NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA

SURATHKAL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE ELECTRIC POLES

Submitted By:

16CV201 - Adil Salim

16CV212 – Satish
16CV216 – Praneeth
16CV224 – Prakhar Singh
16CV228 – Rahul Ramesh
16CV237 – Shwetha

Submitted To:

Prof. K. Swaminathan,
Department of Civil Engineering
NITK Surathkal
 Content

1. Introduction to Pre-stressed concrete

2. Principles of Pre-stressing

3. Need for pre-stressing

4. Brief timeline of history of pre-stressing

5. Methods of pre-stressing
6. Applications of pre-stressed elements in civil Structures

7. Shapes of pre-stressed concrete

8. Pre-stressed concrete poles

9. Demand for pre-stressed electric poles

10. Design loading on pre-stressed concrete poles

11. Manufacturing process of pre-stressed electric poles

12. The manufacture of spun concrete poles by centrifuge casting

process

13. Future use and technology

14. Advantages of using pre-stressed concrete in electric poles

15. Comparison of PSC poles to RCC poles and Steel poles

16. References
 Introduction to Pre-stressed concrete

Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete used in construction that while under

construction is substantially "pre-stressed" (compressed) in the areas that will be
subjected to tensile forces while in service to strengthen it against these forces.
This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength "tendons" located
within or adjacent to the concrete volume and is done to improve the performance of
the concrete in service. Tendons
may consist of single wires, multi-
wire strands or threaded bars that
are most commonly made
from high-tensile steels, carbon
fibre or aramid fibre. The essence of
pre-stressed concrete is that once
the initial compression has been
applied, the resulting material has
the characteristics of high-strength
concrete when subject to any
subsequent compression forces and
of ductile high-strength steel when
subject to tension forces. This can result in improved structural capacity
and/or serviceability compared with conventionally reinforced concrete in many
situations.
In a pre-stressed concrete member, the internal stresses are introduced in a planned
manner so that the stresses resulting from the superimposed loads are counteracted to
the desired degree. Pre-stressed concrete is used in a wide range of building and civil
structures where its improved performance can allow for longer spans, reduced
structural thicknesses, and material savings compared with simple reinforced concrete.
Typical applications include high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation
systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements and nuclear
containment structures.
First used in the late-nineteenth century, pre-stressed concrete has developed
beyond pre-tensioning to include post-tensioning, which occurs after the concrete is
cast. Tensioning systems may be classed as either monostrand, where each tendon's
strand or wire is stressed individually, or multi-strand, where all strands or wires in a
tendon are stressed simultaneously. Tendons may be located either within the concrete
volume (internal pre-stressing) or wholly outside of it (external pre-stressing). While
pre-tensioned concrete uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, post-tensioned
concrete can use either bonded or unbonded tendons.
Principles of Pre-stressing
Pre-stressing is the application of an initial load on the concrete structure, so that the
structure is able to counteract or withstand the stresses coming due to the service
loads. The concept can be clearly understood by the example of a barrel.
A barrel used in olden periods
to transports liquids and
grains are tightly bound by
metal bands as shown in
figure-1. These metal bands
are fitted so tightly that it
creates a hoop compression
around the barrel. When this barrel is filled with liquid, it exerts hoop tension.
The hoop compression that is created by the metal bands helps to counteract the hoop
tension created by the fluid within. This is a pre-stressing system.
Similarly, effective internal stresses are induced into the concrete by means of
tensioned steel bars before the concrete structure is subjected to any service loads.
This stress counteracts with external stresses.
Since the tensile strength of concrete is low, a homogeneous concrete beam has very
little flexural strength. To offset
this deficiency, steel
reinforcement is provided near
the bottom of simple beams to
carry the tensile stresses.
However, a substantial area of
concrete below the neutral axis
merely retains the reinforcement
in position, but its tensile
strength is neglected in the
computation for the flexural
strength in case of reinforced
concrete beams.
If the tensile reinforcement of
beam is subjected to tensile stresses before applying the external loads, then
compressive stresses are induced in the concrete of the beam (and this is done by pre-
stressing).
Usually the tensile stresses in the concrete caused by the external loads are completely
absorbed or counteracted by the compressive stresses in concrete, resulting from pre-
stressing the reinforcement. The concrete, therefore, is being used effectively in
 resisting tensile stresses produced by external loads rather than being neglected as in
case of reinforced concrete.

Need for pre-stressing

The need for pre-stressing in concrete can be justified by the following issue:

1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak point of

concrete that results in early flexural cracks mainly in flexural members like beams
and slabs. To prevent this, the concrete is induced with compressive stress deliberately
(pre-stressing) and this stress counteracts with the tensile stress the structure is
subjected to during service condition. Hence the chances of flexural cracks are
reduced.

