APPLIED LOAD Load Carrying

(External Forces
System
& Reactions)
•Normal Forces
Internal •Shear Forces
Forces •Bending Moments
•Twisting Moments

MATERIAL Stresses
PROPERTIES & Strains

DEFORMATION & STIFFNESS STRENGTH (Resistance to Failure)

(Extension, Contraction,
(Yield, Fracture, Fatigue, Rupture)
Curvature, Deflection,
Distortion, Twist)
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 tetap waktunya
static sangat singkat
TEGANGAN

kejut

berubah Impact
dynamic Crash
Ballistic

WAKTU

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 STRAIN RATE
BESARNYA REGANGAN
=
WAKTU PEREGANGAN

Range of
Test condition or type
strain rate
(s-1)

10-8 to 10-5 Creep test

10-5 to 10-1 “Static” tension test

10-1 to 10 2 Dynamic tension/compression test

10 2 to 10 4 High-speed testing using impact bar

10 4 to 10 8 Hypervelocity impact using explosive driven projectile

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extensometer load cell

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 Required tensile force is
measured, along with the
changing dimensions of the
sample.

Extensiometer

Sample

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 SPECIMEN

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 A0
P P

L0
u

Engineering stress and engineering strain are calculated as:

Internal Normal Force P

  (Pa)
Original C.S. Area A0

Change in Length u
 
Original Length L0

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 TENSILE TEST

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 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

For most metals that are stressed in

tension and at relatively low levels,
stress and strain are proportional to
each other through the relationship

=E
Hooke
Modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus.

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 ELASTIC PROPERTIES
STRESS  STRAIN
Modulus of elasticity,
Young’s modulus.

For uniaxial loading:
   E

 Unit:
or E E
 Pa
Elastic Behaviour 
Steel Aluminium Concrete Wood Nylon Rubber

E (GPa) 210 70 18.5 12.5 2.8 0.004

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 ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Hooke’s Law

Fspring= -k x

STIFFNESS
(kekakuan)

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 ASTM E 111,
ASTM E 231

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 Poisson’s Ratio
z y

If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the

z direction), and the material is isotropic,
then
x = y
A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio is
defined as the ratio of the lateral and axial
strains, or

For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other
and to Poisson’s ratio according to

shear modulus

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 TENSILE TEST Yielding

CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS

annealed low
carbon steel

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 TENSILE TEST

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 TENSILE TEST

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 TENSILE TEST

STRENGTH
max Ultimate Tensile Strength;UTS
 [MPa]

Tensile Strength;TS
u
fracture = Fmax/A0
Stress

Fracture Strength
1. True elastic limit
2. Proportional limit
f
3. Elastic limit = Ff/A0
4. Yield strength

Strain e (%)

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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic
 [MPa]
Stress

1. TRUE ELASTIC LIMIT

True elastic limit based on microstrain
measurement at strain on order of 2x10-6. This
elastic limit is very low value and is related to
the motion of a few hundred dislocations

Strain e (%)

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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic

true elastic limit

2
106

1 1
e= e=
105 104

a). stress strain curve of fine grained material, experimental and model;
b). initial microstructure; c). microstructure at strain of 0.001% and
d). microstructure at strain of 0.01%.

http://hrdg.mse.uiuc.edu/compgr.html dis_beh_dur_def_112304.pdf
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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic
 [MPa]

deviates
Stress

2. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
The highest stress at which stress is directly
proportional to strain. It is obtained by
observing the deviation from the straight line
portion of the stress-strain curve.

Strain e (%)

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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic
3. ELASTIC LIMIT
The greatest stress that material can withstand without any
measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release
of load. Determination of elastic limit requires a tedious
incremental loading-unloading test procedure.
highest
stress
 [MPa]

stress
Stress

strain

Strain e (%) 1 2 3 4 5
measurable permanent strain

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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic

4. YIELD STRENGTH

The stress required to produce a small

 [MPa]

specified amount of plastic deformation.

The usual definition of this property is
the offset yield strength determined by
Stress

stress corresponding to the intersection

of the stress-strain curve and a line
parallel to the elastic part of the curve
offset by a specified strain.

Strain e (%)
0.002 [0.2%]

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 TENSILE TEST
elastic-plastic
 [MPa]

x
Stress

OFFSET YIELD STRENGTH

ELASTIC LIMIT

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

0.2%

Strain e (%)
measurable
permanent strain
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 TENSILE TEST
Yielding

CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS

annealed low
carbon steel

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 Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy
recovered. The associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur ,
which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material
from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.

Assuming a linear elastic region,

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 TENSILE TEST

elastic plastic
F [N]
max
A0 [mm2]

[MPa]
[psi] fracture

uniform localized
elongation deformation

Stress

Strain e Dl [mm]
x 100%
l0 [mm]

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 Elastic Behavior

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 Elastic Behavior

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 Elastic Behavior

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 Nonlinear Elastic Behavior

Schematic stress–strain diagram showing nonlinear elastic

behavior, and how secant and tangent moduli are determined.

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 Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing

Differences in modulus values

between metals, ceramics, and
polymers are a direct consequence
of the different types of atomic
bonding that exist for the three
materials types.

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 Atomic Bonding & Modulus of Elasticity

The force-distance curve for two materials, showing the relationship

between atomic bonding and the modulus of elasticity, a steep dF/da
slope gives a high modulus

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 Atomic Bonding & Thermal Expansion

equilibrium spacing between atoms

spacing after heating, increases energy by DIAE

spacing after heating, increases energy by DIAE

(larger separation indicates higher thermal expansion)

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 Modulus of Elasticity Versus Temperature
for Tungsten, Steel, and Aluminum.

