De La Salle University- Dasmariñas

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Engineering Department

STRUCTURAL DESIGN 1 (TIMBER)

PLATE NO. 1
LUMBER

MACARAIG, JOHN ALESSANDRO A. Rating:

CEE 41 2nd Sem. SY 2018-2019

Date Submitted: February 18, 2019

Submitted to: Engr. MARK JANNON MANDIGMA

Physical Properties of Wood

The main physical properties of wood include: color, luster, texture, macro-structure, odor,
moisture, shrinkage, internal stresses, swelling, cracking, warping, density, sound - electro -
thermal conductivity. Сolor, shine, texture and macrostructure determine the appearance of
wood.

Color – Wood of different breeds have different color - from white - aspen, spruce to black -
ebony. Tannins, resin and pigments, founded in cells cavities, make wood more colourfull.

Luster – is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly. It depends on wood density, size and
location of medullary rays, which reflect light rays pointedly, thereby creating the shine on the
radial aspect. Beech wood, maple, oak, elm have the most characteristic luster. Aspen, poplar
and linden has a matte surface due to a very narrow medullar rays, and thin cells walls. wood
gloss surface is enhanced and preserved for long periods of time by creating transparent
protective - decorative coatings.

Texture – is a peculiar pattern formed by the medullary rays, fibers, and yearly layers of wood in
different contexts. Texture saturation is determined by anatomical features of arboreous breeds
structure and the section direction, and by the colour of early and late wood, rippling and by
mixed up fibre arrangement.

Macrostructure – is characterized by the width of annual rings - the number of annual rings per
1 cm of segment, measured in the radial direction in cross section. Softwood have good
physical - mechanical features when the number of layers varies from 3 to 25. The percentage
of late wood in timber is determined by softwood samples. The higher late wood content in
timber, the more the density and better mechanical wood characteristics.

Odor – Essential oils, resins, tannins and other substances, founded in certain tree species,
give them a smell

Humidity – is the ratio of moisture mass in a given wood volume to the weight of absolutely dry
wood, expressed as a percentage. Moisture, soaking the cell membrane, named the bound or
hygroscopic, and moisture that fills the cavity of the cells and intercellular spaces, named free or
capillary.

Shrinkage – is a reduction of linear measurements and wood volume during drying. Shrinkage
occurs only during connected water evaporation.

Internal stresses – are stresses in the wood - round carving wood and sawn timber without an
application of external forces. Its reason - is an inequality of moisture distribution along section
of drying wood.

Warping – is a change in the form of the cross section during drying or wetting wood. Warping
could be transverse and longitudinal. Lateral buckling is expressed by changing the form of
board section. Its reason - is different shrinkage in the radial and tangential directions.

Sound conductivity - is a material property to conduct sound. It is characterized by the speed of

sound spreading in the material.
Electrical conductivity – is characterized by its resistance to the passage of electrical current. It
depends on wood species, temperature, humidity and the grain of the wood.

Thermal conductivity - is the ability of the material to store heat. Wood has low thermal
conductivity, since it has a lot of voids filled with air. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of wood
depends on its humidity: the less the moisture, the lower the thermal conductivity.

Durability - is the ability of wood to resist degradation (tension, compression, bending, shear,
etc.) under the action of external forces. Dense wood is generally more durable. Strength
decreases rapidly with the increasing wood moisture. Strength reduces rapidly if there are any
defects in wood.

Impact strength - is the ability of wood to absorb the work without breaking.

Hardness - is the feature of wood to resist the introduction of body of a certain form. The
hardness of the end surface is higher tangential and radial hardness to 30% for hardwood and
40% for softwood.

Resilience - is the ability of timber to restore the original shape after the termination of the
external forces. If these forces exceed a certain amount (the limit of elasticity), wood is either
destroyed or change its shape.

Plasticity - is the feature of wood to change its original shape under the action of applied forces
and keep a new form after termination of the force. Bending, stamping, etc are based on this
feature.

Fragility - is the ability of wood to break down suddenly without significantly shape changing
under the action of mechanical forces.

Сleavability - is the ability of wood to break down along the grain during penetration a wedge-
shaped body into it.

Severability - is a feature of wood to divide into parts of wood under the action of forces.