2. The pre-compression that is induced as a part of pre-stressing helps to enhance the

bending capacity, the shear capacity and the torsional capacity of the flexural
members.

3. A compressive pre-stressing force can be applied concentrically or eccentrically in the

longitudinal direction of the member. This prevents cracks at critical mid-span and
supports at service load.

4. A pre-stressed concrete section behaves elastically.

5. The full capacity of the concrete in compression can be used over entire depth under
full loading in the case of pre-stressed concrete.

Brief timeline of history of Pre-stressing

Before the development of pre-stressed concrete, two significant developments of
reinforced concrete are the invention of Portland cement and introduction of steel in
concrete. These are also mentioned as the part of the history. The key developments
are mentioned next to the corresponding year.

1824 Aspdin J. (England) - Obtained a patent for the manufacture of Portland

cement.
1857 Monier J. (France) - Introduced steel wires in concrete to make flower pots,
pipes, arches and slabs.
1908 Stainer C.R (USA) - Recognized losses due to shrinkage and creep, and
suggested retightening the rods to recover lost pre-stress.
1923 Emperger F. (Austria) - Developed a method of winding and pre- tensioning
high tensile steel wires around concrete pipes.
1924 Hewett W.H (USA) -Introduced hoop-stressed horizontal reinforcement around
walls of concrete tanks through the use of turnbuckles.
1925 Dill R .H (USA) - Used high strength unbonded steel rods. The rods were
tensioned and anchored after hardening of the concrete.
1926 Eugene Freyssinet (France) - Used high tensile steel wires, with ultimate
strength as high as 1725 MPa and yield stress over 1240 MPa. In 1939, he developed
conical wedges for end anchorages for post-tensioning and developed double-acting
jacks. He is often referred to as the “Father of Pre-stressed concrete.”
1938 Hoyer E (Germany) - Developed long line pre-tensioning method.
1940 Magnel G (Belgium) - Developed an anchoring system for post-tensioning,
using flat wedges.

Eugene Freyssinet Airship hangars at Orly

Methods of Pre-stressing
The following are the two methods that are followed for pre-stressing: -
1. Pre-tensioned concrete
2. Post-tensioned concrete
Pre-tensioned concrete
Pre-tensioned bridge girder in pre-casting
bed. Note single-strand tendons exiting
through the formwork.
Pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of pre-
stressed concrete where the tendons are
tensioned prior to the concrete being cast.
The concrete bonds to the tendons as
it cures, following which the end-
anchoring of the tendons is released, and
the tendon tension forces are transferred to
the concrete as compression by static
friction.
Pre-tensioning is a common prefabrication technique, where the resulting concrete
element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location and transported to
site once cured. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the
tendons are stretched. These anchorages form the
ends of a "casting bed" which may be many
times the length of the concrete element being
fabricated. This allows multiple elements to be
constructed end-on-end in the one pre-tensioning
operation, allowing significant productivity
benefits and economies of scale to be realized for
this method of construction.
The amount of bond (or adhesion) achievable
between the freshly set concrete and the surface
of the tendons is critical to the pre-tensioning
process, as it determines when the tendon
anchorages can be safely released. Higher bond
strength in early-age concrete allows more
economical fabrication as it speeds production.
To promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are
usually composed of isolated single wires or
strands, as this provides a greater surface area for
bond action than bundled strand tendons.

Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete

elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages. Where "profiled" or
"harped" tendons are required, one or more intermediate deviators are located between
the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during
tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a
robust casting bed foundation system. Straight tendons are typically used in "linear"
precast elements such as shallow beams, hollow-core planks and slabs, whereas
profiled tendons are more commonly found in deeper precast bridge beams and
girders.
Pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of
structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water
tanks and concrete pipes.
Post-tensioned concrete
Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of pre-stressed
concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the
surrounding concrete structure has been cast.
The tendons are not placed in direct contact with the
concrete, but are encapsulated within a protective
sleeve or duct which is either cast into the concrete
structure or placed adjacent to it. At each end of a
tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the
surrounding concrete. Once the concrete has been
cast and set, the tendons are tensioned ("stressed") by
pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete.
The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent
compression being applied to the concrete once the
tendon is "locked-off" at the anchorage. The method
of locking the tendon-ends to the anchorage is
dependent upon the tendon composition, with the
most common systems being "button-head"
anchoring (for wire tendons), split-wedge anchoring
(for strand tendons), and threaded anchoring (for bar
tendons).
Tendon encapsulation systems are constructed from
plastic or galvanised steel materials, and are
classified into two main types: those where the
tendon element is subsequently bonded to the
surrounding concrete by internal grouting of the duct
after stressing (bonded post-tensioning); and those
where the tendon element is permanently debonded
from the surrounding concrete, usually by means of a greased sheath over the tendon
strands (unbonded post-tensioning). Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete
before any tensioning occurs allows them to be readily "profiled" to any desired shape
including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature.
 Applications of Pre-stressed elements in Civil Structures

