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067106-2 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
FIG. 2. Experimental setup used to create laser-induced vapor bubbles in a liquid jet.
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067106-3 Cavitation bubble behavior inside a liquid jet Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
the focusing lens to the maximum allowed by the require- TABLE I. Condition within the jet at the bubble creation site for the two
flow rates used in this experiment.
ment of the beam passing through the jet nozzle. The expan-
sion is effected by a pair of plano-concave plano-convex Jet velocity
lenses 共f 1 = −100 mm, f 2 = 300 mm兲, resulting in a focusing Jet diameter
angle in water of 15.5°. The experimental results presented Flow rate At y f At y 0 At y f
in Sec. III A show that the produced plasma is slightly elon- 关l / min兴 关mm兴 关m / s兴 关m / s兴
gated but that the resulting bubble has good sphericity. Jet 1 0.91 5.5 0.39 0.64
Jet 2 0.19 3.9 0.08 0.27
B. Jet facility
The test section is presented in Fig. 2. The water flow is
controlled by a valve 共V1 in Fig. 2兲 and then distributed by
two pipes to an annular manifold with the jet nozzle of 7 mm The above jet parameters not only ensure that perturba-
diameter at its bottom. The converging laser beam is intro- tions in the nozzle are insignificant but also avoid jet breakup
duced into this chamber through a planar window. It then caused by Rayleigh and Taylor instability of the jet 共for a
passes through the nozzle and induces dielectric breakdown review, see Lin and Rietz13兲. Linear stability theory allows
in the water jet at position y f , in the camera field of view. the determination of a coherent jet length before breakup
To characterize the configuration, two dimensionless pa- within which the experiment must be conducted.
rameters are introduced: the creation site eccentricity and An important parameter characterizing jet stability is the
the maximum bubble to jet diameter ratio ␦. They are defined Weber number, which is the ratio of inertial and surface
as the ratio of the radial distance RE of the bubble creation forces. Two Weber numbers can be defined, one for the liq-
site from the jet axis and the local jet radius 共RJ兲 and the uid jet itself WeL and one for the gas surrounding it WeG.
ratio of the maximum bubble diameter DB over the local jet Here the jet diameter will be used as the characteristic length
diameter DJ: of the flow:
WeG = GU2DN/ .
max. bubble diameter DB
␦= = . For low liquid Weber numbers 共WeL兲, the breakup
jet diameter DJ
mechanism will be capillary pinching, or Rayleigh breakup.
To control ␦, either the bubble or the jet size can be As the jet speed is increased the jet will eventually disinte-
modified. However, optimal stability in bubble size is grate due to wind-induced effects. The transition is found to
achieved at maximum laser pulse energy. Therefore, the jet occur for WeG ⬎ 0.4,13 where the inertia of the surrounding
diameter was reduced to investigate the effect of ␦. This was gas is roughly 10% of the surface tension force. The Weber
achieved by reducing the flow rate, letting the jet experience numbers for the jets investigated here are gathered in Table
a more important constriction after exiting the nozzle. The II, and for every case the jet breakup is expected to result
bubble is generated some 20 mm below the nozzle, low from capillary pinching.
enough for the jet to be reasonably cylindrical. In this regime the coherent jet length, before its disinte-
To change the bubble eccentricity, the focusing assembly gration into drops, can be estimated from linear stability
was moved horizontally on a precision translation stage. theory. Rayleigh14 was the first to study mathematically this
With the optics described in Sec. II A and y f = 20 mm, the problem and showed that the perturbation with the highest
bubble creation site could be moved within a 1.62 mm diam- growth rate has a wavelength of = 9.02R0, where R0 is the
eter circle around the jet center with full energy reaching the initial jet diameter. The model was later refined in Ref. 15,
focal point. Outside this circle, the converging laser beam which stated that for low-speed jets, the initial perturbation
was partially blocked by the nozzle. For the “Jet 1” and amplitude 0 follows ln R0 / 0 = 12. Neglecting liquid viscos-
“Jet 2” configurations, this corresponds to eccentricities of ity and the inertia of the surrounding fluid, the maximum
= 0.30 and = 0.44, respectively. However, since the present growth rate ⍀ can be found using the following relation:16
study aims only to study qualitatively the interaction of a
cavitation bubble with a cylindrical free surface, no attempts
were made to compensate for this effect.
