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were totally new for testing the mixed specimen. Very less data was available on the mixture
of Pond Ash and Marble slurry Dust. Though, numerous tests were performed on Pond Ash
and Fly Ash. Marble Slurry Dust was tried to be re utilised in Marble Products.
The motive of these tests was to study the mineralogy and morphology of these
particles. It is a well known fact that all the mechanical properties of particles dwells from
very small scale. The amount and type of minerals changes the properties of fly ash and
MSD. Morphology tells us about the packing interlocking and shape of particles. Fly ash
being spherical in shape has a tendency of slipping over one another also it has particles
ranging from nano metre size to micro metre range. This large specific surface tells us about
Where Fly ash is very fine having particle sizes of clay, bottom ash has larger grains
and shows the behaviour of sand. Their mixture which is called Pond Ash attains mixed
Now electricity is an essential need of any industrial society and no nation can
progress without adequate supply of power. Growth in its demand during the past decades
has been phenomenal and has outstripped all projections. In India also, there has been
impressive increase in the power generation from a low capacity of 1330 MW in 1947 at
Independence to about 81,000 MW at end of March 1995 (Trehan et al. 1996) and at about
1,20,000 MW at the end of August 2005 (India Energy Forum, 2005). However, despite this
substantial growth there still remains a wide gap between demand and supply of power,
which is expected to worsen in the years and decades to come. We already are experiencing
shortage of nearly 8% of the average demand and 16.5% of peak demand. Moreover, with the
quantum jump expected in demand for power in the future due to rapid industrialization and
changing life styles of populace as a result of economic liberation, shortages shall further
increase unless immediate steps are taken to increase power production. It has been estimated
that 1,40,000 MW of additional power would be required to meet such demand by the end of
10th five year plan i.e., year 2007 A.D.(Trehan et al. 1996).
The mineralogical fraction of the fly ash evidenced the presence of the following
maghemite and rutile (TiO2). The minerals present in the coal utilized by the electricity
generating units studied follow the order of abundance: kaolinite (Al2 Si20S(OH)4), illite
trioct. ((K, Na, Ca)20. 3.33 (Mg, Mn) O -4.3 (At, Fe, Ti) 2 03- 16 (Si, A1)2.4 H2O), quartz (SiO2),
diffractometry and the dispersive energy X-ray system identified a series of classes on the
basis of: a) the elemental composition, b) the shape of single particle and c) the crystalline
composition. The comparison of the mineralogical compositions of coal and fly ash outlines a
simpler scheme as far as single particle formation is concerned. Silicatic particles constituting
the major fraction of coal fly ash, are formed by melting and consequent rapid solidification
of kaolinite and illite. The crystallization of mullite only rarely occurs. The quartz, present
both in coal and fly ash, undergoes combustion processes without chemical transformation
and is finally found as a fusion residue, while pyrite and siderite are subject to different
degrees of oxidation giving as combustion products Hematite, Magnetite etc. The pyrolysis of
dolomite produces the formation of the rare lime particles observed in the fly ash. Finally the
titanium, mobilized by silicate fusion, is distributed partially in the glassy fraction and
partially re-crystallizes to form the dioxide called ruffle. Following the correlation between
the observation performed in thin section and the data obtained by the gravimetric separation,
a semi quantitative evaluation of the ratio existing between the diverse typologies constituting
The CBR test reveals that CBR value increases every time the MSD% is increased.
This can be due to the interlocking of MSD particles in fly ash. Also there could be presence
of hydrated lime in MSD sample which provides strength on hydration and acts as a binder
between materials. The CBR test reveals that CBR value increases every time the MSD% is
increased. This can be due to the interlocking of MSD particles in fly ash. Also there could be
presence of hydrated lime in MSD sample which provides strength on hydration and acts as a
Behra and Mishra (2011) studied the effect of Lime on the California Bearing Ratio
Behaviour of Fly Ash - mine Overburden Mixes”. They evaluated the effect of lime on CBR
behaviour of fly ash - mine overburden mixes. Tests were performed with different
percentages of lime (2%, 3%, 6%, and 9%). The results show that the increase in bearing
ratio of fly ash-overburden mixes was achieved by lime treatment. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) analyses were conducted on 28 days cured specimens. The SEM study
showed that the bearing ratio development is related to the micro structural development.