1) Bridges
Of the wide range of alternative methods and materials that are available for the
construction of bridges, concrete remains the most popular structural material, and
pre-stressed concrete, in particular, is frequently adopted. When investigated in the
1940s for use on heavy-duty bridges the advantages of this type of bridge over more
traditional designs was that it is quicker to install, more economical and longer-lasting
with the bridge being less lively. One of the first bridges built in this way is the Adam
Viaduct, constructed 1946 it is the earliest railway bridge of this type in the UK. By
the 1960s pre-stressed concrete largely superseded reinforced concrete bridges in the
UK, with box girders being the dominant form.
In short-span bridges of around 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 ft), pre-stressing is
commonly employed in the form of precast pre-tensioned girders or planks; for
medium-length structures of around 40 to 200 metres (150 to 650 ft), precast-
segmental, in-situ balanced-cantilever and incrementally-launched designs are all
efficiently constructed using pre-stressing; while for the longest bridges, pre-stressed
concrete deck structures often form an integral part of cable-stayed designs.
2) Dams
Concrete dams have used pre-stressing to counter uplift and increase their overall
stability since the mid-1930s. Pre-stressing is also frequently retro-fitted as part of
dam remediation works, such as for structural strengthening, or when raising crest or
spillway heights.
Most commonly, dam pre-stressing takes the form of post-tensioned anchors drilled
into the dam's concrete structure and/or the underlying rock strata. Such anchors
typically comprise tendons of high-tensile bundled steel strands or individual threaded
bars. Tendons are grouted to the concrete or rock at their far (internal) end, and have a
significant "de-bonded" free-length at their external end which allows the tendon to
stretch during tensioning. Tendons may be full-length bonded to the surrounding
concrete or rock once tensioned, or (more commonly) have strands permanently
encapsulated in corrosion-inhibiting grease over the free-length to permit long-term
load monitoring and pre-stressing ability.
3) Silos and tanks
Circular storage structures such as silos and tanks can use pre-stressing forces to
directly resist the outward pressures generated by stored liquids or bulk-solids.
Horizontally curved tendons are installed within the concrete wall to form a series of
"hoops" spaced vertically up the structure. When tensioned, these tendons exert both
axial (compressive) and radial (inward) forces onto the structure, which can used to
directly oppose the subsequent storage loadings. If the magnitude of the pre-stress is
designed to always exceed the tensile stresses produced by the loadings, a permanent
residual compression will exist in the wall concrete, assisting in maintaining a
watertight, crack-free structure under all storage conditions.

4) Nuclear and blast-containment structures

Pre-stressed concrete is long-established as a reliable construction material for high-
pressure containment structures such as nuclear reactor vessels and containment
buildings, and petrochemical tank blast-containment walls. Using pre-stressing to
place such structures into an initial state of bi-axial or tri-axial compression increases
their resistance to concrete cracking and leakage, while providing a proof-loaded,
redundant and monitorable pressure-containment system.
Nuclear reactor and containment vessels will commonly employ separate sets of post
tensioned tendons curved horizontally or vertically to completely envelop the reactor
core, while blast containment walls for LNG tanks and similar will normally utilise
layers of horizontally-curved hoop tendons for containment in combination with
vertically looped tendons for axial wall pre-stressing.
5) Hardstands and pavements
Heavily loaded concrete ground-slabs and pavements can be sensitive to cracking and
subsequent traffic-driven deterioration. As a result, pre-stressed concrete is regularly
used in such structures as its pre-compression provides the concrete with the ability to
resist the crack-inducing tensile stresses generated by in-service loading. This crack-
resistance also allows individual slab sections to be constructed in larger pours than
for conventionally reinforced concrete, resulting in wider joint spacing, reduced
jointing costs and less long-term joint maintenance issues. Initial works have also
been successfully conducted on the use of precast pre-stressed concrete for road
pavements, where the speed and quality of the construction has been noted as being
beneficial for this technique.
 Shapes of Pre-stressed concrete poles

