Chile, mediante la modalidad con-
vencional algunas y no convencional otras.
Resultados
Respondiendo a las preguntas que orientaron este estudio, a continuación se
presentan los principales hallazgos obtenidos, introduciendo citas textuales de las
participantes con el fin de sustanciar nuestro análisis.
Sacar ese sesgo, que dicen que nosotras preparamos a los niños para el colegio
[escuela]. Yo digo, netamente, que nosotras tenemos nuestra función. Éste es
nuestro ciclo. No estamos pensando en que vamos a llegar a primero [de primaria].
O, yo pienso, personalmente, que no debemos estar pensando en preparar a estos
niños para que empiecen con el otro ciclo. Nosotros, tenemos que potenciar a este
niño, potenciar sus características. (Docente ‘D’, jardín infantil)
Yo puedo hacer tanto el trabajo lúdico como el trabajo teórico, porque yo también
tengo que normalizar al niño, que el día de mañana se va a insertar en la enseñanza
básica [primaria], y se va a enfrenar sí o sí a esta línea educativa que es totalmente
diferente a la que yo tengo en este minuto en la etapa preescolar. (Docente ‘A’,
escuela)
18 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo
Más allá de dicha diferencia, todas las participantes recalcaron que la pedagogía
centrada en el niño sí busca aprendizajes concretos por parte de los niños,
descartando suspicacias respecto de la falta de su orientación en este
sentido. Más todavía, todas las participantes enfatizaron que la pedagogía cen-
trada en el niño es la más apropiada para favorecer el aprendizaje de los niños
pequeños, aclarando que ella, si bien lúdica, está lejos de ser improvisada, pues
requiere de una rigurosa planificación y evaluación de las experiencias propues-
tas, así como de un cuidadoso manejo del tiempo en que los niños están en el
centro educacional.
Cuando ven que las experiencias de aprendizaje, que los chiquillos [niños] están
realizando dramatizaciones; que hicimos una presentación de alimentación saludable;
que los chiquillos, cuando celebramos la semana del tránsito, preparamos todo el
patio con señalética, se invitó a la familia, se invitó a los directivos. En realidad, ahí
viene ese otro pensamiento de la familia y del contexto educativo de los directivos,
donde se dan cuenta que, efectivamente, la labor de la educadora de párvulos es
importante. Y que la labor que está haciendo esta educadora de párvulos, en esta
entidad educativa, realmente está produciendo un impacto dentro de la escuela.
(Docente ‘A’, escuela)
Una amiga me decía: ‘llegué al colegio [escuela], el director me pasó una hoja:
“listo, tienes que pasar patrones, y acá están las plantillas para que lo puedas
trabajar”’. A mi compañera se le cayó el pelo [quedó atónita] [… pero] sí tuvo la
forma de hablar con esa persona, de decirle: ‘mira, es así, así y así’, y ese director
también la escuchó, y yo siento que ahí también la valoró como profesional.
(Docente ‘E’, jardín infantil)
Distinto es el caso de las autoridades educacionales del país, las que, en la visión
de las participantes, constituyen la principal amenaza a la pedagogía centrada en
el niño, pues su visión queda plasmada en regulaciones nacionales sobre las
cuales ellas carecen de cualquier tipo de influencia. Particular mención a este
respecto recibió el SIMCE, pues la presión por elevar los resultados de los
estudiantes ha introducido metas de aprendizaje y métodos pedagógicos inapro-
piados la educación de la primera infancia.
Cuando pasó [el Presidente] Piñera, cuando asumió más niños y menos adultos en
sala, no dijimos nada. O sea, la OMEP [Organización Mundial para la Educación
Preescolar], qué declaración hizo. Siendo educadoras de párvulos. Y, con una gama
de experiencias de investigación, y con peso en educación de párvulos. No hubo
ningún grito [reclamo] de la OMEP. La JUNJI [Junta Nacional de Jardines
Infantiles], nula, teniendo el mayor porcentaje de niños y niñas. [Fundación]
Integra, tampoco […] Y, cuando preguntaba en inducciones, yo decía: ‘¿Cómo
JUNJI no hace ninguna declaración?’ (Docente ‘B’, jardín infantil)
Discusión y conclusiones
Este estudio exploró la identidad profesional de docentes de primera infancia en
Chile, a partir del enfoque sociocultural, la cual enfatiza la relevancia del
Resistiendo la escolarización desde el aula 21
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
This article is part of the project REDES N°140104, PCI-CONICYT and was funded by
Basal Project FB0003 of the CONICYT Associative Research Programme. The authors
would like to thank Christine Woodrow, Associate Professor of the School of Education
at Western Sydney University, Australia, for the invitation to participate in the Exploring
Professional Identity in Early Childhood Education study, which the present report is
part of. / Este artículo deriva del proyecto REDES N°140104, PCI-CONICYT, y fue
financiado por el Proyecto Basal FB0003 del Programa de Investigación Asociativa de
CONICYT. Las autoras agradecen a Christine Woodrow, Profesora Asociada de la
Escuela de Educación en la Universidad de Western Sydney, Australia, por la
invitación a participar en la investigación Exploring Professional Identity in Early
Childhood Education de la que el presente reporte es parte.
Notas
7. El SIMCE es una prueba estandarizada que evalúa los logros de aprendizaje en las
asignaturas de Lenguaje y Comunicación (Comprensión de Lectura y Escritura);
Matemática; Ciencias Naturales; Historia, Geografía y Ciencias Sociales e Inglés.
Éstas se aplican a estudiantes de 2°, 4°, 6°, 8° de educación primaria, y II y III de
educación secundaria (Agencia de Calidad de la Educación, 2018).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors/ Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
ORCID
Marcela Pardo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5993-7373
María-José Opazo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5386-6612
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26 M. Pardo and M.-J. Opazo