Preposition - is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence.

- they act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence.
- usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns.
- in some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.

Type of Prepositions

1. Time Prepositions - they are used to help indicate when something happened, happens
or will happen.

For example:
 I was born on July 4th, 1982.
 I was born in 1982.
 I was born at exactly 2am.
 I was born two minutes before my twin brother.
 I was born after the Great War ended.

For years, months, seasons, centuries and times of day, use the preposition in
 I first met John in 1987.
 It’s always cold in January
 Easter falls in spring each year.

For days, dates and specific holiday days, use the preposition on
 We go to school on Mondays, but not on Sunday
 Christmas is on December 25th.
 Buy me a present on my birthday.

For times indicators of exception and festivals, use the preposition at

 Families often argue at Christmas time.
 I work faster at night.
 Her shift finished at 7pm
Before and after should be much easier to understand than the other examples of prepositions of
time. Both are used to explain when something happened, happens or will happen.

 Before I discovered this bar, I used to go straight home after work.

 We will not leave before 3pm.
 David comes before Bryan in the line, but after Louise.

Other prepositions of time could include: during, about, around, until and throughout.

 The concert will be staged throughout the month of May.

 I learned how to ski during the holidays.
 He usually arrives around 3pm.
 It was about six in the morning when we made it to bed.
 The store is open until midnight.

2. Place Prepositions - to confuse matters a bit, the most common prepositions to indicate
time – on, at, in – are also the most common prepositions to indicate position.
However, the rules are a little clearer as place prepositions are a more rigid concept than
time prepositions.

On is used when referring to something with a surface

 The sculpture hangs on the wall.

 The images are on the page.
 The specials are on the menu, which is on the table.

In is used when referring to something that is inside or within confined boundaries. This
could be anything, even a country:

 Jim is in France, visiting his aunt in the hospital.

 The whiskey is in the jar in the fridge.
 The girls play in the garden.
At is used when referring to something at a specific point

 The boys are at the entrance at the movie theater.

 He stood at the bus stop at the corner of Water and High streets.
 We will meet at the airport.

Lot’s of other prepositions of place, such as under, over, inside, outside, above, below are used
in English. There is, however, a lot less confusion as they refer to rigid positions rather than
abstract ones.

 The cat is under the table.

 Put the sandwich over there.
 The key is locked inside the car.
 They stepped outside the house.
 Major is ranked above corporal.
 He is waving at you from below the stairs.

3. Movement Preposition - they describe how something or someone moves from one
place to another.

Examples
 He has gone on vacation to France.
 She went to the bowling alley every Friday last summer.
 I will go to bed when I am tired.
 They will go to the zoo if they finish their errands.

Other more specific prepositions of movement include: through, across, off, down, into.
These prepositions can sometimes get mixed up with others. While they are similar, they
have individual meanings that add context to the movement.
Across refers to moving from one side to another.
 Mike travelled across America on his motorcycle.
 Rebecca and Judi are swimming across the lake.

Through refers to moving directly inside something and out the other end.
 The bullet Ben shot went through the window.
 The train passes through the tunnel.

Into refers to entering or looking inside something.

 James went into the room.
 They stare into the darkness.

Up, over, down, past and around indicate directions of movement:

 Jack went up the hill.

 Jill came tumbling down after.
 The horse runs around the track all morning.
 A car zoomed past a truck on the highway
A phrase - is a group of words that express a concept and is used as a unit within a sentence.

Eight common types of phrases are: noun, verb, gerund, infinitive, appositive, participial,
prepositional, and absolute.

Noun Phrases - consists of a noun and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:
 The bewildered tourist was lost.
 The lost puppy was a wet and stinky dog.
 The flu clinic had seen many cases of infectious disease.
 It was a story as old as time.
 The sports car drove the long and winding road.
 Saturday became a cool, wet afternoon.

Verb Phrases - consists of a verb and all its modifiers.

Here are examples:
 He was waiting for the rain to stop.
 She was upset when it didn't boil.
 You have been sleeping for a long time.
 You might enjoy a massage.
 He was eager to eat dinner.

Gerund Phrases - is simply a noun phrase that starts with a gerund.