(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Effect of lime on CBR behaviour of overburden-fly ash mixes (b) Effect of lime on CBR behaviour of overburden-
(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Scanning electron micrograph of (20FA+80O/B) +3L (b) Scanning electron micrograph of (25FA+75O/B) +2L
Based on the test results obtained in the investigation, Behra and Mishra (2011) concluded
the following. Lime content showed a significant effect on increase in CBR value and
pozzolaniac reaction rate of natural pozzolans. The results show that the addition of fly ash
improved the CBR of mine overburden in unsoaked condition. With increase in fly ash
content, the CBR increases up to a certain percentage then decreases due to class F type. The
optimum fly ash content for higher CBR values was 20%. Almost all mixes have CBR values
higher than 40, limit typically considered for sub base and base course construction. The
morphology of all the mixes showed the formation of hydrated gel at 28 days curing. The
voids between the particles were filled by growing hydrates with curing time. Microanalysis
confirmed the formation of new cementitious compounds such as calcium silicate hydrate
(CS-H) gel and calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-H) gel which leads to increase in bearing
Okonta and Govender (2011) studied the effect of desiccation on the geotechnical properties
of lime-fly ash stabilized collapsible residual sand Berea Red Sands underlying most of the
Kwazulu Natal midlands and coastal plain is a very recent unconsolidated, weakly cemented
red to brown, collapsible sands. The effect of wetting and drying cycles on the Unconfined
Compressive Strength (UCS) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of compacted and cured
samples of stabilized Berea Sands was investigated. Different sample mix were prepared with
4% and 8% Lime and 0%, 6% 12% and 18% Fly Ash, and tested after 4, 8 and 12 cycles of
wetting and drying. Changes in mass of the stabilized sands were measured to facilitate the
interpretation of changes in strength properties. The results showed reduction in UCS and
CBR with increase in the number of wetting and drying cycles that is dependent on the
amount of Lime and Fly Ash and the ratio of Lime to Fly Ash. For given amount of Fly Ash,
samples stabilized with 8% Lime are more durable than samples stabilized with 4% Lime.
For samples stabilized with 8% Lime, increase in Fly Ash quantities results in an increase in
durability for up to 18% Fly Ash used in this research. The process of wetting and drying
results in general reduction in the mass of the test samples, and the percentage reduction in
mass decreases with increase in quantities of Fly Ash. In the long term, defined by 12 cycles
of wetting and drying, only the 8% lime and 18% fly ash material have adequate CBR under
the operative drainage conditions to sustain the stresses applied by traffic loadings.
(a) (b)
Fig: (a) UCS of 4% lime and fly ash stabilized Berea sands. (b) UCS of 8% lime and fly ash stabilized Berea
(a) (b)
Fig: (a) UCS of 4% lime and fly ash stabilized Berea sands. (b) UCS of 8% lime and fly ash stabilized Berea
Based on the test results obtained in the investigation, Okonta and Govender (2011)
concluded the following. In the long term, defined by 12 cycles of wetting and drying, only
the 8% lime and 18% fly ash material have adequate shear strength under the operative
drainage conditions to sustain the stresses applied by traffic loadings. The CBR of the
stabilized mix increases with increase in the quantities of Lime and Fly Ash and decreases
with increasing cycles of wetting and drying. The addition of Fly Ash increases the optimum
moisture content and decreases the maximum dry density. These changes are associated with
the increased coagulation of the fines in the presence of the Fly ash and the lower specific
Misra et.al, (2009) carried out extensive research work at CRRI, New Delhi, for bulk
utilization of marble slurry dust (MSD) in road pavement layers, embankments and in
concrete works. They discussed that Grain size analysis revealed that soil collected from site
is coarse grained. Plasticity tests revealed that soil is sand associated with silt of low
compressibility (SM). MSD is very fine and passes completely through 75 µm sieve. Dust
sample used in construction work belong to CL-ML group (mixture of clay and silt of low
compressibility). Effect of mixing MSD (up to 40%) with soil resulted in minor changes in
plasticity of soil .Change in plastic behavior of soil is related to plasticity of added dust.