The maximum moment of resistance in a pole is generally required at the base and,
consequently, the maximum cross-sectional area is required at the base section. Poles
are generally tapered with hallow core to reduce the weight, which also helps in
providing a race way for electric wires.
Typical cross-sections of transmission line poles widely employed in different
countries are shown in figure 1. For small lengths of up to 12m, the square or
rectangular sections are preferable as they are easily manufactured and occupy less
space in transportation.
However, they have a larger exposed surface with thin elements and are susceptible to
corrosion, I-sections of 10m lengths have been widely used in the British railways
while V-sections have been employed in South African railways.
Tubular sections are ideally suited for longer poles. B.B.R.V.-type pre-stressed
concrete poles are manufactured in standard lengths of 9, 12, 15, and 18m and up to a
maximum diameter of 750mm using the spinning process.
 Pre-stressed concrete poles
For many years throughout the world, poles made of wood, steel, and concrete have
been used to support power transmission, telephone and telegraph lines, street
lighting, overhead power lines for railroads, and antenna masts. Concrete poles were
first used over 100 years ago and were then made of normal reinforced concrete.
Pre-stressed concrete poles should not be regarded as novel or new. They were first
designed and constructed by the French pre-stressing pioneer Eugene Freyssinet in
Algeria in the middle 1930s. It was also Freyssinet who, years ago, conducted his
classic demonstration in which a
normal reinforced concrete pole and a
pre-stressed pole, designed to the same
ultimate load, were placed in a special
testing apparatus and subjected, not
only to repetition of a load equal to,
but also to alternation of a load
amounting to 50 percent of the
designed ultimate load. The normal
reinforced concrete pole failed at a few
thousand repetitions, but the pre-
stressed pole was still going strong at 5,00,000 cycles. Since this is the type of loading
that poles are expected to carry in the field, this test was of significant interest to pole
users.
The greatest hazard associated with normal reinforced concrete poles is corrosion of
steel. This leads to spalling of the concrete and, ultimately, failure of the pole. The
corrosion may be caused by insufficient cover, substandard concrete, or excessive
tensile forces, hence cracks, in handling or service, owing to poor design or to misuse.
The pre-stressed concrete pole offers the following advantages: First; the concrete
used is of a quality sufficient to resist penetration of water, otherwise the pole could
conceivably fail during the pre-stressing operation.
Secondly, in a pre-stressed pole, the concrete is usually in compression, and cracking
is not possible except under abnormal conditions of handling or service. These
characteristics give the pre-stressed pole greater advantages over the normal
reinforced pole and are the reasons for the development and use of pre-stressed
concrete poles.
They are extensively utilized in Japan and to varying degrees in many other countries
around the world. Available data indicate that the Soviet Union has produced and used
the most poles, whereas the United States and Canada have only recently initiated
their utilization.
 Demand for pre-stressed electric poles
The demand for pre-stressed (Pre-cast/Reinforced) concrete-cement (PCC) poles
directly depends on the growth of electric power sector. Because these poles are solely
meant for overhead transmission and
distribution of power to consumer units. The
growth in generation and supply of electric
energy gives rise to demands for PCC poles
& other systems by way of OEM &
replacement/renovation demands.
As the electricity generation increases, there
will be the need to expand & re-strengthen
the distribution network. This new challenge
will call for fresh supplies for transmission
towers, PCC poles & other materials.
India is a developing country where
availability of infrastructural facilities is of
paramount importance for rapid development
of national economy & general status. A
large network of electricity distribution for
rural electrifications, agricultural &
irrigational consumptions can be catered to
only by establishing an efficient generation
& distribution standards.
Electrical transmission towers, steel poles and PCC poles serve the base for overhead
power transmission & distribution. All the existing transmission grids are either in a
bad condition or inefficient. These networks require renovation. Their energy carrying
capacities can't be increased unless & until those are replaced by a new transmission
line. Then, there is the need to reach electrical light/power to all those areas where
presently this facility is missing. All these factors are essentially going to raise the
demand for not only electrical equipment but also distribution materials including
poles.
P.C.C. Poles are essentially made of concrete which are inevitably less costly and
more economically maintainable than the conventional steel poles. They are of two
types depending upon the end use of the pole-Low tensile and High Tensile Line. The
latter is primarily used for transmission of electricity. Pre-stress Cement Concrete
Poles are essentially made of concrete. High tensile wire is inserted into the pre-
designed moulds and stretched to reach a certain tension. Galvanised wire is fixed
inside the mould for earthing following which a right proportion of concrete mix is
poured. Then, the concrete is compacted through vibration to produce high strength
concrete poles. After 72 hours, the tension is released and demoulding done.
 Design Loading on Pre-stressed concrete poles
Pole structures have to be designed to be reliable, serviceable, and to resist (without
permanent distortion) all anticipated maximum service loads. In the United States, the
loading conditions for electric power structures have to meet or exceed those given in
the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC). For lighting structures, the loading
conditions have to meet or exceed the NESC andlor AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Structural Support for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic
Signals. For microwave or antenna towers, the loading conditions have to meet or
exceed the Electronic Industries Association Standard RS-222-C. These loadings are
minimum requirements and the designer's study of the structure location will
determine whether these minimum requirements should be increased. Loads other
than those required by the codes or standards that affect the design of these structures
are those due to extreme weather, or to manufacturing, handling, transportation, and
erection.
Electric Power Transmission Structures
In these types of structures the design loadings are due to (1) vertical loads, (2)
transverse loads, and (3) longitudinal
loads. In addition to their own weight,
structures are subjected to vertical
loads due to dead loads of wire and
attachments, and ice. The only
variable here is the ice. A structure
should be designed for vertical loads
due to maximum vertical span, ice,
