COMPOSITE MATERIAL USING BANANA, AND SIC

FIBRE

ABSTRACT

Last few decades have seen composite materials being used predominantly in

various applications. Many types of natural fibers have been investigated for their

use in plastics including Flax, hemp, SiC, straw, wood fiber, rice husks, wheat,

barley, oats, cane (sugar and bamboo), grass reeds, kenaf, ramie, oil palm empty

fruit bunch, sisal, coir, water pennywort, kapok, paper-mulberry, raphia, banana

fiber, pineapple leaf fiber and papyrus. Their volume and number of applications

have grown steadily. Natural fibers offer both cost savings and reduction in density

when compared to glass fibers. Natural fibers are an alternative resource to synthetic

fibers, as reinforcement for polymeric materials for the manufacture is cheap,

renewable and environment friendly. This paper discusses in detail about the

fabrication of the composite material using the banana and the SiC and the strength

of the material is determined using various mechanical tests such as the hardness

test, bending test, compressive test and the tensile test.

 INTRODUCTION

Composites are materials that comprise strong load carrying material (known

as reinforcement) imbedded in weaker materials (known as matrix). Reinforcement

provides strength and rigidity, helping to support structural load. The matrix or

binder (organic or inorganic) maintains the position, orientation of the reinforcement

and transfers the external load to the reinforcement. Significantly, constituents of the

composites retain their individual, physical and chemical properties. Historical

examples of composites are abundant in literature. SiC has been used since ancient

times in Africa and Asia to provide cordage and weaving fiber from the stem and

food from the leaves. In several historical documents (Ain-e-Akbari by AbulFazal,

1590) during the era of the great Mughal Emperor Akbar (1542 –1605) states that

the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of SiC. Chinese papermakers

from very ancient times have selected almost all the kinds of plants as hemp, silk,

siC, cotton etc. for paper making. The East India Company which was the first SiC

trader in India was the planet's biggest producer of bananas and Alexander the Great

found them growing there in 327 BC, when he conquered India. Infantrymen of

Alexander the Great returned to Greece and Persia with bulbs from banana plants,

'Musa accuminata, ' where they were distributed and planted. Antonius Musa, the

private surgeon of Augustus Caesar, imported the first banana trees, 'Musa

accuminata, ' to Rome from Africa in 63 BC. Later, slaves from Portugal brought
bananas to Europe from Africa in the early 1400's. Although the banana is said to

have originated in India, (Eastern East Asia), it was established in Africa and Europe

as a basic food product many centuries back and came into North America through

Spanish missionaries. The leaves of banana trees are used as wrappers for steaming

other foods within, and the banana flower is also eatable.

Our project deals with the fabrication of a composite material in order to find

out the strength of the material using the banana and the SiC fibre. The fabrication

is done with the help of hand layup process. Also the various mechanical tests are

conducted on the fabricated material. Finally the results of the tests and the strength

of the material are discussed.

 LITERATURE REVIEW

A report from the National Institute of Research on SiC and Allied Fiber

Technology (NIRJAFT), Calcutta reveals that, usually for moulded SiC composites

with polyester resin, the resin intake can be maximum up to 40%. Both hot press

molding and hand lay-up technique can be used for its fabrication. The effect of

chemical treatment of natural fibers with sodium alginate and sodium Hydroxide has

also been reported for coir, banana and sisal fibers. This modification results in an

increase in adhesive bonding and thus improves ultimate tensile strength up to 30%.

Mitraet al. have reported that treatment of SiC with polycondensates such

asphenol-Formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde and cashew nut shell with liquid

formaldehyde improves the wet ability of SiC fibers and reduces water regain

properties. Gassanet al. have improved the tensile, flexural strength and stiffness of

SiC-epoxy composites by treating the fibers with silane. The delignification by

bleaching produces better interfacial bond between the SiC fiber and the polyester

matrix, and hence results in better mechanical properties of the composites. The

absorption of steam by banana fiber/novalac resin composites has been found to

reduce after esterification of the –OH groups with the maleic anhydride. The tensile

strength of maleic anhydride treated fiber composites is higher than that of the

untreated fiber composites.

 Wambua et al bridged the gap and investigated the response of flax, hemp,

and SiC fabric reinforced polypropylene composites to ballistic impact by fragment

simulating projectiles. The effect of alkali (5% NaOH for 2hrs) and silane (1%

oligomericsiloxane with 96% alcohol solution for 1 hr) treatment on the flexural

properties of SiC epoxy and SiC polyester composites. For SiC epoxy composites

alkali over silane treatment resulted in about 12% and 7% higher strength and

modulus properties compared to the alkali treatment alone. Similar treatment led to

around 20% and 8% improvement for SiC polyester composites.

