Introduction about Asian Music

Insular Southeast Asia – comprised of 5 States, all of which have colonial histories.

 Laos – created from spoils of war

 Indonesia – created when the people attained self-rule from the Netherlands
 East Indies
 Thailand was never colonized
Regionalism

 Diversity of population
 Individuality in language, literature, clothing, cuisine, music
 Regionalism is tolerated in the context of a mainstream culture
 Regionalism is more problematic when regions are near-equals or rivals
Classical, Folk, Popular: the problem with labels

 Classical – connotation of sophistication, high value, expressive of political and

economic power.
 Folk – there has to be a “folk” often one of the nonmainstream minorities
 Popular – mediated, most developed in countries with the greatest wealth and
urbanization
Networks of Power and Influence

 Power is centered on a person, place or object

 Dynamics rulers with many followers wield power in a radiating field
 Places like Java’s Borobudur or Cambodia’s Angkor Vat are invested with
 Power ascribed to sacred sites
 Objects like musical instruments, bronze drums, draggers, mask have power
 In an ensemble, the gong usually has the most power
Elements of Music

 Medium – what makes the sound

 Melody – organized succession of tones
 Rhythm and meter – organization of sounds in time
 Texture – relationship among the music’s elements
 Form – structural organization
 Timbre – qualities of sound
 Extramusicality – nonmusical meaning
 The Khmer People of Cambodia

 The flag has a red center field with a white silhouette of the temple complex at Angkor
Wat. The center field is bordered top and bottom by blue bands.
 Cambodia is a Southeast Asia Nation bordered by Vietnam to the east, Laos to the north,
Thailand to the northwest and the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast.
The Nation
• Most Cambodia is flat, except for mountains at the borders.
• Extensive forest and plains with wet-rice cultivation
• 2 major rivers – the Mekong and the Tonle Sap
• Estimated population of almost 14 million people
• 90% are ethnically Khmer
Culture
• Many aspects of culture were transmitted from India
• Temples of Angkor include bas-relief of cultural elements, including music
• Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia by the 13th century
War and Colonialism
• The Siamese Tai kingdom of Sukhothai and Ayuthaya warred frequently with the Khmer.
• Tai carred off 90,000 prisoners including musicians and dancers.
• Khmer people were deprived of their cultural treasures
• Cambodia asked for France’s protection against Siamese and Vietnamese aggression and
became a French protector in 1864.
• Cambodia became part of IndoChinese Union
• Cambodia became part of IndoChinese Union
• King Norodom Shanouk proclaimed independence in 1949
• Sihanouk was overthrown by Lon Nol in 1979, who established the Khmer Republic
• 1975-1979: Cambodia led into destruction by Pol Pot & the Khmer Rouge, including the
killing of many traditional performing arts.
• 1992: Paris Peace Award restored Sihanouk to power as king.
 Music in Cambodia
• Khmer civilization reached its peak from the 9th to the 15th centuries.
• The temple at Angkor reveals musical instruments and their contexts.
• 15th century conflicts with the Siamese led to a decline in Khmer musical culture.
• 18th century Khmer music and other forms of art were revived when King Angkor Duong
ascended the throne.
• In the 20th century, conservation, preservation, and revival for Khmer traditional arts.
• Three division:
• Percussion
• String
• String
• Percussion instruments – kroeng damm
• Stringed instruments – kroeng khse
• Wind instruments – kroeng phlomm
• Each division is associated with specific verb:
• Damm – to hit, to strike – for idiophones and membranophones
• Kaut, denh – to bow , to pluck – for chordophones
Musical functions:
• Religious
• Secular
Other kinds of classification:
1. Physical materials and playing characteristics
2. Role, such as leading
3. Musical style, such as running
4. Ensemble context, such as arakk, kar, pinn peat, mohori
5. Controlling action, such as mouth with aerophone and Jew’s harp
6. Size, such as tauch and thomm
7. Status, such as court and folk
 8. Systems of beliefs, such as religious or otherwise sacred, or secular
Musical instruments materials:
• Clay
• Hide/animal skin
• Bamboo
• Gourd
• Other plants
• Silk
• Wood
• Iron
• Copper
• Brass
• bronze
Instruments are arranged according to the Sachs-Hornbostel system of classification:
• Idiophones
- Concussion Idiophones
Ching onomatopoeic for the sound a pair of thick, bowl-shaped cymbals produces.
chapp – pair of cymbals larger in diameter but thinner than ching.
Krapp – pair of clappers made of bamboo or hardwood in different sizes and shapes
-Struck Idiophones
Roneat – xylophones or metallophones-idiophones, with bars of bamboo, wood, or metal.
Korngs or Gongs – generic for all gongs (korng, korng vung tauch, korng vung thomm, korng
mong, khmuoh)
-Plucked Idiophones
Angkuoch – jew’s harp
• Membranophones
-Drums – skorr arakk, skor thomm, skor chhaiyaim, skor yike, skor klang khek, sampho, thaun
 -Mirliton (slekk)
a leaf of a tree that is stiff and thick enough to vibrate – used in the wedding ensemble.
• Chordophones
-Harp Pinn, angular harp
-Zither – khse muoy (one string), krapeu (three-stringed zither), khimm (small hammered
zither with two rows of bridges)
Lutes tror
– tror Khmer (three-stringed fiddle), tror chhe (two-stringed fiddle), tror so tauch
(similar to tror chhe), tror so thomm (larger than tror so tauch), thror ou (low pitched,
two-stringed fiddle), tror ou chambhieng (two-stringed fiddle with a turtleshell body),
chapey dang veng
(with a long neck)
• Aerophones
-Flutes (khloy ek – smaller, higher-pitched), (khloy thomm – larger and lower pitched)
- Reed Instruments
Sneng – made of the horn of a buffalo or ox
Ploy – free-reed mouth organ with a gourd wind chest
Pey pork- side-blown pipe with a bronze free reed placed over a hole about 2 centimeters from
the upper end.
Ken – free - reed mouth organ in raft form. Used to accompany a regional folk dance called Ken.
Pey prabauh – wood or bamboo body about 30 centimeters long. And used in the arakk and kar
ensembles.
Sralai – quadruple-reed oboe with a slightly bulging wooden body.