Load bearing capacity (CBR test) of soil improved with addition of MSD (up to 20%). Dust
made soil slightly cohesive and resulted in better compaction of pavement layers. UCS of
soils with MSD also improved. MSD has low cohesion and high coefficient of internal
friction.
Fig: Effect of MSD on CBR of soil.
Misra et.al, (2009) concluded that under performance evaluation, test sections
constructed using MSD were found having more strength and stability as compared to the
conventional sections. From cost benefit analysis, use of MSD in sub-grade preparation for
a double lane road would save Rs 1,50,00/-per km. In multi lane roads and for high
embankments, savings would increase many folds. MSD can be gainfully utilized in bulk
Agrawal & Gupta, (2011) stated that expansive soil causes serious problem on civil
engineering structures due to its tendency of swelling when it is in contact with water and
shrinks when they dry out. Soil stabilization using chemical admixtures is the oldest and
popular method of ground improvement. In this study, the potential of marble dust (by-
state as well as when mixed with varying proportion of marble dust (from 0 to 30%). The
marble dust in experimental program is obtained from cutting of Makrana marble. The
environmental degradation due to marble mining is much less than the environmental
degradation caused by the waste from marble processing plants. Many researchers have
reported that marble has very high lime (CaO) content up to 55% by weight. Thus,
stabilization characteristics of Makrana marble dust are mainly due to its high lime content.
Marble dust finds bulk utilization in roads, embankment and soil treatment for foundation.
Particle size distribution, consistency limits, specific gravity, swelling percentage, and rate of
swell were determined for the samples. Addition of marble dust decreases liquid limit,
plasticity index and shrinkage index, increase plastic limit and shrinkage limit. Also
experimental results shows that the swelling percentage decreases and rate of swell increases
with increasing percentage of marble dust in expansive soils. Specimens have been cured for
7 and 28 days. The rate of swelling and swelling percentage of the stabilized specimens was
affected by curing in a positive direction such that effectiveness of the stabilizer increases.
(a) (b)
Fig: (a) Effect of addition of marble dust on free swell ratio of the samples. (b) Effect of addition of marble dust
Agrawal & Gupta, (2011) concluded that the addition of the marble dust to the expansive
clay reduces the clay content and thus increases in the percentage of coarser particles, reduces
the LL, raises the SL and decrease in the plasticity index of soil and thus swelling potential.
Activity of the soil reduces by the addition of marble dust. As the percentage of stabilizer
increases, swelling percentage, free swell ratio and rate of swell decreases. Samples having
marble dust reached the 50% of total swelling earlier. By curing the samples, the rate of swell
and swelling percentage decreased. Expansive soils can be replaced by marble dust for
reducing the swelling up to 25% to 30% because there is not much difference in swelling
potential and rate of swell for 25% and 30% marble dust added samples.
S.K Das in 2010 examines the suitability of Talcher coal fly ash for stowing in the
nearby underground coal mines based on their physico-chemical and mineralogical analysis.
The physical properties such as bulk density, specific gravity, particle size distribution,
porosity, permeability and water holding capacity etc. have been determined. From the
chemical characterization it is found that the ash samples are enriched predominantly in silica
(SiO2), alumina (Al2O3) and iron oxides (Fe2O3), along with a little amount of CaO, and fall
under the Class F fly ash category. In addition, the mineral phases identified in the ash
samples are quartz, mullite, magnetite, and hematite. The particle morphological analysis
revealed that the ash particles are almost spherical in shape and the bulk ash porous in nature.