Examples include:
 Taking my dog for a walk is fun.
 Walking in the rain can be difficult.
 Strolling along a beach at sunset is romantic.
 Getting a promotion is exciting.
 Signing autographs takes time
Infinitive Phrases - is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive verb.
Here are some examples:
 To make lemonade, you have to start with lemons.
 I tried to see the stage, but I was too short.
 She organized a boycott to make a statement.
 To see Niagara Falls is mind-boggling.
 He really needs to get his priorities in order.
 The company decided to reduce hours for everyone.
 To donate time or money is an honorable thing.
 I went to Spain to study the language and culture.

Appositive Phrases - restates and defines a noun. It consists of one or more words.
Examples are:
 My favorite pastime, needlepoint, surprises some people.
 Her horse, an Arabian, was her pride and joy.
 My wife, the love of my life, is also my best friend.
 A cheetah, the fastest land animal, can run 70 miles an hour.
 My idea, a recycling bin for the office, was accepted by the boss.
 The Florida panther, the state animal of Florida, is an endangered species.

Participial Phrases - begins with a past or present participle.

Examples are:
 Washed with my clothes, my cell phone no longer worked.
 Knowing what I know now, I wish I had never come here.
 I am really excited, considering all the people that will be there.
 We are looking forward to the movie, having seen the trailer last week.
 Grinning from ear to ear, she accepted her award.
 The happy dog ran the entire length of the park, pausing only to sniff the
dandelions.
Prepositional Phrases - begins with a preposition and can act as a noun, an adjective or an
adverb.
Examples are:
 The book was on the table.
 We camped by the brook.
 He knew it was over the rainbow.
 She was lost in the dark of night.
 He was between a rock and a hard place.
 I waited for a while.
 She smelled of strawberries and cream.
 He won the challenge against all odds.

Absolute Phrases - has a subject, but not an action verb, so it cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence. It modifies the whole sentence, not just a noun.

Examples are:
 His tail between his legs, the dog walked out the door.
 Picnic basket in hand, she set off for her date.
 The guys attacked the pile of nachos, their fingers getting the last bit of cheese off
the plate.
 Their heads hanging down, the whole group apologized.
 The entire team, their uniforms muddy and stained, shouted for joy.
Sentence - group of words, usually containing a subject and a verb, expressing a statement,
question, instruction, or exclamation, and, when written, starting with a capital letter and ending
with a period or other mark

Parts of Sentences
 Subject
 Predicate
 Object
 Indirect Object
 Complement

Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed
here.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject usually
contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man . . .

PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains the
verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man / builds a house.

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or
detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of
these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences.

DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or
pronoun.

The man builds a house.

The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done. The
indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds his family a house.

The man builds them a house.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a noun,
pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb within the
sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).

The man is a good father. (father = noun which renames the subject)
The man seems kind. (kind = adjective which describes the subject)
Subject-Verb Agreement

 A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural
subject takes a plural verb.
Example
 The book is on the desk.
 Bananas are rich in potassium.

 A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for
understanding subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb
mistakes.

Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the
following sentence:

Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend)

 Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
Examples
 My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
 Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
 Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.

 The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun
closest to it.
Examples
 Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
 Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
  As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected
by and.
Example
 A car and a bike are my means of transportation.

But note these exceptions:

Exception
 Breaking and entering is against the law.
 The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.

 Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as,
besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use
a singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples
 The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
 Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.

 Parentheses are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

 In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples
 There are four hurdles to jump.
 There is a high hurdle to jump.
 Here are the keys.
NOTE:
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like There's
a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take care never to
use there's with a plural subject.
  Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when
considered as a unit.
Examples
 Three miles is too far to walk.
 Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
 Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.

 With words that indicate portions—e.g., a lot, a majority, some, all—Rule 1 given earlier
in this section is reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is
singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples
 A lot of the pie has disappeared.
 A lot of the pies have disappeared.
 A third of the city is unemployed.
 A third of the people are unemployed.
 All of the pie is gone.
 All of the pies are gone.
 Some of the pie is missing.
 Some of the pies are missing.

 With collective nouns such as group, jury, family, audience, population, the verb might
be singular or plural, depending on the writer's intent.
Examples
 All of my family has arrived OR have arrived.
 Most of the jury is here OR are here.
 A third of the population was not in favor OR were not in favor of the bill.

NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and also
consistent. It must not be done carelessly.
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.
Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in
the same sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would
read even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

 The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example
 If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually
here, so we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used
to express things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The
subjunctive mood pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples
 I wish it were Friday.
 She requested that he raise his hand.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which
we usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular it. (Technically, it is the singular
subject of the object clause in the subjunctive mood: it were Friday.)

Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request
is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.

Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in
formal speech and writing.
Basic Sentence Patterns

Six basic or simple sentence patterns

 Subject + Predicate, Action Verb
 Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Direct Object
 Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Adverb
 Subject + Predicate, Linking Verb + Predicate Nominative
 Subject + Predicate, Linking Verb + Predicate Adjective
 Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Indirect Object/Direct Object

1. Subject + Predicate, Action Verb

 The class studied.

 The students and the teacher read.
 The students sat and read.
 The students and the teacher sat and read.

2. Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Direct Object

 The class took a test.

 The class took a test and a quiz.

3. Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Adverb

 The class worked carefully.

 The students sit here.
 The class worked like a team.
 Before school, in the gym, the class worked like a team.
 In the gym, the class worked like a team before school.
 Like a team, the class worked before school in the gym.
4. Subject + Predicate, Linking Verb + Predicate Nominative

 The teacher is Mr. Soto.

 The teachers are Mr. Soto and Ms. Lin

5. Subject + Predicate, Linking Verb + Predicate Adjective

 The teacher is kind.

 Ms. Kin is kind and helpful.

6. Subject + Predicate, Action Verb + Indirect Object/Direct Object

 The teacher gave the class a test.

 Mr. Soto gave Kim and John a test.
KINDS OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO USE

There are four kinds of sentences:

1. A declarative sentence is a sentence that states a fact. Such sentences are simple
statements. They state, assert or declare something.
Examples
Jan is a student
She lives in a big city.
The capital of Denmark is Copenhagen.
Bacon and eggs make a great breakfast.

2. An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request, or express a wish.

Examples
Go to your room.
Please lend me your pen.
Have a nice day today.
Go feed the cat.

3. An exclamatory sentence expresses sudden and strong feelings, such as surprise, wonder,
pity, sympathy, happiness or gratitude.
Examples
Oh What a shame!
My pie is ruined!
I can't believe it!

4. An interrogative sentence asks a question.

Examples
What is your name?
Where do you live?
KINDS OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM

Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
What’s an “independent clause”? It’s one subject followed by one verb or verb phrase. It
expresses a single idea.
Examples of simple sentences:
 I‘m happy.
 Robert doesn’t eat meat.
 My brother and I went to the mall last night.
 This new laptop computer has already crashed twice.

Notice that a “simple sentence” isn’t necessarily short. The subject can be a single word like “I”
or “Robert,” or it can be a double subject like “my brother and I,” or it can be multiple words
describing a single person/object, like “This new laptop computer.”

Compound Sentence
A compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a linking word (and, but, or, so,
yet, however).
Each independent clause could be a sentence by itself, but we connect them with a linking
word:
 I‘m happy, but my kids are always complaining.
 Robert doesn’t eat meat, so Barbara made a special vegetarian dish for him.
 My brother and I went to the mall last night, but we didn’t buy anything.
 This new laptop computer has already crashed twice, and I have no idea why.

Note that each sentence has TWO subjects and TWO verb phrases.
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
A dependent clause cannot be a complete sentence by itself.
 I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money.
 Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat.
 After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night.
 This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice.

Compound-Complex Sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains 3 or more clauses: 2 independent and at least
1 dependent clause.
 I’m happy, even though I don’t make much money, but my kids are always
complaining since we can’t afford to buy the newest toys.
Independent clauses: “I’m happy” and “my kids are always complaining”
Dependent clauses: “even though I don’t make much money” and “since we can’t afford to buy
the newest toys”
Linking word: “but”

 Robert, a friend I’ve known since high school, doesn’t eat meat – so Barbara made a
special vegetarian dish for him.
Independent clauses: “Robert doesn’t eat meat” and “Barbara made a special vegetarian dish
for him”
Dependent clause: “a friend I’ve known since high school”
Linking word: “so”

 After getting home from work, my brother and I went to the mall last night, while
my sister stayed home and studied.
Independent clauses: “My brother and I went to the mall last night” and “my sister stayed home
and studied”
Dependent clause: “After getting home from work”
Linking word: “while”
  This new laptop computer, which I bought yesterday, has already crashed twice;
however, I have no idea why.
Independent clauses: “This new laptop computer has already crashed twice” and “I have no
idea why”
Dependent clause: “which I bought yesterday”
Linking word: “however”