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 TENSILE TEST

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 DUCTILITY
(keuletan)

elastic plastic Ductility is another important

F [N] mechanical property. It is a
measure of the degree of plastic
A0 [mm2] deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
[MPa]
[psi] fracture
A material that experiences very
little or no plastic deformation
upon fracture is termed brittle.

Stress

Strain e Dl [mm]
Dlf=lo- lf
l0 [mm]

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 DUCTILITY
(keuletan) ELONGATION

Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent

reduction in area. The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain
at fracture, or

where lf is the fracture length and l0 is the original gauge length as above.
Inasmuch as a significant proportion of the plastic deformation at fracture is
confined to the neck region, the magnitude of %EL will depend on specimen
gauge length.

The shorter l0, the greater is the fraction of total elongation from the neck and,
consequently, the higher the value of %EL. Therefore, l0 should be specified
when percent elongation values are cited; it is commonly 50 mm (2 in.).

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 DUCTILITY
(keuletan)

Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as

where A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is the cross-sectional area at

the point of fracture. Percent reduction in area values are independent of both l0
and A0 . Furthermore, for a given material the magnitudes of %EL and %RA will,
in general, be different.

Both lf and Af are measured subsequent to fracture, and after the two broken
ends have been repositioned back together.

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 %EL vs %RA

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 DUCTILITY (KEULETAN)

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 TOUGHNESS
Toughness is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to
fracture. It is the area under the – curve up to the point of fracture. The units for
toughness are the same as for resilience (i.e., energy per unit volume of
material). For a material to be tough, it must display both strength and ductility;
and often, ductile materials are tougher than brittle ones.

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 TEMPERATURE

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 LOGAM

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 KERAMIK

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 POLIMER

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 PATAH GETAS & PATAH ULET

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 CUP & CONE FRACTURE

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 TENSILE TEST

elastic plastic E
F [N] MoR
max
A0 [mm2]
y
[MPa] u
[psi] fracture
f

%EL
uniform localized %RA
elongation deformation


Toughness
Stress

Strain e Dl [mm]
x 100%
l0 [mm]

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 TENSILE TEST

Elastic linearity
Strain hardening
Necking
Fracture
Stress

Strain

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 TRUE STRESS-TRUE STRAIN


plastic
Stress

uniform localized
elongation deformation

Strain e

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 ENGINEERING STRAIN & TRUE STRAIN

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 TRUE STRESS-TRUE STRAIN

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CORRECTED CURVE
Coincident with the formation of a
neck is the introduction of a
complex stress state within the neck
region (i.e., the existence of other
stress components in addition to the
axial stress).

As a consequence, the correct stress

(axial) within the neck is slightly
lower than the stress computed from
the applied load and neck cross
sectional area. This leads to the
‘‘corrected’’ curve.

maximum axial stress

distribution of average axial true stress
axial stress

distribution of radial or : true stress in

tangential stress uniaxial true stress

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CORRECTED CURVE
Coincident with the formation of a neck is
x the introduction of a complex stress state
within the neck region (i.e., the existence of
other stress components in addition to the
axial stress).
x As a consequence, the correct stress (axial)
within the neck is slightly lower than the
stress computed from the applied load and
neck cross sectional area. This leads to the
‘‘corrected’’ curve.
R a r
 x avg

1  2 R / a  ln 1  a / 2 R 
t Bridgman’s correction
(x)avg : measured stress in the axial
direction (load divided by
minimum cross section)

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FLOW CURVE
The flow curve of many metals in the
region of uniform plastic deformation can
be expressed by the simple power curve
relation

  K n
T True stress

where n is the strain-hardening exponent

and K is the strength coefficient.

True strain T

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FLOW CURVE

  K n

There is nothing basic about above equation and deviations from this
relationship frequently are observed, often at low strains (10~3) or high
strains ( ~ 1.0).

n  d
d

d (log  ) d (ln  )
 d
n  
d (log  ) d (ln  )  d

d 
n
d 

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FLOW CURVE

Sometimes data which do not plot according to the equation will yield a
straight line according to the relationship

  K  0    n

Datsko has shown how 0 can be considered to be the amount of strain

hardening that the material received prior'to the tension test.

Ludwik    0  K n

Morrison has shown that 0 can be obtained from the intercept of the strain-
hardening portion of the stress-strain curve and the elastic modulus line by
1 1 n
K 
0   n 
E 
The true strain term should be the plastic strain
 p   total   E   total   E
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INSTABILITY IN TENSION
This condition of instability leading to
localized deformation is defined by the
 dA  Ad condition dP = 0.
P  A
dP  0
Load, P

dP   dA  Ad
dP0 dP0 From the constancy-of-volume relationship

dL dA
  d
L A
and from the instability condition
dA d
 
A 
Strain e so that at a point of tensile instability
d


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INSTABILITY IN TENSION

By substituting the necking criterion

given in equations:

d


d 
n
d 
we obtain a simple relationship for the
strain at which necking occurs. This
strain is the true uniform strain u.

u
u  n
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INSTABILITY IN TENSION

The point of necking at maximum load can be obtained from true stress-true
strain curve by finding the point on the curve having a subtangent of unity or

d

 

1 u

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INSTABILITY IN TENSION
or the point where the rate of strain hardening equals the stress

d
vs.   vs. 
d

d
 
d

u

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 Discontinuous Yielding
Luder’s Band
Stretcher strain marking

Annealed low carbon steel

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 Stretch forming

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 Stretch forming

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 Discontinuous Yielding
Luder’s Band
Stretcher strain marking

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 Skin Pass Rolling (Temper Rolling)

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 Skin Pass Rolling (Temper Rolling)

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