Dipa et al. have reported 4h alkali treated SiC- vinyl ester composites

accounted 20% and 19% increase in flexural strength and inter laminar shear

strength properties. Treated SiC fibers with NaOH solution of concentration1 and

8%for 48 h and observed130% improvement in the tensile strength of the fibers in

both the cases. Similarly, SiC fibers were treated with 2%NaOH solution for 1 h and

13% improvement in the tenacity of the fibers was reported.

Lina Herrera Estrada, Selvumpillay and Udayvaidy approved that 6% NaOH

treated banana fiber/ epoxy composites environmental resistance is higher than

banana fiber/polyester composites without any treatment. This is due to

improvement in fiber/ matrix interaction with the fiber chemical pretreatment in

epoxy composites and to deterioration of the inter phase in polyester composites.

The tensile testing of untreated SiC fabric-reinforced polyester composites was

studied and the average values of UTS, initial tangent modulus for these composites

are 60MPa, 7GPa. Researchers investigating thermal properties of SiC/bagasse

hybrid composites observed that thermal stability of hybrid composites increased by

increasing residual char left at 600°C.

Kamaker et al. reported that using 3wt% MAHgPP (type G-3002, with an

average molecular weight of 40,000 and containing 6 wt% of maleic anhydride, as

coupling agent in SiC/PP composite increases composite mechanical properties. The

tensile strength is doubled from 29.82 MPa to 59.13 MPa and the bending strength

increases from 49.97 MPa to 87.66 MPa in composite with 50 wt% fiber content.

Gassan et al. showed that the tensile, flexural and dynamic strength increase

up to 50% but impact energy decreases due to the lower energy absorption in the

interface of SiC/PP composite when SiC fibers are treated by 0.1wt% MAHgPP

solution in toluene for 5min at 100°C. Ray et al. used a solution of NaOH 5% to treat

the SiC fibre for 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours at 30°C. For the vinyester resin composites

reinforced by 35 wt% SiC fibre treated for 4 h, an improvement of 20% for the

flexural strength, of 23% for the flexural modulus and of 19% for the laminar shear

strength was observed.

The acetylation of SiC fiber was investigated by Rana et al. and showed an

improvement in thermal resistance compared to untreated fiber. Treatment of the

SiC fiber with PF and CNSL-PF carried out by Mitra et al. showed a reduction of

the thermal stability of the treated fiber. Kita et al. reported that the degradation of

lignin in cellulose fiber sets in at around 200°C, and other polysaccharides, mainly

cellulose, are oxidized and degraded at higher Temperature. The influence of the

injection molded processing on the final fiber length of the polypropylene

composites based on abaca, SiC and flax fibers investigated by Biagotti et al. showed

the minor effect with the higher fiber content and a more significant size reduction

of the flax fibre due to its more rigid behavior. The swelling of the SiC fibre in the

polypropylene composite was found by Karmaker et al. to have positive effects on

the mechanical properties. The influence of fibre surface treatment by MAHgPP on

the dynamic mechanical properties of SiC reinforced polypropylene was

investigated by Gassan and Bledzki. It was shown that maleic anhydride

polypropylene copolymer increases the level of adhesion between polypropylene

and SiC fibre. Roe, P et al. reported that the reinforcement of polyesters with SiC

fibers. Due to presence of hydroxy and other polar groups in various constituents of

SiC fibre, the moisture uptake is high (approx. 12.5% at 65% relative humidity &

20o C) by dry fiber. Polymeric coating of SiC fiber with phenol formaldehyde or

resorcinol formaldehyde resins by different approaches is highly effective in

enhancing the reinforcing character of SiC fiber, giving as high as 20-40%

improvements in flexural strength and 40-60% improvements in flexural modulus.

These modifications improve the fiber-matrix resin wet ability and lead to improved

bonding.
 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a high-performance composite

material made up of three components - the fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed

phase, the matrix acts as the continuous phase, and the fine interphase region or the

interface.

The matrix is basically a homogeneous and monolithic material in which a

fiber system of a composite is embedded. It is completely continuous. The matrix

provides a medium for binding and holding reinforcements together into a solid. It

offers protection to the reinforcements from environmental damage, serves to

transfer load, and provides finish, texture, color, durability and functionality.