SCALE, KEY and MODE

• Scale – pentatonic & heptatonic
• Key
– the Western pitch “G” used as the normal “key” of the pinn peat.
- In the mohori ensemble the general pitch is “C”
 • MODE - generated from the pentatonic scale (G-A-B-D-E) and from heptatonic scale
(G-A-B-C-D-E-F).
TEXTURE
• TEXTURE - is regarded by ethnomusicologists as heterophonic or polyphonic. In solo
rendition the texture is monophonic.
BEATS, RHYTHMS, CYCLE
• BEATS – duple meter 2/4 or 4/4 time.
• RHYTHMS – organized in rhythmic or metrical cycles, the last stroke of which is the
strongest.
• Cycles – four-stroke cycle, stronger beats are articulated by the chhep stroke (+), played
on the small cymbals. Weaker beats on the chhing stroke (0).
LEVELS OF TEMPO
3 lengths of cycles
• Muoy choan – 4 cycles
• Pi choan – 2 cycles
• Bey choan – 1 cycle
COURT MUSIC, DANCE and THEATER
• Vung Phleng Pinn Peat – main court ensemble. It accompanies court dance, masked
plays, shadow plays and religious ceremonies. Its instruments: 2 oboes, 2 xylophones, 1
metallophones, 2 gong circles, 1 pair of small cymbals, two drums and vocalists.
• Court dance – has been associated with the court of Cambodia for more than a thousand
years. Dancers strive to realize the concept of extreme curvilinear lines in the hands,
arms, torso and feet – Chha banhchauh or “the mother of postures” constitutes the 4,500
gestures and pure dance.
• MASKED PLAY - performances are seasonal, ritualistic and associated with village
beliefs. They were typically performed at night during the Khmer New Year Apil 13-15
or during the day of the ceremony to worship spirits, to attract rain or to save villagers
from illness.
 Thailand