construction, and maintenance loads.
The maximum vertical span depends
on the terrain. Structures located on
hills must support more wire load, low
point to low point of wire sag, than
the adjacent structures which are
located on level ground. The
horizontal wind span is unaffected by
terrain and will always he half the true
horizontal distances between
suspension structures. Selection of the ice loads should be based on experience
records for each service area; these records can be obtained from the U.S. Weather
Bureau.
Ice build-up may not be the same on all spans, and the engineer should recognize this
effect when designing for unbalanced longitudinal loads. During the wire stringing
operation, the structure may receive vertical loads more severe than those in normal
design loadings. For maintenance loads, the structure should be designed to provide
adequate support for conductors that are being lowered during a repair operation. This
is often overlooked and could be a critical factor for a light structure.
Transverse loads are caused by (1) wind pressure on the structure and wires and (2)
the transverse component of line tension at angles. In combining these loads to give a
total transverse design loading, it is important to ensure that the appropriate conductor
tension be used with the corresponding wind load.
Extreme wind forces on transmission lines may be caused by three fundamentally
different types of meteorological systems: (1) tornadoes, (2) hurricanes, and (3) local
thunderstorms. A tornadic wind is a type of a whirlwind with rotating wind velocities
estimated at well over 200 mph (322 kmlh).
Lighting Structures
Lighting pole structures must meet or exceed the design loadings of the NESC and/or
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires and Traffic Signals, and include (1) dead load, (2) live load, (3) ice load,
and (4) wind load. In addition to its own weight, the dead load includes all
permanently attached fixtures, including hoisting dePCI JOURNAL/September-
October 1984 67 vices and walkways provided for servicing of luminaires, if required.
Live load need not be applied to structural supporting members. The only member
requiring a live load design would be the walkway and ladders. The ice load of 3 psf
(0.14 kPa) is applied only to the attached fixtures, ladders, walkways, luminaires or
signs, and is based on 0.50 in. (13 mm) of ice at 60 pef (961 kg/ms).
Antenna Support Structures
Antenna support structures must meet or exceed the design loads of the Electronic
Industries Association, EIA Standard RS-222 latest revision, and include (1) dead
load, (2) ice load, (3) wind load, and (4) limit values of twist, sway, and displacement.
In addition to its own weight, the dead load includes all permanently attached fixtures,
antenna assemblies, transmission lines, reflectors, conduits, lighting, climbing
facilities, platforms and signs. This standard does not specifically state an ice
thickness required. Consideration to its location and the climatic conditions should the
given to an ice thickness requirement in preparing the specifications.
Wind loads are defined as the force and torques produced by a specified unit
horizontal wind pressure acting on the tower, antenna assemblies, reflectors, and other
fixtures attached. In all cases, the specified ice coating should be included as part of
the projected area. Minimum horizontal wind pressure in pounds per square foot (psf)
are referred to on a map chart called "Wind Loading Zones" which is part of the
standard. For towers under 300 ft. (92 m), Zone A —30 psf (1.4 kPa); Zone B — 40
psf (1.9 kPa); Zone C — 50 psf (2.4 kPa); the pressure is assumed to be applied
uniformly over the entire height of the structure.
Tower twist is defined as the horizontal angular displacement of the tower from its no
wind load position at that elevation. Tower sway is defined as the angular
displacement of a tangent to the tower axis at that elevation from its no wind load
position at that elevation. Tower displacement at any elevation is defined as the
horizontal displacement of a point on the tower axis from its no wind load position at
that elevation. A table of allowable twist and sway values for microwave tower-
antenna reflector systems is attached to the standard.
 Manufacturing process of pre-stressed electric poles
The successful manufacture of pre-stressed concrete poles depends on the local
conditions and available equipment. It can be done in specialized factories using the
sophisticated spinning method with steam and/or water tank curing, or as in India, in
remote areas on site locations, using portable pre-tensioning beds, local untrained
labour, air curing and specially designed bullock carts for transporting and erecting
the poles.
The following are the principal manufacturing methods.
1. Industrial manufacturing of complete poles at specialized factories: (a) By
centrifugal casting method with demountable steel forms; (b) By vibration,
compacting on a bed with the moulds laid horizontally; (c) By compaction in a
machine with either transverse or longitudinal vibration.
2. Manufacture may be on site with poles placed horizontally.
3. Poles maybe made from precast sections
which are assembled on site by post-
tensioning or by splicing, or may be partly
preassembled in special casting yards.
In most of Europe and Japan, concrete poles
are economically mass produced by well-
equipped plants using the centrifugal
casting method. The basic manufacturing
equipment needed is the spinning machine
and the steel forms. The spinning machines
are of heavy-duty, roll-bench type and have
sets of spinning wheel assemblies at 10 Ft
(3 m) intervals.
The spinning wheel assemblies are hard
face, long wearing wheels mounted on
extra-large antifriction rollers and ball
bearings in totally sealed pillow blocks. The
machine is normally driven by a full length
drive-shaft with ball type universal joints
and a single drive station located at the
middle of the machine. Some of the more modern machines are equipped with
automatic form loader.
Unloader for maximum efficiency. The demountable steel forms usually consist of
two halves, but some plants use a single piece form. These forms are made in 10 ft. (3
m) sections and are bolted end to end to the required pole length. The forms are
precision designed and built for ruggedness; they are statically and dynamically
balanced for smooth, vibration-free running. Forms are available in a wide range of
sizes, lengths and shapes. The usual shape is round with a uniform taper from top to
bottom. Other shapes used are hexagonal, octagonal, square with chamfered corners,
triangular with chamfered edges, and cylindrical.
They are normally tapered to any dimension from 0.15 to 0.180 in. /ft. (12.5 to 15
mm/m). The process of making a spun concrete pole is to lay out the oiled half of the
form, to place full length spiral wire wrap, to pull reinforcing strand or wire through
spiral wrap to anchor heads, then to chuck and apply a small amount of stress, In
plants using "open form filling", the form is closed after it has been filled with a pre-
calculated amount of concrete and final pre-stressing takes place after the form has