Types of Composite Matrix Materials

There are three main types of composite matrix materials:

 Ceramic matrix - Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of

composite materials. They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic

matrix, thus forming a ceramic fiber reinforced ceramic (CFRC) material. The

matrix and fibers can consist of any ceramic material. CMC materials were

designed to overcome the major disadvantages such as low fracture toughness,

brittleness, and limited thermal shock resistance, faced by the traditional

technical ceramics.
 Metal matrix - Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composite materials that

contain at least two constituent parts – a metal and another material or a different

metal. The metal matrix is reinforced with the other material to improve strength

and wear. Where three or more constituent parts are present, it is called a hybrid

composite. In structural applications, the matrix is usually composed of a lighter

metal such as magnesium, titanium, or aluminum. In high temperature

applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common. Typical

MMC's manufacturing is basically divided into three types: solid, liquid, and

vapor. Continuous carbon, silicon carbide, or ceramic fibers are some of the

materials that can be embedded in a metallic matrix material. MMCs are fire

resistant, operate in a wide range of temperatures, do not absorb moisture, and

possess better electrical and thermal conductivity. They have also found

applications to be resistant to radiation damage, and to not suffer from

outgassing. Most metals and alloys make good matrices for composite

applications.

 Polymer matrix - Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) can be divided into three

sub-types, namely, thermoset, thermoplastic, and rubber. Polymer is a large

molecule composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical

bonds. PMC's consist of a polymer matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing

 dispersed phase. They are cheaper with easier fabrication methods. PMC's are

less dense than metals or ceramics, can resist atmospheric and other forms of

corrosion, and exhibit superior resistance to the conduction of electrical current.

Composite Matrix Material Applications

The following are common application areas of composite matrix materials:

 Electrical moldings

 Decorative laminates

 High performance Cookware

 Sealants and gaskets

 Heat shield systems (capable of handling high temperatures, thermal shock

conditions and heavy vibration)

 Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion chambers,

stator vanes and turbine blades

 Brake disks and brake system components used in extreme thermal shock

environments

 Components for slide bearings under heavy loads requiring high corrosion and

wear resistance

 Carbide drills are made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard tungsten carbide

particles inside
 Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least two

constituent parts, one being a metal. The other material may be a different metal or

another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. When at least three

materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite. An MMC is complementary to

a cermet.

Composition

MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. The

reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with the matrix.

For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminium matrix to synthesize

composites showing low density and high strength. However, carbon reacts with

aluminium to generate a brittle and water-soluble compound Al4C3 on the surface of

the fiber. To prevent this reaction, the carbon fibers are coated

with nickel or titanium boride.

Matrix

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is

embedded, and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the

matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In

structural applications, the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as

aluminium, magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant support for the

reinforcement. In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy

matrices are common.

Reinforcement

The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The reinforcement

does not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound), but is also

used to change physical properties such as wear resistance, friction coefficient,

or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement can be either continuous, or

discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be isotropic, and can be worked with

standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion, forging or rolling. In addition,

they may be machined using conventional techniques, but commonly would need

the use of polycrystalline diamond tooling (PCD).

Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbon

fiber or silicon carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the matrix in a certain
direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which the alignment of the material

affects its strength. One of the first MMCs used boron filament as reinforcement.

Discontinuous reinforcement uses “whiskers", short fibers, or particles. The most

common reinforcing materials in this category are alumina and silicon carbide.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPOSITE MATERIALS WITHIN THE GROUP OF

MATERIALS
 FABRICATION PROCESS

HAND LAYUP PROCESS

Hand lay-up is the simplest and oldest open molding method of the composite

fabrication processes. It is a low volume, labor intensive method suited especially

for large components, such as boat hulls. Glass or other reinforcing materials or

woven fabric or roving is positioned manually in the open mold, and resin is poured,

brushed, or sprayed over and into the glass plies. Entrapped air is removed manually

with squeegees or rollers to complete the laminates structure. Room temperature

curing polyesters and epoxies are the most commonly used matrix resins. Curing is

initiated by a catalyst in the resin system, which hardens the fiber reinforced resin

composite without external heat. For a high quality part surface, a pigmented gel

coat is first applied to the mold surface.

 Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing. The

infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The processing steps are

quite simple. First of all, a release gel is sprayed on the mold surface to avoid the

sticking of polymer to the surface. Thin plastic sheets are used at the top and bottom

of the mold plate to get good surface finish of the product. Reinforcement in the

form of woven mats or chopped strand mats are cut as per the mold size and placed

at the surface of mold after perspex sheet. Then thermosetting polymer in liquid form

is mixed thoroughly in suitable proportion with a prescribed hardner (curing agent)

and poured onto the surface of mat already placed in the mold. The polymer is

uniformly spread with the help of brush. Second layer of mat is then placed on the

polymer surface and a roller is moved with a mild pressure on the mat-polymer layer

to remove any air trapped as well as the excess polymer present. The process is

repeated for each layer of polymer and mat, till the required layers are stacked. After

placing the plastic sheet, release gel is sprayed on the inner surface of the top mold

plate which is then kept on the stacked layers and the pressure is applied. After

curing either at room temperature or at some specific temperature, mold is opened

and the developed composite part is taken out and further processed. The schematic

of hand lay-up is shown in figure 1. The time of curing depends on type of polymer

used for composite processing. For example, for epoxy based system, normal curing

time at room temperature is 24-48 hours. This method is mainly suitable for
thermosetting polymer based composites. Capital and infrastructural reuirement is

less as compared to other methods. Production rate is less and high volume fraction

of reinforcement is difficult to achieve in the processed composites. Hand lay-up

method finds application in many areas like aircraft components, automotive parts,

boat hulls, diase board, deck etc.

COMMON MATERIALS USED

Matrix Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin, unsaturated

polyester, polyurethane resin

Reinforcement Glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, natural plant fibers

(sisal, COIRa, nettle, hemp, flax etc.)

(all these fibers are in the form of unidirectional mat,

bidirectional (woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of

randomly oriented fibers)

SL.NO BANANA SiC RESIN

SAMPLE 1 46% 4% 50%

`
 CHAPTER-5
MATERIAL DESCRIPTION

 Silicon carbide

 Epoxy Resin

 Banana

SILICON CARBIDE

Silicon carbide (SiC is a compound of silicon and carbon with chemical

formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Silicon

carbide powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains

of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very

hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as

car brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic

applications of silicon carbide such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in

early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor

electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or both. Large

single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method; they can be cut
into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can

be produced from SiO2 contained in plant material.

Because of the rarity of natural moissanite, most silicon carbide is synthetic.

It is used as an abrasive, and more recently as a semiconductor and diamond

simulant of gem quality. The simplest manufacturing process is to

combine silica sand and carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance furnace at

a high temperature, between 1,600 °C (2,910 °F) and 2,500 °C (4,530 °F). Fine

SiO2 particles in plant material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating

in the excess carbon from the organic material. The silica fume, which is a byproduct

of producing silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys, also can be converted to SiC by

heating with graphite at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F).

 SiC

The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its

distance from the graphite resistor heat source. Colorless, pale yellow and green

crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color

changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker
crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they

affect the electrical conductivity of SiC.

Pure silicon carbide can be made by the so-called Lely process, in which SiC

powder is sublimated into high-temperature species of silicon, carbon, silicon

dicarbide (SiC2), and disilicon carbide (Si2C) in an argon gas ambient at 2500 °C

and redeposited into flake-like single crystals, sized up to 2×2 cm, at a slightly colder

substrate. This process yields high-quality single crystals, mostly of 6H-SiC phase

(because of high growth temperature). A modified Lely process involving induction

heating in graphite crucibles yields even larger single crystals of 4 inches (10 cm) in

diameter, having a section 81 times larger compared to the conventional Lely

process. Cubic SiC is usually grown by the more expensive process of chemical

vapor deposition (CVD). Homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial SiC layers can be

grown employing both gas and liquid phase approaches. Pure silicon carbide can

also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly (methylsilyne),

under an inert atmosphere at low temperatures. Relative to the CVD process, the

pyrolysis method is advantageous because the polymer can be formed into various

shapes prior to thermalization into the Ceram.

Because of the rarity of natural moissanite, most silicon carbide is synthetic.

It is used as an abrasive, and more recently as a semiconductor and diamond simulant

of gem quality. The simplest manufacturing process is to combine silica sand and
carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance furnace at a high temperature,

between 1,600 °C (2,910 °F) and 2,500 °C (4,530 °F). Fine SiO2 particles in plant

material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating in the excess carbon

from the organic material. The silica fume, which is a byproduct of producing silicon

metal and ferrosilicon alloys, also can be converted to SiC by heating with graphite

at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F).

The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its

distance from the graphite resistor heat source. Colorless, pale yellow and green

crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color

changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker

crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they

affect the electrical conductivity of SiC.