TABLE II. Weber numbers and breakup length 共L兲 for the two jet configu-
The maximum jet velocity is limited by the requirement ration, at 20 °C.
that the turbulence generated in the nozzle must not affect
the transparency of the jet interface. For the results presented L
here, the maximum jet speed at the nozzle is 0.39 m / s, cor- WeL WeG 关m兴
responding to a flow rate of 0.91 l / min. The resulting Rey- Jet 1 13.9 16.7⫻ 10−3 0.321
nolds number is 2800. To produce a smaller jet, the flow rate Jet 2 7.9 9.5⫻ 10−3 0.066
was reduced to 0.19 l / min. An overview of the two jet con- Hg jet 847.9 77.47⫻ 10−3 5.11
figurations used in this experiment is given in table I.
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067106-4 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
⍀2 =
2R30U2
共1 − 2兲2 , 共1兲 RMax = 1.09 冑 P⬁ − Pv
TC . 共4兲
C. Bubble characterization
The precise amount of energy deposited in the liquid by
the laser pulse is hard to quantify within the jet itself. To do
so, the bubble characteristics were recorded in a bulk volume
of liquid. The optical recording scheme is presented in Fig.
3. This setup allows the measurement of the system capabili-
ties as well as bubble behavior in simple configurations. The
experimental vessel can be filled with up to 1.5 l of water,
allowing the assumption that the millimeter-sized bubbles
created evolve in infinite surroundings.
The knowledge of the bubble size is essential to be able
to relate the observed jet disruption to the amount of energy
stored in the bubble. An approximate value can be obtained
from a video sequence. A more precise value is derived from
the bubble acoustic emissions.
For a spherical bubble, the time delay between the
shockwaves emitted upon bubble generation and collapse is
equal to twice the collapse time of the bubble.17,18 This be- FIG. 4. Signal of shockwave deflection of laser beam. The bubble is gener-
ated close to a free surface. 共1兲 and 共4兲 Shockwaves emitted by bubble
havior also holds for laser-induced vapor bubbles as shown
expansion and collapse. 共2兲 and 共5兲 reflection of those waves on the free
by.19 Using the Rayleigh-Plesset model, it is then possible to surface. 共3兲 Is the bubble growing into the beam path. 共6兲 Reflections com-
obtain the bubble maximum radius from its collapse time: ing back from the tank walls.
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067106-5 Cavitation bubble behavior inside a liquid jet Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
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067106-6 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
FIG. 6. Emergence of counterjet and microjet. 共a兲 Bubble initial growth. 共b兲 Bubble at maximum radius. 共c兲 Collapse, reentrant microjet, counterjet onset, and
rapid bubble displacement. 共d兲 Residual toroidal bubble collapse. Microjet emergence.
certain point, the shadow of the nozzle prevents all available whole jet interface is seen pulsating with the bubble. In this
energy from reaching the focal point. This occurred for situation, the counterjet is not observed to have a significant
⬎ 0.30 and ⬎ 0.44, for jet 1 and jet 2, respectively. impact on ejections from the main jet.
As the bubble pulsates within the jet, it experiences When the eccentricity is increased 共0.15⬍ ⬍ 0.50兲, the
strong interaction with the free surface. Bubble centroid mo-
tion was found to be periodic, with a period roughly equal to
the bubble lifetime. It is strongly repelled by the free surface
during the collapse phase while it stays almost still during
the growth phase. When the bubble is very close to the free
surface 共 ⬎ 0.8兲, the bubble centroid travels towards the free
surface during the growth phase. When increasing , the
bubble centroid exhibits progressively faster translation mo-
tion. The maximum velocities relative to the jet interface are
shown in Fig. 15, for an initial ␦ of 1.06.