been filled and fully assembled.

In plants using "closed form filling", the form is closed immediately after placing the
reinforcement, final pre-stressing takes place after The form has been fully
assembled, but before a pre-calculated amount of concrete is pumped or dumped into
it.
The form is then placed on the spinning machine where it is spun for several minutes.
Two speeds are used in the process. At the lower speed, the mixture is divided
uniformly along the form and the cylindrical cross section is formed. At the high
speed, the tremendous centrifugal force created by spinning extracts excess water and
consolidates the mix to an extremely dense, high strength concrete. After spinning, the
form is taken to the steam curing area, where the pole is cured with low pressure
steam for a period of time until the strength of the concrete in the pole has attained at
least 3500 psi (24 MPa).
The pre-stressed wire or strand is then released; the pole is dressed up and air cured
for 28 days before shipping. The Swiss BBRV pre-stressing system is also being
applied to the manufacture of poles. In this system high tensile wire is anchored at the
pole ends by means of button heads and special anchor washers. Using this system
and some special auxiliary equipment, spun concrete poles are being made for electric
power lines.
Vibration techniques are widely
applied in the manufacture of
concrete poles. In East Germany,
a vibration method known as
Mensel's method is used where
lightweight horizontal moulds are
carried on mobile frames strong
enough to take the tensile stresses
of the pre-stressing steel, A
production line system is used,
and the moulds and equipment
circulate so that 76 the workers do
not have to move around. The
production system embraces some
of the processes used with other
methods of production and includes one special feature.
A formwork core occupies the space which will be the inner cavity of the pole, and
this is rotated a little after the concrete has begun to harden. It is removed when the
concrete has fully hardened. With this method of production, curing is done by a heat
treatment cycle. The temperature of the poles is raised to 163 F (73 C), held and then
cooled during a 24-hour period. The most common casting method for solid sections
(square, rectangular, channelled, I or Y shaped) is the long line method. In India it is
called Hoyer's long line method.
The forms are placed end to end along the length of the bed, 300 to 400 ft. (90 to 120
m), with the narrow ends of the tapered poles facing each other and the wide ends next
to each other (Fig, 27). The pre-stressing wire or strand is positioned by means of the
holes in the bulkheads and is pretensioned against end abutments. The concrete is then
fed into the forms and compacted with external vibrators operating at about 6000
cycles per minute.
In India steam curing is not generally adopted. The design of the concrete mix is such
that the stress at transfer is obtained at the end of 3 days when wires or strands are cut
and the mould released. In other countries the forms are covered and steam cured for
about 24 hours, with a concrete release strength of 4000 psi (28 MPa). Poles made by
the long line method can be made in any precast concrete yard, or on site.
 The manufacture of spun concrete poles by centrifugal-casting
process
The basic manufacturing equipment is the spinning machine and the steel forms.
The following is a step-by-step description of the manufacture of a spun concrete pole
using the CENTRICON process