Pure silicon carbide can be made by the so-called Lely process, in which SiC

powder is sublimated into high-temperature species of silicon, carbon, silicon

dicarbide (SiC2), and disilicon carbide (Si2C) in an argon gas ambient at 2500 °C

and redeposited into flake-like single crystals, sized up to 2×2 cm, at a slightly colder

substrate. This process yields high-quality single crystals, mostly of 6H-SiC phase

(because of high growth temperature). A modified Lely process involving induction

heating in graphite crucibles yields even larger single crystals of 4 inches (10 cm) in

diameter, having a section 81 times larger compared to the conventional Lely

process. Cubic SiC is usually grown by the more expensive process of chemical

vapor deposition (CVD). Homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial SiC layers can be

grown employing both gas and liquid phase approaches. Pure silicon carbide can

also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly (methylsilyne),

under an inert atmosphere at low temperatures. Relative to the CVD process, the

pyrolysis method is advantageous because the polymer can be formed into various

shapes prior to thermalization into the ceramic

BANANA FIBER

Banana fibre is obtained from the pseudostem of the banana plant by

decortication i.e. stem is generally scrapped with the help of a blunt knife. Banana

plant cannot be grown except under tropical conditions, as it bears numerous leaves

and only very short roots, it requires humidity both in the atmosphere and in the soil,

and is only able to thrive in areas which have rainfall more or less evenly distributed

throughout the year. It is essential that the rainfall should be evenly distributed

throughout the year as a rainless period of as long as 6 weeks may harm the plant.

While a prolonged draught is usually fatal, banana will not withstand flooding. So a

warm humid climate is essential. The soil should be loose, rich in humus, and

properly drained. A moderate amount of minerals in soil is stated to be necessary.

All varieties of banana trees abound in fibres. In fact almost each and every part of

the banana plant gives fibres of various strength, colour and beauty and staple length

which can be used for various purposes.

Banana fibre is extracted, not on a commercial worthwhile scale anywhere in

the country. For extraction of fibres from the pseudostem, the most common method

followed in Indian villages is hand scrapping, i.e. to scrap the stem with blunt metal

edge. The drawback of hand scrapping is that the fibre output is very low.

The essentially hand driven process of extracting banana fiber is now set to

change with the invention of the Banana Fiber Separator Machine. An easier and

quicker way of extracting fibres is to use a machine extractor, called Raspador,

Banana Fiber is extracted from Banana pseudostem sheaths. Some efforts to extract

the fibre by conventional methods like Hand extraction are being made in state of

Kerala but the quantity of fibre produced is quite small. In some banana growing

countries of the world like Philippines, Uganda, China, and Indonesia systematic

extraction of banana fibre is being carried out.

 The plants are cut down as soon as the fruits are harvested. The trunk is peeled.

Brown-green skin is thrown away retaining the cleaner or white portion which will

be processed into knotted fibers. To extract the fibre, the pseudostem is cut at the

bottom at an angle, and its sheaths are removed, as each series of leaf sheaths

produces different grades of fibers. It would be desirable to separate them according

to the classification mentioned above prior to the cleaning or stripping that would

enable the artisans to market the fibres advantageously. The fibers are extracted

through hand extraction machine composed of either serrated or non serrated knives.

The peel is clamped between the wood plank and knife and hand-pulled through,

removing the non-fibrous material. The extracted fibers are sun-dried which whitens

the fiber.

Once dried, the fibers are ready for knotting. A bunch of fibers are mounted

or clamped on a stick to facilitate segregation. Each fiber is separated according to

fiber sizes and grouped accordingly. To knot the fiber, each fiber is separated and

knotted to the end of another fiber manually. The separation and knotting is repeated

until bunches of unknotted fibers are finished to form a long continuous strand. This

fiber can now be used for making various products. One more interesting fact

associated with the development of this machine is that it uses the agriculture waste

of banana harvests to produce silk grade fiber. These silk grade fibers are of immense
help to the handicrafts and textile industry. What was previously considered an

agricultural waste is now converted to a raw material for good quality silk like yarn.

EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy is a term used to denote both the basic components and the cured end

products of epoxy resins, as well as a colloquial name for the epoxide functional

group. Epoxy resins, also known as polyepoxides, are a class of reactive

prepolymers and polymers which contain epoxide groups. Epoxy resins may be

reacted (cross-linked) either with themselves through catalytic homopolymerisation,

or with a wide range of co-reactants including polyfunctional amines, acids (and acid

anhydrides), phenols, alcohols and thiols. These co-reactants are often referred to as

hardeners or curatives, and the cross-linking reaction is commonly referred to as

curing. Reaction of polyepoxides with themselves or with polyfunctional hardeners

forms a thermosetting polymer, often with high mechanical properties, temperature

and chemical resistance. Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including metal

coatings, use in electronics / electrical components, high tension electrical

insulators, fiber-reinforced plastic materials and structural adhesives.