From the particle size and permeability point of view, pond ash may be considered a better
The white Macael marble was characterized by a new analytical method using X-ray
mono crystal diffraction. The crystal cell parameters are determined by the analysis of the
diffraction data obtained from a twin marble crystal. The cell parameters of white Macael
marble were found to be in an exclusive narrow range which is different to those for most of
Amended with Locally Available Soil and Hardening Agent The problem of disposing pond
ash can be reduced by utilising it in large quantities in various engineering works. In the
present study, the possibility of using a locally available fine grained soil to improve the
compaction and permeability properties of pond ash has been investigated experimentally.
Apart from this, the effect of carbonic aluminate salt (CAS) as a hardening agent when added
to pond ash-soil matrix has also been investigated. It has been found that it is possible to use
pond ash as a landfill liner when small quantities of fine grained soil and CAS are added to it.
N Pandian in 2004 carried out investigations on fly ash and showed that fly ash has
good potential for use in geotechnical applications. Its low specific gravity, freely draining
reclamation of low-lying areas, fill behind retaining structures, etc. It can be also used in
reinforced concrete construction since the alkaline nature will not corrode steel. This not only
solves the problems associated with the disposal of fly ash (like requirement of precious land,
environmental pollution, etc.) but also helps in conserving the precious top soil required for
growing food.
S.R. Kaniraj, V. Gayathri, procured from Dadri and Rajghat thermal power stations.
1. The light (standard Proctor) compaction characteristics of the two fly ashes were
different. The Dadri fly ash could be compacted to a significantly greater dry unit weight than
the Rajghat fly ash at relatively lower water content. The MDD and OMC of the Dadri fly ash
were, respectively, about 31% more and 46% less than the corresponding values of the
Rajghat fly ash. The small fiber content did not affect the MDD and OMC of the Dadri fly
ash appreciably. In the Rajghat fly ash, however, the effect was a little more marked; the fibre
2. In all the triaxial shear tests, the fibre inclusions had a significant effect on the
stress–strain behavior of the specimens. In unconfined compression tests, the raw fly ash
specimens attained a distinct axial failure stress at an axial strain of about 1.5–2.5% following
which they collapsed. But, the fibre-reinforced specimens exhibited a highly ductile
behaviour. The F6DA and F6RA specimens attained peak axial stresses at relatively higher
axial strains than the raw fly ash specimens and then continued to deform under decreasing
axial stress. In the F20RA specimens, Kaniraj and Havanagi (2001) did not observe any
reduction in axial stress even at 15% axial strain. Thus, the length of the fibres seems to have
an influence on the behaviour of the specimens. When short fibres were used, there was a loss
3. In the unconsolidated undrained tests, the deviator stress attained a peak value at
axial strains in the range of 11–14% for the DA specimens and 6–10% for the RA specimens
and thereafter remained almost constant. In the F6DA and F6RA specimens, no peak deviator
stress was reached even at 20% axial strain. This may be a manifestation of the ductile
behavior induced by both the confining pressure and the fiber inclusions. The fiber inclusions
increased the failure deviator stress and the shear strength parameters cuu and fuu: For the
F6DA and F6RA specimens, the values of axial stress at failure determined by the empirical
equation of Ranjan et al. (1996) were higher than the measured values by about 19% on the
average.
4. The behaviours of the fly ash and fly ash–fibre specimens in the drained tests were
similar to their behaviours in the unconsolidated un-drained tests. For the F6DA specimens,
the values of axial stress at failure determined by the empirical equation of Ranjan et al.
(1996) were higher than the measured values by about 16% on the average.
A.K. Solankey, S.K. Handoo tested the potential of marble dust as a coating material
1. Coating formulation for finish plastic coat with marble- like surface finish has been
developed in the form of thin, densified layer by using graded inorganic fillers cemented with
2. The coating is decorative, durable, not prone to corrosive ion attack due to surface
finish, and hence, suitable both for external as well as interior finish.
3. The hardness of hardened coating is >5 on the Mohr scale, which retained
comparable to that of an eggshell but with much greater hardness and improved surface
finishes.