Step One - Reinforcing

For slack-reinforced poles, a specified number of high strength steel bars are
mechanically or manually prefabricated into cages following the shape of the desired
pole. A left-hand and a right-hand spiral is then wrapped the full length of the cage.
Spacial concrete or plastic spacers are positioned at intervals on the longitudinal bars
to provide a concrete cover of a minimum of 20 mm over the reinforcement and to
keep the cage centered in the mold. The finished cage is placed in the lower half of the
steel form which has been oiled with special quick-drying form-oil compound.

For pre-stressing poles, the reinforcement (strand or wire) is assembled directly in the
previously oiled lower half of form. Each end of the strand or wire is drawn through
the anchor heads, chucked and a small amount of stress is applied. A set of supporting
steel rings is positioned at intervals from top to bottom within the strands or wires to
keep them from sagging. After this a single spiral is wrapped the full length of the
pole.

Step Two - Form Closing

If the plant is using “open-form filling“, the form is closed after it has been filled. For
pre-stressing poles, final pre-stressing takes place after the form has been filled and
fully assembled. If the plant is using “closed-form filling “, the form is closed
immediately after placing the reinforcement as described under Step-One. For pre-
stressing poles, final pre-stressing takes place after the form has been fully assembled,
but before filling. The pre-stressing reinforcement is pre-stressing up to 70 percent of
its ultimate tensile strength.

Step Three – Filling

By the “open-form filling“, the form is taken to the filling station and the pre-
calculated amount of concrete is fed into the lower half of the form. The lower half is
then cleaned, the upper half is lowered into position and the form is closed. By
“closed-form filling“, the form is brought to the filling area fully assembled and a pre-
calculated amount of concrete is pumped into it.
Step Four - Spinning

The form is transported to the spinning machine where it is spun for several minutes at
high peripheral velocity. The tremendous centrifugal force created by spinning
extracts excess water and consolidates the mix to an extremely dense, high-strength
concrete, solely attainable through centrifugal casting.

Step Five - Curing

After centrifugation the pole is taken to the steam curing area where it is artificially
cured in the form .with low pressure saturated steam for a period of two to four hours.
Releasing of the pre-stress wires is not done until the strength of the concrete in the
pole has attained a value of at least 3,500 psi (245 kg/q.cm). After steam curing the
pole is removed from the form and kept in a moist condition for eight - ten days,
following by a period of twenty days outdoor air curing before being shipped. The use
of high early strength cement will result in a considerably shorter curing period.

Step Six -Testing (Quality Control)

Two types of testing are used to determine the flexural behavior and flexural capacity
of poles under static loading conditions: pole testing and structure testing. Pole testing
is used to verify the design and quality of production of the poles. A test frame is
used. Here, the butt of the pole is fixed and the pole is pulled from a point below the
tip, usually 2 ft. (0.6 in), about a reaction point ground line distance from the butt. By
adding the load in increments of the ultimate design, the cracking moment and
physical behavior of the pole to destruction can he checked. It is good practice to
include in the specifications some random pole testing to a percentage of the ultimate
strength of the pole as a quality assurance check. A pole can be tested up to 90 percent
of ultimate, and when the load is released, show no effect of the loading. Structure
testing is the simulation of the structure as it is to be used, loaded in increments to its
design loadings, in a static condition, to check its structural strength and behavior.

Step 7 – Handling, Transportation and Erection

Although pre-stressing concrete poles are resilient and resist cracking, they require
special care in handling, transporting and erecting. Some guidelines for safe handling
of pre-stressing concrete poles are:
1. Always handle pre-stressing concrete poles with the major axis in the horizontal
direction, with a two-point balanced pickup.
2. While unloading from trucks, railroad cars or waterway barges, handle the poles
gently. Under no circumstances should they be thrown onto a pile.
3. Poles should be stacked level and supported so their own dead weight will not cause
them to sag.
4. While transporting by pole trailer, the poles should he held as rigid as possible to
keep them from oscillating, which could cause them to crack. The use of a strong back
is suggested, if necessary.
5. When erecting single poles, it is suggested that they be rigged
6. H-frame structures should be assembled and lifted with the use of a spreader bar.
With structures over 80 ft. (24 m), a second pick point should be used to get the pole
butts off the ground when lifting the structure to the vertical position.