Materials and Methods

This Chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the

experimental procedures carried out for their characterization and tests which the

composite specimens are subjected to the raw materials used in this work are:

Selection of fiber are Banana fibers, Jute Fiber and , Resin Epoxy (LY-556) and

hardener(HY-917).
Fabrication of Composites

The fabrications of composite slab are carried out by conventional hand layup

technique. The dimensions of length and breadth is of 300*300mm was used to

prepare the specimen. The composite specimen consists of totally 3 Layers of

Banana Fiber for the preparation of one sample. A measured amount of epoxy is

taken and mixed with the hardener in the ratio of 10:1 the layers of fibers were

fabricated by adding the required amount of epoxy resin. The Banana fiber is

mounted on the table and then epoxy resin applies and next layer is jute fiber. Before

the resin gets dried, the second layer of natural fiber is mounted over the Banana

fiber. The process is repeated till 3 layers of fiber. The epoxy resin applied is

distributed to the entire surface by means of a roller. The air gaps formed between

the layers during the processing were gently squeezed out. The processed wet

composite were then pressed hard and the excess resin is removed and dried. Finally

these specimens were hydraulic pressed to force the air present in between the fibers

and resin, and then kept for several hours to get the perfect samples. After the

composite material dried completely, the composite material was taken out from the

hydraulic press and rough edges were neatly cut and removed as per the required

ASTM standards.
 TESTES PERFORMED

 TENSILE TEST

 WEAR TEST

 BENDING TEST

 SEM test

TESNILE TEST
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical testing plays an important role in evaluating fundamental

properties of engineering materials as well as in developing new materials and in

controlling the quality of materials for use in design and construction. If a material

is to be used as part of an engineering structure that will be subjected to a load, it is

important to know that the material is strong enough and rigid enough to withstand

the loads that it will experience in service. As a result engineers have developed a

number of experimental techniques for mechanical testing of engineering materials

subjected to tension, compression, bending or torsion loading.

The most common type of test used to measure the mechanical properties of

a material is the Tension Test. Tension test is widely used to provide basic design

information on the strength of materials and is an acceptance test for the specification

of materials. The major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained

during the tension test are the tensile strength (UTS), yield strength
Or yield point (σy), elastic modulus (E), percent elongation (ΔL %) and the reduction

in area (RA %). Toughness, Resilience, Poisson’s ratio (ν) can also be found by the

use of this testing technique.

In this test, a specimen is prepared suitable for gripping into the jaws of the

testing machine type that will be used. The specimen used is approximately uniform

over a gage length (the length within which elongation measurements are done).

Tensile specimens are machined from the material to be tested in the desired

orientation and according to the standards. The cross section of the specimen is

usually round, square or rectangular. For metals, a piece of sufficient thickness can

be obtained so that it can be easily machined; a round specimen is commonly used.

For sheet and plate stock, a flat specimen is usually employed. The change in the

gage length of the sample as pulling proceeds is measured from either the change in

actuator position (stroke or overall change in length) or a sensor attached to the

sample (called an extensometer).

According to the loading type, there are two kinds of tensile testing machines;

Screw Driven Testing Machine: During the experiment, elongation rate is

kept constant.

Hydraulic Testing Machine: Keeps the loading rate constant. The loading

rate can be set depending on the desired time to fracture.

 A tensile load is applied to the specimen until it fractures. During the test, the

load required to make a certain elongation on the material is recorded. A load-

elongation curve is plotted by an x-y recorder, so that the tensile behavior of the

material can be obtained. An engineering stress-strain curve can be constructed from

this load-elongation curve by making the required calculations. Then the mechanical

parameters that we search for can be found by studying on this curve.

A typical engineering stress-strain diagram and the significant parameters are

shown on the figure in appendix.

Engineering Stress is obtained by dividing the load by the original area of the

cross section of the specimen.

Stress σ = P/Ao (Load/Initial cross-sectional area)

Strain = e = Δl/lo (Elongation/Initial gage length)

Engineering stress and strain are independent of the geometry of the specimen.

Elastic Region:

The part of the stress-strain curve up to the yielding point. Elastic deformation

is recoverable. In the elastic region, stress and strain are related to each other linearly.

Hooke’s Law: σ = Ee

The linearity constant E is called the elastic modulus which is specific for each

type of material.
Plastic Region

The part of the stress-strain diagram after the yielding point.

At the yielding point, the plastic deformation starts. Plastic deformation is

permanent. At the maximum point of the stress-strain diagram (σUTS), necking

starts.

Tensile Strength is the maximum stress that the material can support.

σUTS = Pmax/Ao

Because the tensile strength is easy to determine and is a quite reproducible

property, it is useful for the purposes of specifications and for quality control of a

product. Extensive empirical correlations between tensile strength and properties

such as hardness and fatigue strength are often quite useful. For brittle materials, the

tensile strength is a valid criterion for design.