(Dr Praveen Kumar, 2008) Performed various tests on fly ash in roorkee campus
1. In the modified proctor compaction test, the optimum moisture content for flyash
decreases with increase in fibre content and maximum dry density increases with increase in
fibre content. For Roorkee soil the maximum dry density as well as optimum moisture
penetration.
3. CBR value of flyash increases with increase in fibre content for both soaked and
unsoaked conditions. But the rate of increase is more upto 1.0% fibre content and thereafter
the rate of increase is very less. For flyash with 1.5% and 2.0% fibre content, the CBR values
6. The cohesion value of flyash slightly changes from 0.7 kg/cm2 to 0.5 kg/cm2 with
addition of 0.5% fibre content to flyash. Thereafter there is no change in cohesion value with
7. The angle of internal friction increases with the addition of fibre content. The maximum
percentage increase in angle of internal friction is at 0.5% fibre content, there after percentage
increase is less.
8. The increase in shear strength of flyash is very high at high confining pressures
by the addition of fibres. K value increases from 9.92 kg/cm3 to 14.24 kg/cm3 with the
addition of 0.5% fibre content. The percent increase in K value for reinforced flyash is 43.55
10. The field CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is more compared to 5.0 mm
penetration. CBR value for flyash is 18.28% and with 0.5% fibre content it is 25.71%. The
treatment. Activation of fly ash depended on the nature of the alkali agent and the processing
conditions. KOH promoted formation of zeolite W, by both of the methods studied. However,
the fusion treatment allowed the decrease of the crystallizing temperature from 175 to 150°C
obtaining a higher content of zeolitic phase (90%) than by the direct method (75%). On the
other hand, when NaOH was used, three different zeolites were obtained: P, faujasite and
analcime, their crystallinity was improved when the quantity of NaOH was increased.
The optimal conditions for the zeolitization of fly ash by the direct method were KOH
as alkaline agent, a KOH/fly ash ratio of 0.5, and hydrothermal conditions of 175°C for 16h.
By the fusion treatment, the optimal conditions were: a NaOH/fly ash ratio of 0.62, fusion
Marco Del Monte and Cristina Sabbioni (1984) compared the mineralogical
compositions of coal and fly ash outlines a simpler scheme as far as single particle formation
is concerned. Silicatic particles constituing the major fraction of coal fly ash, are formed by
melting and consequent rapid solidification of kaolinite and illite. The crystallization of
multite only rarely occurs. The quartz, present both in coal and fly ash, undergoes
residue, while pyrite and siderite are subject to different degrees of oxidation giving as
combustion products F%O3, "r-Fe203 and F%O4. The pyrolysis of dolomite produces the
formation of the rare lime particles observed in the fly ash. Finally the titanium, mobilized by
silicate fusion, is distributed partially in the glassy fraction and partially re-crystallizes to
form the dioxide called ruffle. Following the correlation between the observation performed
in thin section and the data obtained by the gravimetric separation, a semi quantitative
evaluation of the ratio existing between the diverse typologies constituting the fly ash is
achieved. 90% of the particles have an aluminosilicatic matrix and belong to class 1, 9% are
to outline that the bulk composition and the relative ratio of the different typologies (with
particular regard to the glassy, carbonaceous and metallic fractions) constituting the fly ash
are strictly dependent on the furnace design and generating conditions as well as on the coal
composition, while the diverse morphological classes of particles forming during combustion
processes seem to constitute quite a general scheme. The classification proposed by this paper
data, lime and futile particles have also been observed. Lastly, it has been observed that the
bulk fly ash samples, preserved in driers immediately after sampling, if exposed to a high
The gypsum is thus confirmed not to be a crystalline phase of fly ash emissions but to
have an airborne origin on the fly ash particles. The acicular crystals of calcium sulphate
found by Fisher et al. were certainly not present at the time of sampling and formed by
heterogeneous chemical reaction at the surface of the single particles. A similar phenomenon
has also been observed for carbonaceous particles emitted by oil combustion. Among a
variety of crystalline phases nucleated by soot particles (after sampling with a high water
vapor level, without the presence of SO2) acicular crystals of gypsum have been found.