C. Microjets
Cavitation bubbles evolving close to boundaries have
been known to produce liquid microjets since the findings of
Benjamin and Ellis.22 Traditionally, the structure that devel-
ops in the direction of bubble centroid motion and goes
through the bubble itself has been referred to as the “micro-
jet.” While the structure observed in the opposite direction is
called the “counterjet.”23,24 Those phenomena are of particu-
lar interest in the present situation since most of the matter
ejected by the bubble takes the form of liquid jets. A quali-
tative representation of a typical situation with moderate
and ␦ is shown in Fig. 6. Here we use the term “microjet” to
designate both the microjet itself formed during bubble col-
lapse and the liquid structure it later carries away from the
interface. The term “counterjet” is used here to identify the
liquid jet emanating from the interface in the direction oppo-
site to bubble motion.
The velocity, shape, and timing relative to bubble cre-
ation for both the microjet and the counterjet has been found
to vary significantly with . The variation of the dimension-
less parameter ␦ involves ejections that cannot be readily
associated with microjets and will be presented in a separate
section.
When the bubble is generated close to the jet center
共 ⬍ 0.15兲, the interface perturbation is weak. Bubble motion
is slow and final collapse occurs away from the interface.
The sequence of events associated with low eccentricity
共 = 0.11兲 is presented in Fig. 7. The bubble shown was cre-
ated in the bigger jet configuration 共Jet 1, 5.5 mm diameter at
focus兲. Using all available pulse energy, the bubble to jet FIG. 7. Bubble evolution and weak microjet formation for a bubble only
diameter ratio is ␦ = 1.06. During the bubble oscillations, the slightly eccentric within the jet 共 = 0.11 and ␦ = 1.06兲.
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067106-7 Cavitation bubble behavior inside a liquid jet Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
FIG. 8. Counterjet and then microjet formation for a bubble with moderate FIG. 9. Formation of counterjet in two successive steps, following first 共b兲
eccentricity 共 = 0.31 and ␦ = 0.92兲. and second bubble growth 共d兲, for a bubble created with = 0.58 and
␦ = 0.81.
bubble experiences much more violent translational motion, has roughly the same maximum speed as the counterjet
up to 20 m / s, as shown in Fig. 15. The counterjet starts to 共9.1 m / s兲, but emerges much later with its maximum speed
play an important role in jet disruption at these moderate reached 700 s after bubble generation.
eccentricities. It emerges in two steps, during the growth In the range of = 0.5 to = 0.75 the counterjet launched
phase of the first and second bubble oscillations. The first when the bubble grows into the jet interface is much faster
step is the appearance of a bulge or spike on the part of the than in the previous case. This occurs only ⬇100 s after
jet interface closest to the bubble. After bubble rebound, two bubble creation. Figure 9 shows bubble and jet dynamics for
liquid jets form on either sides of the initial protuberance. an eccentricity of = 0.58. The intensity of the structures
This can be seen in Fig. 8. The initial bubble growth induces created during the first and second bubble growth being
only a small bulge on the jet interface, ⬇200 s after its equivalent, all three arms of the counterjet remain distinct.
creation. It is quickly overwhelmed by the two liquid jets This trident structure is observed for up to ⬇0.75. In this
launched at the end of the second bubble expansion. The range, the maximum velocity of the counterjet is measured at
maximum counterjet ejection velocity recorded in this range 25 m / s. The microjet also increases speed with increasing .
of is 12.6 m / s and occurs only 350 s after bubble gen- Since the velocity of the bubble centroid motion also in-
eration, between frames 共b兲 and 共c兲 in Fig. 8. The microjet creases, the microjet emerges sooner after bubble creation.