The music of Thailand reflects its geographic position at the intersection of China and India, and
reflects trade routes that have historically included Persia, Africa, Greece and Rome. Thai
musical instruments are varied and reflect ancient influence from far afield - including the klong
thap and khim (Persian origin), the jakhe (Indian origin), the klong jin (Chinese origin), and the
klong kaek (Indonesian origin). Though Thailand was never colonized by colonial powers, pop
music and other forms of modern Asian, European and American music have become extremely
influential. The two most popular styles of traditional Thai music are luk thung and mor lam; the
latter in particular has close affinities with the music of Laos.
่
Traditional Thai musical instruments (Thai: เครืองดนตรี ไทย) are the musical instruments used in
the traditional and classical music of Thailand. They comprise a wide range of wind, string, and
percussion instruments played by both the Thai majority as well as the nation's ethnic minorities.
In the traditional Thai system of organology, they are classified into four categories, by the
action used in playing:
- Plucking (plucked string instruments)
- Bowing (bowed string instruments)
- Striking (percussion instruments and hammered dulcimer)
- Bowing (wind instruments)

Northeast
- Huen - This drum is shaped like a drum that is used in the puangmangkog set. It is
always played with a piphat ensemble.
- Khaen - mouth organ
- Wot - a circular panpipe made of 6-9 various lengths of small bamboo pipes. Play
by holding between the hands, and while rotating, blow downwards into the pipes.
(mai-ruak or mai-hia, mai-ku-khan)
- Phin - a fretted, plucked lute
- Pong lang - log xylophone played by two players with hard stick. Its shape is like
a xylophone consisting of 15 wooden bars stringed toget
South
- Thap - The goblet-shaped drum used for providing the changes of rhythm and
also for supporting rhythm of the Nora (Southern dance drama).
- Glong nora - Klong nora or Klong nang: a barrel-shaped drum used to accompany
the Nora dance or the Nang talung (Shadow puppet) performance
- Mong ching - Mong and Ching: two important percussion instruments used for
accompanying the Nora dance (dance drama) and the Nang talung (shadow
puppet) performance.
 THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES (ORANG ASLI) OF THE MALAY PENINSULA
LIFESTYLE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR MUSICAL CULTURE
Each group’s technology and lifestyle has implications in the dimensions of musical
form, performance practice, and instrument manufacture. Among the Semang who traditionally
had no stable dwellings, musical instruments are always disposable; Instruments are thus
designed to be both easily made and expendable.

 Tube zither – three strings, “noisy” timbre.

 Senio – two-stringed chordophone, precise tuning in fourths.
 Semang – Idiophones
 Temiar – 7 idiochordal strings, used for shamanistic purposes
During a singing and trance-dancing ceremony. SenoiTemiar women and girls play pair
of short (female) and long (male) bamboo stamping tubes and sing choral responses in
interactive overlap with a male shaman, who sings his spirit guide’s dream song.
ANIMIST RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHY AND SHAMANISTIC PRACTICE
Orang Asli traditionally practice animistic religions based on belief in the potential for
animated soul or personhood, not only in humans, but also in animals, plants and all other
entities. Through magical practices, they try to influence, soothe, and engage the spirits of these
entities to render
Semang Animism and Musical Shamanism
Shebesta and Oesch tell us that cenoi are small, colorful rays of light of ten personified in
male or female form – that bear spiritual substances throughout the universe. They connect earth
and the human realm with the sp
Senoi Temiar Singers and Healers in a Modern World
In dream song compositions and performances, Temiar situate themselves in relation to
the forest around them and increasingly with concepts, commodities, and persons from outside
the forests.
TIMBRE AS A SIGNIFICANT MUSICAL PARAMETER
Customarily melody and Rhythm are the most important musical traits, but in the magical
effectiveness of Orang Asli music, others are also decisive. In particular, timbre is a significant
parameter, both in the stylistic definition of genres, and in effectiveness of music upon the world
as the Temiar configure it.
ACCULTURATED MUSIC OF THE ORANG MELAYU ASLI
Many songs of the past are but dimly remembered. Among the Temuan, Oesch recorded
a song of palong genre, traditionally a shamanistic call-and-response song ceremonially
performed for the growing of the fruit during the fruit-harvest season.
 MUSIC OF THE UPLAND MINORITIES IN BURMA, LAOS, AND THAILAND
- The upland minorities prefer simple traditional songs. Life and music are closely related
for them, and they have no professional musicians.
- The structure of the music is mostly monophonic (which means having a single
unaccompanied melodic line).
- Five-tone scales (pentatonic scales) predominate, with a nucleus of a fourth.
- Improvisation appears in the variations of repeated phrases.
- The upland people enjoy dancing to a simple instrument accompaniment.