Future use and technology

Most studies have indicated that the first cost of pre-stressing concrete poles is greater
than timber, but less than steel, in the range of sizes of pre-stressing concrete poles
designed and used today. It must be emphasized that numerous circumstances affect
their economy, especially transportation and availability. From the data collected, the
facts indicate that every country surveyed in the report is using pre-stressing concrete
poles more and more frequently.
Future technology into higher strength concrete with a 28-day strength in the 69 to 83
MPa range may become standard as efforts to produce stronger poles with slender
profile develop. Pole weights may also decrease with the use of lighter weight
concrete. Sectionalized poles will reduce shipping and handling problems. The
development of concrete admixtures that provide concrete with acceptable electrical
insulating and mechanical strength properties may open the way for innovative
integrated design. The increasing market for wood products may eventually eliminate
wood from the pole marketplace; this will un-doubtedly cause wood pole users to look
at concrete poles as an attractive alternative.
Future technological developments in concrete pole design, manufacturing, and
costing will have a very definite impact on the future use of pre-stressing concrete
poles.
 Advantages of using Pre-stressing Concrete in Electric Poles:

• Pre-stressed concrete poles are lighter and stronger, so they require less reinforcing
steel.
• The concrete is generally in compression, so cracking is unlikely except from rough
handling, and the concrete used is of higher strength so it can withstand the pre-
stressing operation.
• The poles are spun at high speeds during the manufacturing process, because of this
they have a smoother surface that is denser and less permeable.
• Pre-stressing Concrete poles offer a cost effective, permanent solution for the
lighting, utility and surveillance industries.
• The pre-stressing concrete poles have consistent material properties throughout their
length. These are not susceptible to rot and decay.
• The pre-stressing concrete pole has the same strength throughout its service life.
• The poles are ecofriendly and require very low maintenance.
• It is helpful from the stand point of both users and designers.
• Fire resistant, particularly to grass and bush fires near the ground line.
• Electric safety and Safe Earthing.
• Flexible for all locations for erection

Disadvantages of using Pre-stressing Concrete in Electric Poles:

• Use of pre-stressed concrete needs expertise and special equipment.
• It can be costly for small scale in initial cost.
• Poor color match.
• Difficult to transport.

Comparision of psc poles to RCC poles and steel poles

Steel poles:

Advantages of using steel electric poles:

• The cost is low.
• The strength of the steel is high.
• It can be casted into different shapes and sizes very easily.
• Base plate and bolt circle has flexibility.
• It can have an anchor base or can be directly buried.
Disadvantages of using steel electric poles:
• Highly prone to corrosion when compared with concrete electric poles.
• It is heavy, so larger equipment is required to carry and uninstall.
• Higher maintenance.
• Has life of only 15 to 30 years.

RCC Poles:

• P.S.C. is more durable since there are no tensile cracks, whereas in R.C.C tensile
cracks are unavoidable, hence there is greater danger of adverse environmental
effects.
• As high strength concrete is used and also since dead load moments can be
neutralized P.S.C., dead weight of P.S.C. member is much less compared to what is
required for R.C.C. member. The dead weight of P.S.C member is about one-third of
equivalent R.C. members.
• The material cost in P.S.C. is much less than that in equivalent R.C. members.
• The deformation of P.S.C. members is much less compared to that for an equivalent
R.C. member. In case of beams deflection of P.S.C. beams is about one - Fourth of
that of equivalent R.C. beams.
• P.S.C has high resilience that is., a considerable capacity for recovering completely
from the effect of occasional over loadings, without suffering any serious harm. In
case of P.S.C. cracks in such situation which develop temporarily will close up
completely.
References:
1. Pre-stressing Concrete Poles: State-of-the-Art by Thomas E. Rodgers, Jr.
Director Structural Engineering VEPCO, Electric and Power Company
Richmond, Virginia
2. Pre-stressing Concrete by N. Krishnaraju.
3. www.nptel.ac.in
4. www.niir.org
5. www.acuitysupport.zendesk.com
6. www.happho.com
7. http://megandlo.tripod.com/Synopsis.pdf
8. https://3.imimg.com/data3/MI/YH/MY.../pre-stressing-concrete-electric-
poles.pdf
9. https://www.ergon.com.au/__data/assets/pdf.../Manufacture-of-Concrete-
Poles.pdf