WOOD CLASSIFICATIONS

The classification of wood divides them into hard and soft, referring to a botanical difference
rather than to any definite degree of hard¬ness. The two groups differ in cell structure,
appearance and general properties.

Hardwood trees have broad, flat leaves that falloff after maturity. The Softwood trees have
needle or scale-like leaves which they retain all year; they are the evergreens. Most hardwoods
are stronger and less likely to dent than the softwoods; they also hold nails and screws more
securely. There are some, such as poplar and aspen that are actually softer than some of the
so-called softwoods.
HARDWOODS

Oak (Most commonly used furniture wood)

This is one of the most important of all woods for interior use. It may be sawed, either plain or
quartered, the latter being generally preferred for fine work, because of the stroking pattern
produced by the medullary rays. Plain oak is less expensive, because there is less waste in its
production, and it is used for the less important features, or where durability rather than beauty
is the chief consideration. Oak is generally divided into two groups, namely white and red.
Suitable for floors, wall panels, plywood, furniture and veneer.

As old as Greek and Roman Period. Of special importance in Medieval (English) Period. Other
periods dominated by oak furniture were the Greek Period, Renaissance Period. Tudor Period,
Elizabethean Period, Jacobean Period (heavily carved), Spanish Period as well as certain
Russian Period.

The wood of the oak tree has a bold textured surface used for panelling as well as furniture.
White oak available as well as red oak.

Properties of Oak

 Very hard
 Durable
 Beautiful grain, somewhat coarse, lends itself to carving
 Can be used for panelling
 Resistant to the vagaries of climate
 Adaptable to many kinds of finishes
 Heavy
 Colours and polishes well.

Walnut (European and American walnut)

Walnut has always been popular because of the endless variety of patterns in the graining. It is
not as hard as oak but harder than mahogany. In 500 B.C. seeds of the walnut tree were
planted in. Eastern Europe and 1,500 years later, during the Renaissance, the walnut became
very popular. Queen Anne of Britain preferred walnut furniture and this influence furniture
designers in New England (America).

Normally a light to very dark chocolate brown. Usually used for furniture as well as for veneer
finishes and panelling.

Good insulating can make a temperature control system much more effective. Some materials
are better insulators than others. Porous or aggregate materials such as wood and concrete
blocks are poor conduction of cold into the home. At the same time it prevents the warmth
generated by the heating system from escaping. In warm weather just the opposite is true
¬insulation keeps coolness inside and prevents heat from entering. Insulation is really quite
inexpensive but can make a major difference in the size of heating and cooling bills.
Properties of Walnut Wood

 Hard, can easily be worked with

 Natural resistance to shrinking and warping
 Strong
 Medium grain
 Takes a wide variety of finishes
 Durable
 Good gluing qualities

Cherry Wood (United States, Europe, Asia)

A durable hardwood of a reddish-brown colour, which is produced only in small quantities, the
trees being usually too small for lumbering. It is often used to imitate mahogany, which it greatly
resembles, and is used for marquetry and inlay. Can also be used for veneer work.

It is very cheerful with a warm appearance. Greek and Roman craftsmen used this wood for
inlays in fine furniture pieces. In the 16th and 17th Century while oak and walnut were most
popular in Italy and France and the rest of Europe, Cherrywood was still only used for inlays. In
1760, Louis XVI introduced cherrywood to France. (In New England cherrywood was originally
thought to be a type of mahogany because of its pinkish-brown colour.)

Properties of Cherry Wood

 Strong
 Durable
 Carves and polishes well

Blackwood (Australia, Tasmania and the Cape)

The colour varies from light to reddish brown to nearly black. The dark wood can easily be
confused with stinkwood. It has a very even texture, while the grain is straight and sometimes
even wavy and plaited because of the year rings.

Properties of Blackwood

 Hard Strong
 Easy to work with
 Can be polished to a high lustre

Stinkwood (Stinkwood or Cape Laurel)

It is an indigenous South African tree. Today it is a very scarce and expensive wood. The colour
varies from golden brown to black. The darker wood is the heavier. It has a fine texture and the
grain has often a spiral form. Suitable for any type of furniture.