 Universal testing machine

Yield Strength
 Yield strength is the stress level at which plastic deformation starts. The

beginning of first plastic deformation is called yielding. It is an important parameter

in design.

The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin

depends on the sensitivity of the strain measurements. With most materials there is

a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the point at which plastic

deformation begins is hard to define with precision. Various criteria for the initiation

of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity of the strain measurements and the

intended use of the data. 0,2% off-set method is a commonly used method to

determine the yield strength. Σy (0.2%) is found by drawing a parallel line to the

elastic region and the point at which this line intersects with the stress-strain curve

is set as the yielding point. An illustration of 0.2% off-set method is shown in the

appendix part.

Ductility

Ductility is the degree of plastic deformation that a material can withstand

before fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon

fracture is termed brittle. In general, measurements of ductility are of interest in three

ways:
1. To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in

metalworking operations such as rolling and extrusion.

2. To indicate to the designer, in a general way, the ability of the metal to flow

plastically before fracture.

3. To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.

Ductility measurements may be specified to assess material quality even

though no direct relationship exists between the ductility measurement and

performance in service.
BEND TEST

Bend tests deform the test material at the midpoint causing a concave surface

or a bend to form without the occurrence of fracture and are typically performed to

determine the ductility or resistance to fracture of that material. Unlike in a flexure

test the goal is not to load the material until failure but rather to deform the sample

into a specific shape. The test sample is loaded in a way that creates a concave

surface at the midpoint with a specified radius of curvature according to the standard
in relation to which the test is performed. Bending tests are as popular as tensile test,

compression test, and fatigue tests.

The bend test is a simple and cheap qualitative test that can be employed to

evaluate both the ductility and soundness of a material. It is often used as a quality

control test for butt-welded joints, having the advantage of simplicity of both test

pieces and equipment.

No expensive test equipment is needed, test specimens are easily prepared and

the test can, if required, is carried out on the shop floor as a quality control test to

ensure consistency in production. A standard specimen is bent through a specified

arc, and in the case of strip, the direction of grain flow is noted and whether the bend

is with or across the grain.

The bend test is popular in welding. A guided bend test is used to determine

how strong a weld is after it has been created. A special machine is used to perform

the guided bend test

 The material must be able to bend up to a specific angle, such as 180 degrees,

without any cracks appearing. If this happens, the weld has passed the test. No

reversal of the bend force is employed when conducting these tests.

Types of bending tests include:

 Guided-bend test

 Semi-guided bend test

 Free-bend test
  Bend and flatten test

There are no standardized terms for reporting bend test results for broad

classes of materials; rather, terms associated with bend tests apply to specific forms

or types of materials. For example, a bend test for ductility of welds is given in

ASTM E-190.

Purpose

Bend testing a material allows for the determination of that materials ductility,

bend strength, fracture strength and resistance to fracture. These characteristics can
be used to determine whether a material will fail under pressure and are especially

important in any construction process involving ductile materials loaded with

bending forces. If a material begins to fracture or completely fractures during a three

or four point bend test it is valid to assume that the material will fail under a similar

in any application, which may lead to catastrophic failure.

WEAR TEST

Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and specifically the removal

and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the

opposite surface.

In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material

from its "derivative" and original position on a solid surface performed by the action

of another surface.

Wear of metals occurs by the plastic displacement of surface and near-surface

material and by the detachment of particles that form wear debris. This process may

occur by contact with other metals, non-metallic solids, flowing liquids, or solid

particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.

Wear can also be defined as a process where interaction between two surfaces

or bounding faces of solids within the working environment results in dimensional

loss of one solid, with or without any actual decoupling and loss of material. Aspects

of the working environment which affect wear include loads and features such as

unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and impact loads, speed, temperature,

but also different types of counter-bodies such as solid, liquid or gas and type of

contact ranging between single phase or multiphase, in which the last multiphase

may combine liquid with solid particles and gas bubbles.

For the pin-on-disk wear test, two specimens are required. One, a pin with a

radiuses tip, is positioned perpendicular to the other, usually a flat circular disk. A

ball, rigidly held, is often used as the pin specimen. The test machine causes either

the disk specimen or the pin specimen to revolve about the disk centre. In either case,

the sliding path is a circle on the disk surface. The plane of the disk may be oriented.

The pin specimen is pressed against the disk at a specified load usually by means of

an arm or lever and attached weights. Other loading methods have been used, such

as, hydraulic or pneumatic.