THE SINO-TIBETAN (TIBETO-BURMAN) LANGUAGE FAMILY

The Lahu (Mussur) - are among the Lolo branch of the Tibeto-Burman family.

The Musical Life of the Lahu - During the New Year celebrations (which is the most important
and joyful time for them), ancestral spirits return to the village to witness the festivities .

Lahu Musical Instruments - The most characteristic Lahu instruments are free-reed mouth
organs, the naw and the nokuma.

The Akha (Kaw, Ekaw, Hani) - The Akha language belongs to the southern Lolo branch of
Tibeto-Burman.

The Musical Life of the Akha - They have good singing voices and so is their breath control.
The Akha play a three stringed lute, a free reed mouth organ, and a Jew’s harp, both during
festivals and at leisure.

The Lingsu (Lisgaw, Lu-tzu) - The Lisu language belongs to the southern Lolo branch of Tibeto-
Burman. The Chinese classify Lisu-speakers according to differences in dresses and dialect.

The Musical Life of the Lisu - All Lisu instrumentalists are men. Young unmarried men are the
most active instrumentalist, and in every village a few are recognized as the most gifted.

Lisu Musical Instruments - Lisu instruments include a free-reed mouth organ, a flute, and a three
stringed long lute. The three may play together as an ensemble.

The Karen - Widely distributed throughout the northern parts of Burma, Laos, and Thailand.
They are usually divided into four subgroups, the Sgaw, the P’wo, the Thaungthu and the Kayah.
 Malaysia
Consists of 13 states and 3 federal territories and has a total landmass of 330,803 square
kilometers (127,720 sq. mi) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions,
Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia.
In general, music of Malaysia may be categorized as classical, folk, syncretic (or acculturated
music), popular and contemporary art music. Classical and folk music emerged during the pre-
colonial period and exists in the form of vocal, dance and theatrical music.
Village musical-theatrical genres, including shadow plays and dance dramas, involve vocal and
instrumental music.
Wayang Kulit Jawa usually performed by the Javanese descent living along the southwest
coastal areas in Johore.
Malay and Javanese are the language used in this puppet show.
In Malay culture use stylized language, singing, chanting, instrumental accompaniment, and
sometimes drama.
Traditional Malay medicine involves various kinds of ritual ceremonies intended to
communicate with the world of spirits to determine whether the nature of an illness is physical or
psychological.
3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
MELODIC - Instruments used for melody, such as violins, flute, gambus (pearl-shaped lute),
guitar and accordion.
RHYTHMIC - Basic membranophones are used for this classification. Usually to give beat to the
melody.
COLOTOMIC - Main instruments are the knobbed bronze gongs.
Instruments 4 Categories
CHORDOPHONE – Rebab, Gambus, Sundatong, sapeh, tongkugon
IDIOPHONE – agong, gong, kulintang, tongaggak
AEROPHONE – Bungkao, serurai, sompoton, suling
MEMBRANOPHONE – kindang, kongping, mirwas, rebana
 Indonesia
Sumatra contains many distinct ethnic groups and musical cultures. Moving along the coastal
areas and east-west riverine routes, they introduced diverse cultural traditions.
Though the term Java denotes the entire island, the eastern two-thirds of the island is the
culturally Javanese region.
Javanese music employs two scalar systems: Slendro and Pelog
Slendro- consists of 5 tones per octave, spaced as nearly equidistant intervals.
Tones are known as: pitch 1 = barang (thing), pitch 2 = gulu (neck), pitch 3 = dha dha (chest),
pitch 5 = lima
Pelog- seven tone scalar system with large and small intervals between tones. Pitch 1 =
penunggul (first), pitch 2 = gulu (neck), pitch 3 = dhadha (chest), pitch 4 = pelog, pitch 5 = lima
(five), pitch 6 = nem (six), pitch 7 = barang (thing)
Bali, perhaps Indonesia’s most famous island, is known worldwide for its art, music, and dance.
Balinese ensemble music is often characterized by the term stratified polyphony, though the
various melodic lines are usually rooted in the same melodic flow.
Tabuh- individual music composition in Balinese music.
Pokok- Central melody and basis for figuration in Balinese music
Kotekan- Rapid, interlocking figuration characteristic of Balinese music.
 Bronei
The Southeast Asian island commonly known as Borneo is divided into three modern nations.
The Malaysia- states of Sarawak and Sabah are located in the north and far northeast of the
island, respectively.
The Sultanate of Brunei Darassulam- occupies a small area on the north coast between the two
Malaysian states.
Kalimantan- make up the remaining (and largest) part of the island.
Banjar - A native ethnic group in South Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Bronei Malay - A native Malay ethnic group that lives in Brunei, Labuan, southern west coast
of Sabah and the northern parts of Sarawak.
The Ibans or Sea Dayaks - are a branch of the Dayak peoples of Borneo.
Murut - comprising 29 sub-ethnic groups inhabiting northern inland regions of Borneo.
Rungus - are an ethnic group of Borneo, residing primarily in northern Sabah in the area
surrounding Kudat.
Sama Bajao - several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia with their origins
from the southern Philippines.
Throughout Malaysian Borneo and Kalimantan, large hardwood poles and a wooden mortar are
used to pound new rice to separate the chaff from the grain, and bamboo tubes are sometimes
used to cook the rice.
A famous plucked lute in Sarawak and East Kalimantan is the SAPEH (and related names) of the
Kayan, the Kenyan, and more recently the Kajang of the interior of Sarawak. It isusually made in
pairs, ideally carved from the same tree trunk (Koizumi 1976:39-47).
 Myanmar