Properties of Stinkwood

 Fairly hard
  Difficult to work with
 Liable to bugs
 Can be polished to a high lustre
 Colour varies from a light goldish colour to brown and almost black
 Darkens when polished
 Fine texture with spiral patterned grain

Teak

Teak contains natural oils which protect it from moisture. It is a high quality wood that is almost
maintenance free in any climate, and it does not need to be varnished or oiled to protect it. It is
also resistant to rot, termites and insects. It works easily and is very durable. Today teak is
usually treated with an oil stain, this is more to protect the colour of the wood, as over time, the
sun can bleach the colour. Teak lends itself well to s~mmetrical designs and the patterns of
Scandinavia and the Orient. Today it is mostly used for marine use, as well as outdoor furniture
as it is weather resistant. Outdorr furniture, benches and patio furniture are often made from
Teak. It is also widely used to make chests, cabinets and tables.

Properties of Teak

 Weather resistant
 Maintenance free
 Straight grain
 Medium coarse texture
 Dark brown with yellowish stains
 Durable
 Does not shrink

Maple and Birch wood

These can be called the favourite twins of cabinet makers in the Colonial Period. They were
popular because of their grain and their smooth whiteness. The natural light colour of birch
made it very popular with Hepplewhite in the 18th Century.

It was also used for Biedermeir furniture produced in Austria and Germany during the first half of
the 19th Century. In the 20th Century birch became very popular in the Scandinavian Countries.
Birch was mainly used by the Early Americans for furniture because of its lustrous sheen. Its
smooth texture can resist stains and it can be finished in many beautiful ways .

A variety of species are known, of which yellow birchwood is the best known. The natural colour
of the wood is a pale golden brown, but it can be bleached or stained to simulate other woods,
e.g. walnut and mahogany. It is a relatively cheap wood and the durability of this wood makes it
a good choice for doors, floors, structural parts of furniture, plywood and veneers.

Properties of Birch and Maple wood

 Strong
 Even texture
 Durable
 Straight grain, some varieties have curly figures usually reserved for veneers
  Takes paints and stains extremely well
 Can be used to simulate other woods
 Can be polished to a lovely glowing lustre
 Usually hard wood
 Little shrinking and warping
 Maple can appear pale, creamy and delicate
 Maple from Vermont can appear amber if linseed oil is used on it
 Maple can also be used as fashionable trim for plain furniture
 Both Birch and Maple are very durable

SOFT WOODS

Pine

"South African Pine" as it is commonly known is a collective noun for a variety of pines in South
Africa. Peregrine Pine types are known as white and yellow pine. Yellow pine is stronger and
harder than white pine. South African Pine is a soft wood and cheaper furniture is often made of
pine.

Properties of South African Pine

 A light to dark yellow colour

 Soft wood
 Straight grain
 Adaptable to furniture making
 Characteristic knots
 Often varnished for protection
 Inexpensive

Rattan (Cane)

Rattan is pliable and elastic which makes it perfect for durable, light~eight, casual furniture for
informal living. The rattan palm produces tree trunks about the circumference of a walking stick,
this is why it is called cane. The tree provides long strong strips of wood which can be bent and
cut to fashion tables, chairs and couches and other accessory furniture.

This material characterized by a tough outer shell over an inner bark and pithy core, is used for
crafting some of the finest casual furniture. The outer bark or peel is removed and cut into
narrow strips that are often used to wrap the framwork and joints of cane furniture. The
narrowest strips are used to weave chair seats and backs, furniture side panels and
accessories. The natural nodes, or growth marks, are carefully retained to add to the beauty of
the finished furniture. It bends easily and holds its graceful curves well. It can be joined with
nails, screws or glue and accepts a finish well.

This type of furniture is particularly popular in warmer climates and used in informal settings for
informal living. The Oriental designs or mati are used for more formal settings. Rattan should
always be placed so that it is protected against too much sun, which discolours it and dries it, as
well as prolonged exposure to damp, which weakens the cane, causing it to rot.
How to judge cane quality

 Poles should be free of dark blemishes, this may indicate rotting

 Growth nodes should be uniformly spaced about 30 - 45 cm apart
 Joints should be tightly and smoothly wrapped with genuine peel bindings
 Cane peel bindings should be glued and nailed to eliminate possibility of loosening or
unwinding
 The finish should be smooth and fuzz-free
 Check to make sure cushions are comfortable, of good quality fabric, and well
constructed

Wicker

It is similar to Rattan and comes from the rush-like stem of the Willow tree. It is used to weave
lightweight patio and garden furniture, suitable for indoor and outdoor or informal attractive
furniture. Medieval Europeans and Colonial Americans designed attractive chairs from these
runs. Adam and Hepplewhite also used wicker for their chair backs. Items of furniture can be left
unfinished or a light coloured high gloss finish used to increase strength and durability.