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067106-8 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
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067106-9 Cavitation bubble behavior inside a liquid jet Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
to a spray, when eccentricity is increased, as seen in Figs. vary depending on the eccentricity of the bubble creation site
10共b兲 and 13共b兲. Greater spatial and temporal resolution . The excitation of bubble nuclei present in the liquid after
would be required to investigate in details the origin of this the passage of shockwaves resulting from plasma creation
spray aspect of the counterjet. has been observed, as shown in Fig. 14. A similar phenom-
The second set of events occurs during the lifetime of enon has been observed after cavitation bubble collapse
the bubble, lasting roughly from 100 to 500 m. Part of the
close to a planar free surface25 or inside a spherical drop.26 In
potential energy contained in the bubble is converted to ki-
the first case, the surface curvature is the result of the coun-
netic energy in the liquid, initiating a deformation of the jet
interface. Finally, after the bubbles has ceased to exist, ma- terjet emergence, following initial bubble expansion. Under
terial is expelled from the column of liquid, carrying away certain conditions, a secondary cavitation bubble was created
most of the kinetic energy left in the liquid by the bubble. in the rising column of liquid. In the present experiment, the
When a bubble is placed in a liquid jet, the curved free size of these secondary bubbles have remained inferior to
surface can have a focusing effect on the reflection of the 1 mm and they have not been associated with important ma-
shockwaves. The effects of this energy concentration will terial ejections from the jet. Higher temporal and spatial
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067106-10 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
resolution would be required to capture the dynamics asso- The liquid jet configuration provides a simple mean to
ciated with such small bubbles. visualize this energy transfer. Initially, the situation is similar
The eccentricity of the bubble creation site is found to to the planar free surface configuration. However, the bubble
have a strong effect on the maximum velocity of the bubble evolution is affected by the proximity of the free surface, a
centroid translational motion Vt,Max as it pulsates within the zero-inertia boundary condition. Bubble centroid shows little
jet, as can be seen in Fig. 15. This bubble displacement ve- displacement during the growth phase but a strong repulsion
locity was found to scale as 1/2, a higher is also respon- by the closest free surface during the collapse phase. The
sible for faster ejections from the interface. The maximum eccentricity of the bubble creation site is found to play a
velocity of the liquid expelled from the main jet Ve,Max is critical role in the phenomena to follow.
presented as a function of in Fig. 16. The results presented Higher eccentricity is associated with the earlier appear-
here show that Ve,Max is roughly proportional to 3.7. ance of a faster counterjet, which in turn leads to a faster
This is consistent with previous results8,27 with bubbles bubble centroid motion away from the interface. This also
created close to planar free surfaces. In that case, the amount means that the microjet has to go through more material to
of potential pressure energy converted to kinetic energy is reach the interface, resulting in a increased delay before its
closely related to the dimensionless standoff parameter emergence. When considering the occurrence of cavitation in
␥ = h / RMax. As ␥ is reduced, bringing the bubble closer to the a liquid metal jet target, the main concerns are the amount of
free surface, it is repelled more violently and more energy material that can be removed from the jet by the bubble and
ends up in kinetic form. The formation of a microjet and a the timing of these ejections. The series of figures presented
counterjet is associated with this bubble displacement. in Sec. III C show a clear increase in the amount of material
ejected from the jet with increasing . Moreover, Fig. 17
shows the decrease in the time delay between the bubble
creation and the maximum jet interface deformation velocity
as is increased. When ␦ is increased, the major perturba-
tions of the jet interface tend to appear faster, during the
initial bubble growth or the first collapse.
The evolution of a cavitation bubble within a liquid jet
FIG. 14. 共a兲 Secondary bubble generation on the right side of the jet fol- has been studied for the first time by means of high-speed
lowing shockwave reflection at the free surface. photography. The results gathered allow the establishment of
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067106-11 Cavitation bubble behavior inside a liquid jet Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
FIG. 15. Bubble maximum translation velocity Vb,Max as a function of ec- FIG. 17. Delay between bubble generation and maximum velocity of the
centricity of the generation site, for a initial ␦ of 1.06. The solid line is the ejections Ve,Max from the main jet, as a function of and for an initial ␦ of
power-law fit Vb,Max = 23.40.51. The shaded region represents conditions 1.06.
where the energy reaching the focal point is reduced by the shadow of the jet
nozzle.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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067106-12 Robert et al. Phys. Fluids 19, 067106 共2007兲
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