The current flag of Myanmar was adopted on 21 October 2010 to replace the former flag in use
since 1974.
Music - The earliest documentary reference to Burmese music is found in China, in a Tang
Dynasty.

Burmese musical instruments can be classified into six groups, namely:

 Thaye : Instruments made of leather (drums)

 Kyey: Metal instruments
 Kyo: String instruments
 Lei: Wind instruments
 Let Khoke : Percussion instruments used for timing
 Patala : Xylophone
Instruments of Ensemble
Drum circle – Pa’wain - Meter tall circular frame. Elaborately decorated with colored glass and
gold paint. 21 tuned drums.
Gong circle – Ciwain - Rattan circular frame. Elaborately decorate with colored glass and gold
paint. 21 small, graduated knobbed gongs.
Gong rack – Maunsain - Secured by cords to wooden frames divided into 5 rows. 18 or 19
small, graduated, knobbed gongs.
Drum – Pa’ma - Largest drum of the ensemble. Often decorated with dragon’s head, inlaid glass
and golden paint.
Oboe – Hne - Multiple reed oboe. Made of conical tube of acacia or other hardwood. Has 7
holes. Copper bell loosely attached to the end by means of a cord.
Ozi – Goblet shape drum. 25 cm across the head.
Arched harped Saun – consist of 2 part: a resonator & the curved root of an acacia tree.
Bamboo xylophone – Patala – 24 bamboo bars cover 3 full diatonic octaves.
Vocal and Language Music

 Most compositions are settings of poetic texts; poetic form

 May refer to some circumstance, historical or cultural.
 There are 4 principal types of song: hnyìńloun, au’ pyań, pale, myìnzaìn.
 Language of the texts is both archaic and indirect.
 Burmese language has only 2 distinct tones, but syllables are further differentiated by
voice quality, duration and the presence or absence of final glottal stop.
 Singapore

 Founded in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles. 1963 Singapore, Malaya, Sabah, & Sarawak
formed what is now known as Malaysia. August 9, 1965 – Singapore separated from
Malaysia & became a sovereign nation
Early Immigrants - Indigenous to Malaysia and Indonesia: Malay, Javanese, Boyanese, Bugis,
and Balinese. Chinese mainly from Malacca and Riau; later from Guandong and Fujian
provinces, southeast China. Indian from Penang. Arabs and Europeans
4 distinction cultures of Singapore: Chinese, Malay, Indian, & Eurasian

 Chinese - Largest ethnic group. Came to Singapore to escape harsh conditions at home.
Showed skill in making money. Many notable entrepreneurs. Various dialects: Fujan,
Chaozhou, Guangdong, Hainan, Kejia.