PREPARATION OF WOOD

STEP 1: Cut rough wood to size

Opting to buy the rough cuts are more preferred by most wood workers because it is, of
course, thicker, and by cleaning the surface, yourself gives you the full control of how you want
the lumber to look and measure depending on your project and tasks. You can start by cutting
the rough wood about 1-inch from the end of the board. It is common for lumber to have checks,
which are small cracks found around it. It is important that it should be removed as it is not only
unpleasant to look at but may grow bigger and ruin the whole piece later on. Once all these checks
are eliminated, you can go ahead and cut the pieces you need. Allow at least about 1” extra length
from your desired size using the miter saw, or the radical-arm saw.

STEP 2: Flatten the best side of the wood using a jointer

A jointer is an effective and reliable power tool to flatten the surface of the wood and
perfectly square the edges. When using it, you should set the depth of cut on the jointer for
efficient performance. For the precise cuts, you may want to make a couple of passes or possibly
more to ensure you will get your desired result. Don’t forget to put a mark on this jointed side to
avoid any confusion when working as you progress. Before using the jointer though, it is important
to get yourself familiarize with its capacity and limitations as each model has length and width
boundaries. Make sure that you are using the model that can carry out your task.

STEP 3: Flatten one edge using the jointer

The same as the preceding step, you need to pick one edge on the board to be flattened
in the jointer. Though you may find some techniques and tricks in flattening without the use of a
jointer, it is still recommended to use one because it is proven to be more precise, consistent and
has better performance and quality of the output. When jointing the edge, face joint your stock so
that the face will be flat against the jointer's fence for better results. Mark this flattened edge, so
you can identify this side that is jointed easily.

STEP 4: Plane the other side of the board

The opposite side of the board on the other hand will be flattened and smoothened through
the use of the planer. A planer is a great use to mill the wood to your desired and preferred
thickness by simply setting the cut depth. Just like the jointer, you will be required to take several
passes before achieving the exact outcome you need for your project. Planer is especially used
to even out irregular pieces and parts of the wood. It is suggested to leave at least 1/32 inch extra
thickness for the removal of machine marks.

STEP 5: Cut the other edge using a table saw

Using the table saw, you can carefully cut the reference edge against the fence. By doing
so, first, mark the board to get the exact dimension, then align it with the fence before making the
final cut. Allow about 1/16 inch extra for jointing later on. Table saw is one of the sharpest power
tools. Hence you need to take extra care when operating it. After each cut, make sure to turn off
the saw before removing the cut off pieces. It is highly advised not to use the rip fence as a guide
when cutting, as it is hazardous and result in uneven cuts.

STEP 6: Run the sawed edge on the jointer

After sawing the edges, smoothen it using the jointer to eliminate all the saw marks.
Remember to set the cut depth approximately about 1/64 inch, or as thinly as possible. Be careful
and precise, and leave about 1/32-inch extra width. The added inches are the allowance for the
final removal of the saw marks after running it on the jointer.

STEP 7: Cut the best end of the square

After making sure that all edges and sides are even and smooth, and free of any checks,
you can start cutting your chosen best end at a minimal amount, not more than ¼ inch first. Using
the table saw, or miter saw, you can now cut the end at 90 degrees angle. Using miter saw can
give you accurate angle cuts because it is adjustable to your desired measurement. It is usually
set to a default 90 degrees, so that will not be very tricky for you to set it up.

STEP 8: Cut the other end of the square to length

As the final step of this process of preparing wood for your woodworking project, cut the
remaining end to final length using either the table saw, or miter saw, as well. Still, leave about
1/32-inch for the smoothing after all the cuts have been made. When done, you are now all set
and ready to start working on your project.
Defects in Wood

Timber is far from being a stable and consistent material. One of the biggest challenges of
working with timber is learning to work within the constraints of a timber’s. The following are a
list of the most common wood defects.

BOW (BOWING)

The curvature of a piece of sawn timber in the direction of its length, cf. Spring and Curvature.