Wear results are reported as volume loss in cubic millimetres for the pin and

the disk separately. When two different materials are tested, it is recommended that

each material be tested in both the pin and disk positions.

The amount of wear is determined by measuring appropriate linear

dimensions of both specimens before and after the test, or by weighing both
specimens before and after the test. If linear measures of wear are used, the length

change or shape change of the pin, and the depth or shape change of the disk wear

track (in millimeters) are determined by any suitable metrological technique, such

as electronic distance gaging or stylus profiling. Linear measures of wear are

converted to wear volume (in cubic millimeters) by using appropriate geometric

relations. Linear measures of wear are used frequently in practice since mass loss is

often too small to measure precisely. If loss of mass is measured, the mass loss value

is converted to volume loss (in cubic millimeters) using an appropriate value for the

specimen density.

Wear results are usually obtained by conducting a test for a selected sliding

distance and for selected values of load and speed. One set of test conditions that

were used in an inter-laboratory measurement series is given in Table 1 and Table 2

as a guide. Other test conditions may be selected depending on the purpose of the

test.

Wear results may in some cases be reported as plots of wear volume versus

sliding distance using different specimens for different distances. Such plots may

display non-linear relationships between wear volume and distance over certain

portions of the total sliding distance, and linear relationships over other portions.

Causes for such differing relationships include initial “break-in” processes,

transitions between regions of different dominant wear mechanisms, etc. The extent
of such non-linear periods depends on the details of the test system, materials, and

test conditions.

PIN-ON-DISK TESTING
As outlined by ASTM G99-04, pin-on-disk testing consists of a rotating disk

in contact with a fixed pin with a spherical top. A schematic is shown below.
 F: Applied normal load

R: Radius of the wear track that is produced

d: Diameter of the spherical top of the pin

D: Diameter of the disk

w: Rotational speed

In these experiments, the user typically has the ability to control and measure

the applied normal load, unidirectional speed or oscillation frequency, and

environmental parameters such as temperature, pressure, type of gas (vacuum, air,

nitrogen, refrigerant, etc.) and presence of a lubricant. Both the normal and friction

forces are measured with transducers. The pin holder is attached to a fixture that is

allowed to deflect slightly; the transducer measures this deflection and converts it to

a force. Performance is generally characterized by friction coefficient and wear rates

(wear per unit time) determined my mass or volume loss with the aid of

aprofilometer.

Although, ASTM G99-04 states that a spherical pin be used, many different

specimen geometries may be employed to best simulate the operation of an actual

system. The machines used to conduct this testing are called tribometers, two types

of which are outlined in the following sections.

 1. High temperature tribometers

2. High pressure tribometers

High temperature Tribometer:

The High Temperature Tribometer (HTT) has the ability to conduct tests in

the method previously explained in temperatures up to 1000°C. To achieve these

high temperatures, a resistance heating element is used that is similar to the red-hot

coils you may see in a toaster or electric oven. The actual contact of the pin and disk

takes place inside the gold-plated chamber which helps hold in heat.

High pressure tribometers:

The High Pressure Tribometer (HPT) is very similar to the HTT, except that

it has the abilities to test in environments of elevated pressures (up to 250 psi) with

the use of special seals. It is primarily used for compressor simulation in which

lubricants and refrigerants are used. See the images and animations below.
 Fig 1.Pin on disk testing

SPECIFICATIONS:

PARAMETER UNITS

Pin size 3, 6, 10 & 12 mm diameter

Disc Size 165 x 8 mm

Disc Rotation Speed 0 – 2950 RPM

Wear Track dia. Mean 50 – 100 mm

Load 1 – 200 N (any steps possible)

Sliding Speed Range 0 to 10 m/s

Frictional Force 0 – 200 N

Wear Measurement 0 – 2000 micrometer (1 µm LC)

Temperature ambient to 300 deg C

Power 230V, 50 Hz S phase

SCANNING ELECTORN MICROSCOPE

A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that

produces images of a sample by scanning the surface with a focused beam of

electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals

that contain information about the surface topography and composition of the

sample. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the position of the

beam is combined with the intensity of the detected signal to produce an image. In

the most common SEM mode, secondary electrons emitted by atoms excited by the

electron beam are detected using an Everhart-Thornley detector. The number of

secondary electrons that can be detected, and thus the signal intensity, depends,

among other things, on specimen topography. SEM can achieve resolution better

than 1 nanometer.

Specimens are observed in high vacuum in conventional SEM, or in low

vacuum or wet conditions in variable pressure or environmental SEM, and at a wide

range of cryogenic or elevated temperatures with specialized instruments.

SEM RESULTS