Music - Wayang – Chinese street opera - loud and distinctiv6 or 7 member orchestra
divided into two sections: wen (“civil”) and wu (“military”). Getai “Song stage” -
Contemporary urban performances. Performed during the month of hungry ghosts
(August), the 7th month of the lunar calendar. Xinyao “Singapore Ballad” - Began in
early 1980’s among teenage students who sang about unforgettable love affairs, broken
dreams, school life, cherished longings, and local topics. Usually accompanied by guitar.
Drumming for the lion dance - Beating of drums, embellished with the drummer’s complex
acrobatic movements .

 Malay - original and oldest settlers of Singapore. 2nd largest ethnic group. Majority are
Muslims.

Music - Vocal genres accompanied by frame drums (kompang and hadrah) are among
the most popular kinds of Malay music in Singapore. Frame drums – engage in
interlocking rhythmic patterns in different rhythmic strains, consistently maintained
throughout a performance.

 Indian - 3rd largest ethnic group. More than half are also Hindustrading everything from
textiles to jewellery1949 – Singapore Indian Fine Arts Society

Music - Academy of Fine Arts - supports Singapore Indian Orchestra & Choir conducts
graded courses on instruments such as flute, mridangam, sarod, sitar, tabla and veena
classes on vocal techniques & classical dances such as bharata natyam

 Eurasians - Since 19th century. People who have mixed European and Asian lineage.
European part of their ancestry to the Portuguese, Dutch or British their Asian ancestry
can be traced to the Chinese, Malays or Indians.
 Vietnam

Occupies the coastal area of mainland Southeast Asia from China in the north to Cambodia in the
south, and shares its western border with Laos.1600s – borders were established.
Music Theory - Vietnamese music – nationally & culturally unified to a great extent though
regional styles & ensembles exhibit striking differences. No all-embracing theory can be applied
to the genres found from north to south. In each region, north, central & south, various
ensembles & theatrical genres are created according to specific rules
Things must be done in a formal order: First nonmetric, then metric. First slow, then fast. First
new, then familiar
Transmigration of scale - Creates sentiments appreciated by both singers & listeners. Involving
change from 1 scale to another, w/ or w/o a return to the original Rhythm and meter - Rhythm in
Vietnamese music is complex. Syncopation – gives music spiciness that distinguishes it from
Chinese music. Instrumental ensembles – not only heterophonic in melody but also
heterorhythmic
Musical Instruments- Earliest & most numerous instruments in Vietnam
Materials used to make them: wood, bamboo, horn, bronze, stone.
Idiophones – Trong dong, Dai hong chung, Trong bat nha, Chuong bao chung
Membranophone – Trong, Bong, Trong bat nha
Aero – Sao Tieu ken
Plucked lutes – Dai dang, Dan Xen
Folk Songs - Songs of common people, especially rice farmers living in villages. Lulabies, work
songs, entertainment songs. Sung at seasonal festivals, at work, & private gatherings. Most are
performed in alternating or antiphonal pattern.
Chamber Music - Dun ca Tai Tu - “music and songs of talented persons”, “amateur’s music”.
Performed by artist of great talent and not for profit.
 Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia consists of four countries which are Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia & Philippines.
Malay-Indonesian culture ,in its broadest sense, predominate in all but the Philippines ,where
only the people of the extreme southern islands and some interior uplands have retained strong
links to cultures farther south. A fifth nation of the archipelago is Singapore ,where Malay
culture is part of the minority

Most of the islands in this archipelago are geographically characterized by change of mountains ,
active volcanoes ,plains ,riverine valleys ,and costal swamplands , the mountains the plain and
the coasts have provided regions for the habitation of peoples who may be broad of sociocultural
expression .Most of these people are of Malay stock and speak a language of Austronesian
(Malayo-Polynesian) family . A tiny minority living in the extreme highlands of the Malay
Peninsula and the Philippines are Negritos ,an aboriginal people who live in small communities
and maintain traditions separate from those of the Malay ancestry.