BOXED HEART

A term used when the heart is enclosed within the four surfaces of a piece of sawn timber. Well
boxed Heart means that the heart is enclosed within the four surfaces of piece of sawn or hewn
timber throughout its entire length, and is reasonably well centered at both ends.

CHECKS

Are small separations of the wood fibers in a longitudinal Wood Defects direction, not
penetrating as far as the opposite or adjoining side of a piece of sawn timber; they usually result
from strains developing during seasoning; Surface (or Seasoning) Checks, and End (or Heart)
Checks are distinguished.

COMPRESSION FANURES

Are fractures across the grain in which the fibers are broken transversely or are crushed by
compression. Various causes are suggested, such as felling across obstructions, and failure
inside the growing tree caused by high winds, growth stresses, etc. ls also known as Felling
Shakes, Thunder, Rupture, Lightning, and Transverse Shakes, Upsets, Cross Breaks, or Cross
Fractures. Very often they are difficult to detect until the timber is dressed.

CUP (CUPPING)

The curvature of a piece of sawn timber across its width.

DIAMOND (DIAMONDING)

A distortion due to differential shrinkage in drying that causes a piece of timber originally square
(or rectangular) in cross section to become diamondshaped. This defect occurs when the rays
pass through diagonal corners of the square (or rectangle) and is caused by the difference
between tangential and radial shrinkage which in many timbers is in the proportion of about 2:1.

HONEYCOMB

(Internal Checks) The development of checks in the interior of a piece of wood due to drying
stresses, usually along the wood rays, often not visible at the surface. This defect occurs when
thick timber is dried too quickly in a seasoning-kiln.

SPLIT (ALSO KNOWN AS A SHAKE)

Is a longitudinal separation of the fibers which extends to the opposite face or adjoining edge of
a piece of sawn timber.

SPRING

Is the curvature of a piece of sawn timber in the plane of its wide face: known as Crook or Free
Side Bend.

TWISTING

Is the spiral distortion of a piece of sawn timber; it may be accompanied by either bowing or
spring, or both.

WANE (WANT)

Is the lack of wood on any face or edge of a piece of sawn timber, usually caused by a portion
of the original rounded surface of a long remaining on the piece; bark may or may not be
present.

Defects that exist in timber make the planer’s job more difficult and create a need for secondary
machinery to produce quality products. It would be nice to be able to feed any piece of rough
timber into a moulder and produce a perfect product, free from defects, but this seldom
happens.

The numerous processes required to work timber free of defects are well known to the furniture,
moulding, flooring and architectural woodwork industries. Most companies split their
manufacturing operations into a rough mill and a finish mill. The job of the rough mill is to break
down the timber to more uniform sizes and pre-work the main defects from the wood. The
following section details the different types of planning processes and discusses the operations
in the rough mill.

SLOPE OF GRAIN

Localised slope of grain can be caused by knots. Slope of grain can also be caused by a slight
bend in the tree, which means that when a straight board is cut out of it, there is a bend in the
grain. This tends to be a longer feature and may go unnoticed in an appearance product.

Some species of Australian hardwoods (such as Jarrah and Blackbutt) can have “wavy grain”.
This gives a very attractive rippled appearance in high surface finish applications.

Where timber is “backsawn”, the slope of grain can give interesting effects in the growth rings
that enhance the appearance of the timber for some applications.

Seasoning of wood

Wood drying (also seasoning lumber or wood seasoning) reduces the moisture
content of wood before its use. When the drying is done in a kiln, the product is known as kiln-
dried timber or lumber, whereas air drying is the more traditional method.
There are two main reasons for drying wood:

Woodworking

when wood is used as a construction material, whether as a structural support in a building or

in woodworking objects, it will absorb or desorb moisture until it is in equilibrium with its
surroundings. Equilibration (usually drying) causes unequal shrinkage in the wood, and can
cause damage to the wood if equilibration occurs too rapidly. The equilibration must be
controlled to prevent damage to the wood.

Wood burning

when wood is burned, it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem
here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning
process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high
temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100 °C
exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and
heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the
normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry
wood.

Small firewood logs drying on-site

For some purposes, wood is not dried at all, and is used green. Often, wood must be
in equilibrium with the air outside, as for construction wood, or the air indoors, as for wooden
furniture.

Wood is air-dried or dried in a purpose built oven (kiln). Usually the wood is sawn before drying,
but sometimes the log is dried whole.

Case hardening describes lumber or timber that has been dried too rapidly. Wood initially dries
from the shell (surface), shrinking the shell and putting the core under compression. When this
shell is at a low moisture content it will 'set' and resist shrinkage. The core of the wood is still at
a higher moisture content. This core will then begin to dry and shrink. However, any shrinkage is
resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the
shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening.
Case-hardened [wood] may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released
by sawing.

METHODS OF WOOD PRESERVATION

There are three types of methods used for preserving timber:

1. Application of some chemical substances (called the preservatives) on the surface of the
timber.
2. Injection of the preservatives into the body of the timber;
3. Construction of protective coverings or shields around timber used in construction.
 A Preservative is defined as a chemical compound that when used on or injected into the
timber makes the timber ‘poisonous’ for insects and fungi without effecting the
structural properties of wood and timber.
All the wood preserving chemicals are classed under three groups :

(i) The Oil-Soluble Salts. Such compounds are soluble only in oils. The most commonly used
wood-preservative coal tar creosote oil belongs to this category.
It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal.

Following are important qualities of this preservative:

1. It has a high degree of permanence, i.e., it stays within the cells for quite a long time.
2. It penetrates quickly and easily into the wood tissue.
3. It is highly destructive for “fungi.”
Among the negative properties of coal tar Creosote preservative, the most important is its
unpleasant appearance.

Moreover, it does not paint over it. Further, it has a bad smell.
Hence it finds a use for preserving timber parts that are external to the living rooms.

(ii) The Water-Soluble Salts. Such salts make an easy solution with water. There is an
advantage in it. They can be easily dissolved and used.
But there is a disadvantage too. These can be easily “washed away” if the timber happens to be
in moist condition.

Among the water-soluble salts are included: zinc chloride, copper sulfate, sodium fluoride, sodium
fluosilicates, sodium dintrophenoxide, and compounds of arsenic.

(iii) Volatile base salts are those which make solutions with substances like petroleum. The
creosote petroleum blends are the typical example of this category.

Methods of Preservation of Timber.

Preservatives are used by different methods depending upon the extent of preservation required.
Starting from the simplest to complex, these are:

1. Brush applications,
2. dipping,
 3. open tank immersion,
4. and pressure application.
(1) Brush Application;
In this method, timber is given one or two coats of the preservative with the help of a brush.
This is used for painting the ends of beams or base of poles and posts that go to the ground with
coal tar.The method is quite cheap. At the same time, it is not very effective.

(2) Dipping Application;

The timber part to be treated is made to dip in the preservative and kept immersed in it for
various periods from a few hours to few days. It is used when organic preservative solvents are
to be applied.

(3) Open Tank Application;

In this method, the timber is kept immersed in a suitable metallic tank of proper size till a
proper saturation is obtained. To ensure deeper penetration of the preservative, the tank is heated
while the timber is immersed in it. The temperature of preservative is brought to 70°-80°C, and it
is kept at that temperature for several hours. After this, the timber is allowed to cool within the
tank in the presence of a preservative. In this way, the timber may actually suck a lot of
preservatives and ensure complete penetration. Softwoods (confiners) receive this type of
treatment in a remarkable manner because their cells are more permeable. The treatment has
the disadvantage that it increases the weight of the treated timber considerably.

(4) The Pressure Process;

This is the best and commonly applied method for preservation of timber of costly varieties.
It involves the passage of preservative into the timber under pressure. This is achieved by either
Two Process.

The Full-Cell Process. The timber is placed in a large steel cylinder acting as a pressure vessel.
Vacuum is created and maintained for about one hour or more. After this, coal tar creosote oil or
any other suitable preservative, preheated to a required temperature, is forced into the cylinder
under sufficient pressure. This is continued till the required quantity of preservative has been
introduced into the timber. Thereafter, the pressure is reduced, and after giving some vacuum,
timber is taken out. In the empty cell method, no vacuum is created in the beginning. Instead,
timber placed in the pressure vessel is subjected to initial pressure while preservative is being
introduced into the cylinder. Once the vessel is full of preservative, full pressure is applied which
forces the preservative from the tank into the timber. After this, the pressure is released. This
causes the air compressed in the cells of timber to come out along with any excessive
preservative.