Most highlanders belongs to tribes , some of which includes nomadic hunters and gatherers most
are sedentary dwellers who practice swidden agriculture ,fish ,and hunt. In contrast people of the
plains and coasts practice the cultivation of wet rice ,often supplemented by farming ,fishing
,and hunting .The coastal people ,practically at western Indonesia are predominated Muslim
Malays ,who claim a great trading and seafaring tradition.

They have long been colonizers throughout the Island and their language ( Malay )is the lingua
franca of the region .the costal urban and suburban areas have become home to the immigrant
minorities ,including Arabs, Chinese, Eurasians, Europeans, and Indians

The great empires of the Srivijava ( 600s-800s ) and Majapahit ( 1200s-1500s ) centered in south
Sumatra and central Java, respectively brought the Hindu and Buddhist religions to the region .
These empires however eventually gave way to Islam and the supremacies of the Brunei ,
Melaka (Malacca) ,Sulu and other Muslim Malays sultanates , established through the Islands of
the archipelago from the 1400s onwards. In general ,people of the plains and coasts have
embraced Buddhism, Hinduism ,and Islam mixed in varying degrees with earlier animistic
practices .Many highlanders retain traces of animism with their acceptance of Christianity ,
brought by European missionaries in the 1700s and 1800s.

Music has traditionally enhanced religious and customary practice and often reflects aspects of
the natural environment .The flora and the fauna of the tropical environment ,and a mountainous
terrain covered with dense rain forests on many Island ,have been important determents of
materials used to produce musical instruments .Traditional agricultural ,social and religious
practices have established contexts for the use of the particular kinds of instrument and the
production of specific kinds of musical sounds.
 Minority Vietnam
The musics of the minority peoples of Vietnam have remained obscure to outsiders. The
minoricies of the central area of Vietnam were difficult to study during the war years, and the
area remained off limits to most foreign researchers until 1994. The minorities in the north
remain almost unknown to outsiders.
Songs and courtship
Many minority group songs are sung in alternation by male and female singers of all ages. This
pattern, which may alternate young boys and girls, married men and women, or widows and
widowers, is not limited to a specific population in Vietnam.
Stories, both short and long, are preserved in the minds of many minorities. Among the lowland
Cham of central Vietnam, epics have more than a thousand verses. The most fa mous stories
among the minorities are epics named after heroes. The Jarai and the Ede tell stories o Dam San,
Dam Di, and Xinh Nha, while the Muong story Te Tat Te Nat (iTh Birth of Life") lasts several
night story consisting of more than four thousand lines.
Most minority peoples have lullabies (xtieng nitn con, Khmer bompi kon, Cham ru anuki Viet ru
con). These are often forgotten in urban areas, butthey continue to flourish in rural areas, among
both the Viet and minorities.
Instruments
- Đàn tam - fretless lute with snakeskin-covered body and three string.
- Đàn tỳ bà (also Đàn tyba) - pear-shaped lute with four strings
- Đàn đoản (also called đàn tứ) - round- or square-shaped, flat-backed, 4-string lute with
short neck
- Bro - fretted zither with a body made of bamboo and a gourd resonator; used by minority
ethnic groups in the Central Highlands
- Goong - tube zither with a bamboo body; used by minority ethnic groups in the Central
Highlands
Tuned percussion
- Cồng chiêng - tuned gong (comes in both flat and knobbed varieties)
- Tam âm la - set of three small, high-pitched flat gongs in a frame; used primarily in nhã
nhạc music
- T'rưng - bamboo xylophone
- Đàn đá - lithophone, commonly having 9+ stone bars, 65 cm-102 cm in length
Drums
- Trống - drum played with sticks
- Trống cái - bass drum
- Trống chầu or trống đế - the largest of the set of drums used in Hát tuồng.
- Trống cơm - rice drum