The main advantage of pressure processes (of one type or another) is that they ensure a
proper and deeper penetration of preservative into the timber in a controlled manner. Even those
timbers which may not absorb preservatives in the open-tank process can be filled with
preservatives by this method. The main disadvantage is that these are as yet costly processes
involving the use of pressure vessels and require skilled operators for better results.

Charring. It is a common method used for preserving timber poles and posts that are to be dug
into the ground. The outer part of the lower ends is charred (incompletely burnt) before insertion
into the ground. The charcoal layer so formed is an easy safeguard against attacks by fungi or
termite (as these organisms do not find any food in charcoal).

Termite Shields. The base of major timber columns may be preserved against organic attack by
constructing a suitable barrier between the timber and the ground. These barriers of proper design
and shape are called termite shields.

Measuring of Wood

Lumber is generally sized according to thickness, as in the case of rough sawn lumber, or in
specific widths, thicknesses and/or lengths as in the case of dimensional lumber. Here we will
define each to help you better understand the sizing methods used when referring to lumber
"size".

Dimensional Lumber: This measuring method is probably the most recognized by the average
person. We see this type of measuring method used in almost all "Do-It-Yourself" type stores that
sell lumber, or any place selling lumber for construction purposes. We recognize such "sizes" as
2x4, 2x6, 4x4, 1x2, etc. This measurement refers to the thickness and width of the lumber and
the length varies. In reality, these measurements are not a true measurement of the lumber
thickness or width. The true measurement of a 2x4 is actually about 1.5x3.5. When the board is
first rough sawn from the log, it is a true 2x4, but the drying process and planning of the board
reduce it to the finished 1.5x3.5 size. The lumber is then sold as a "2x4" because the cost of the
drying and machining are figured in...it is also much easier to refer to a board as a "2x4", rather
than a "1.5x3.5".

The "Quarters" Sizing Method: In the case of rough sawn lumber, the "Quarters" sizing method
is usually used by mills that sell rough lumber for woodworking purposes. The "Quarters" method
refers only to the thickness of the wood as widths and lengths vary depending on the log the wood
is cut from. Generally, a woodworker will plane the boards to the desired thickness and most likely
rip the boards and glue them up into joined panels to get the desired width. Rough sawn lumber
comes in "true" thicknesses as reflected by the "quarters" size. Lumber sized according to
"Quarters" reflects the number of quarters of an inch thick the lumber is. To figure the thickness
of a board referenced in "quarters" sizes, simply divide the second number (4) into the first
number. The second number (4) means "quarters of an inch", or "quarters". So, a "4/4" board is
four quarters, or 1 inch thick, an "8/4" board is eight quarters, or 2 inches thick, a "10/4" board is
ten quarters, or 2.5 inches thick, etc.

Board Foot: Rough sawn lumber is usually sold by the "board foot" (bd. ft.). A board foot is equal
to a piece of wood 12 inches long x 12 inches wide and 1 inch thick, or 144 cubic inches. To figure
the board foot measurement of a piece of wood, multiply the length x width x thickness in inches,
then divide by 144.
DEFINITION OF TERMS

 LUMBER - Lumber is the raw wood material that goes into building houses, fences, and
some furniture.
 DRESSED LUMBER - Dressed lumber (also called 'surfaced lumber') has been jointed
and planed after it has been dried.
 ROUGH LUMBER - Rough lumber has been dried but not planed.
 SLAB - large, thick, flat piece of stone, concrete, or wood, typically rectangular
 TIMBER - wood prepared for use in building and carpentry.
 PLANK - a long, thin, flat piece of timber, used especially in building and flooring.
 BOARD - a long, thin, flat piece of wood or other hard material, used for floors or other
building purposes.
 FLITCH - a slab of timber cut from a tree trunk, usually from the outside.
 PINE GRAINED – contains tight knots throughout the wood.
 STRAIGHT GRAINED – having fibers that run in parallel

REFERENCE:
 https://www.pinetimberproducts.com.au/products/sawn-dressed-timber/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank_(wood)
 https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Flitch_beam
 https://www.advantagelumber.com/sizes.htm
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_drying
 http://www.davidstimber.com.au/resource-centre/wood-defects/
 http://craftycorner.co.za/diy/wood/wood.html
 http://www.ownwoodenhouse.com/index.pl?act=NEWSSHOW&id=2011062001