Unit IV

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch

Statement of Economic Dispatch problem

 The objective of the economic dispatch problem is to meet the demand and loss of the
system with minimal cost of generation.
 The Economic Dispatch problem comprises of the unit commitment problem and the
dispatch problem.
 The solution of the economic dispatch problem is obtained by the following methods:
i. Base load method: In this method the most efficientmachine is loaded to its
fullest capability and then the others like wise.
ii. Best point loading: Here the units are successively loaded to their lowest heat
rate point beginning with the most efficient unit and working down to the
lowest efficient unit.

Cost of Generation:

 The cost of generation includes the fuel cost, cost of transmission loss, maintenance,
operation etc. The cost of the fuel is more in case of thermal and nuclear power plants but
not much in the case of hydro plants. So the cost of fuel is negligible in hydro plants.
 The cost of generation depends on the system constraints. The system constraints are:
o Equality constraints – The power flow equations
o Inequality constraints-
 Generator constraints:
𝑃𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑃𝐺 < 𝑃𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑃𝐺 is the generated real power
𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑄 < 𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑄𝐺 is the generated reactive power
 Voltage constraints:
𝑉𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝐺 < 𝑉𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑉𝐺 is the generated voltage
𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝛿 < 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where 𝛿 is the load angle.
 Running space constraints
Total generation 𝐺 ≤ 𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 + 𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ,
where 𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 is the specified power generation and 𝑃𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the
spinning reserve capacity
 Transformer taps settings, 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ,
Where 𝑇 is the transformer tap setting.
The tap setting value of an auto transformer varies between 0 to 1.0
 Transmission line power flow constraints: 𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
The real and reactive power flow should be with in the load-ability of the
transmission line.
Input output curve of a generating unit:

 The input output curve is the curve drawn across the cost of the fuel or the input energy
rate used hour and the generated output power. Let 𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) is the input energy rate in
Mkcal/hr and 𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) is the fuel cost in Rs/hr.

Heat rate curve:

 It is the curve drawn between the heat rate in MKcal/Mwhr and the output power in
Mwhr. Let 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) be the heat rate obtained by combustion of fuel (in MKcal) to
generate one unit of electrical energy.

 The heat rate is the ratio of cost of generation per hour (Rs/hr) to the generated power
(output in Mw). Its value is normally 2.5.
 Fuel energy output: It is defined from the heat rate curve as 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
MKcal/hr.

Cost Function

 The cost of the fuel is defined as 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 Rs/hr. where K is the cost of the
fuel in Rs/ MKcal
 The value of 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 mainly depends on the generation of real power.
 Based on the fuel energy output, 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑘𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ).
𝐶′
 The approximated heat rate curve is given by the equation, 𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃 𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 ′ + 𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝐺𝑖
′
𝐶𝑖
 Input fuel rate 𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 ′ + 𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐶𝑖 ′ + 𝑏𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 2
𝑃𝐺 𝑖

 Now the cost of the fuel 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾 𝐶𝑖 ′ + 𝑏𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 2 Rs/hr.

Incremental Cost curve:

 Incase of thermal power plants the cost of the fuel is 60-70% of the total operating cost.
 Assumptions:
 Input- output curve is continuous
 First derivative of the input- output curve is continuous.
  The incremental rate increases with increase in output.
 The cost of the fuel 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾𝐹𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐾 𝐶𝑖 ′ + 𝑏𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 2
 The slope of the fuel cost curve or the incremental cost is
𝑑𝐶𝑖
= 𝑏𝑖 ′ + 2𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 Rs/Mwhr
𝑑𝑃𝐺 𝑖

 Incremental cost = IC=λ =𝑏𝑖 ′ + 2𝑎𝑖 ′ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 Rs/Mwhr. The relation ship is a linear
therefore it is approximated to be as a straight line.
 The incremental fuel cost must be same for all the generating units. The value of
incremental fuel cost is called as the system incremental cost.

 The incremental cost curve for the thermal power plant is:

 The incremental cost curve for a hydro power plant is:

 The fuel cost and the incremental cost curve have number of discontinuities. The
discontinuities are due to the extension of the units by adding equipment..The
discontinuities are also due to the representation of the cost considering the entire
power station. So the real power generation can be represented as
𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛽𝑖 (𝐼𝐶)𝑖 + 𝛾𝑖 (𝐼𝐶)2𝑖 + ⋯ 𝑀𝑤
 The fuel cost curve is:

 The incremental fuel cost curve is approximated into a straight line as:
Co-ordination equation without loss or neglecting losses:

 The economic dispatch problem can be stated as min 𝐶 = 𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖

Where C is the total fuel cost,
n is the number of generating units
 The economic dispatch problem is subjected to the constraints,
𝑛

𝐻𝑖 𝑃𝐺1 , 𝑃𝐺2 , … 𝑃𝐺𝑛 = 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐺𝑖

𝑖=1
Where 𝑃𝐷 is the total demand
𝑃𝐺𝑖 is the power generated by the ith generating unit.
 The objective cost function can be written as a Lagrangian function as
𝑛 𝑛
∗
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝜆 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝜕𝐶 ∗
 For minimization function, 𝜕𝑃 = 0
𝐺𝑖
𝜕𝐶𝑖
 +0− 𝜆 =0
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖
𝜕𝐶𝑖
 =𝜆
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖

The above equation is the co-ordination equation.

 Analytical solution of 𝝀:
 The cost function of the generating unit is 𝐶𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 2 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖
𝜕𝐶
 Differentiating the above equation, 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 = 𝜆 = 2𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖
𝐺𝑖

 2𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖
 The power balance equation is,
𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷 = 0
𝑛 𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
 𝑖=1 2𝑎 − 𝑃𝐷 = 0
𝑖
𝑛 𝜆 𝑛 𝑏𝑖
 𝑖=1 2𝑎 − 𝑖=1 2𝑎 − 𝑃𝐷 =0
𝑖 𝑖
𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑏𝑖
 𝜆 𝑖=1 2𝑎 − 𝑖=1 2𝑎 − 𝑃𝐷 = 0
𝑖 𝑖
𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑏𝑖
 𝜆 𝑖=1 2𝑎 = 𝑖=1 2𝑎 + 𝑃𝐷
𝑖 𝑖
𝑛 𝑏𝑖
𝑖=1 2𝑎 +𝑃 𝐷
 𝜆= 𝑛
𝑖
1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖

 On substituting the 𝜆 value in 𝑃𝐺𝑖 the optimal generation can be obtained.

 The solution is obtained by the gradient method, which is an iterative process.
 Let 𝑓 𝜆 = 𝑃𝐷
 𝑘 𝑑𝑓 (𝜆) 𝑘
 𝑓 𝜆 + ∆𝜆𝑘 = 𝑃𝐷 (By taylor’s series)
𝑑𝜆
𝑃𝐷 −𝑓 𝜆 𝑘 ∆𝑃 𝑘 ∆𝑃 𝑘 ∆𝑃 𝑘
 ∆𝜆𝑘 = 𝑑𝑓 (𝜆 ) 𝑘
= 𝑑𝑓 (𝜆 ) 𝑘
= 𝑑𝑃 𝑘 = 𝑛 1
𝐷 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝑖

𝑛 𝜆−𝑏 𝑖 𝑑𝑃𝐷 𝑛 1
Note: 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑖=1 2𝑎 => = 𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖 𝑑𝜆 𝑖

𝑛 𝑘
Where, ∆𝑃𝑘 = 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖

 𝜆 at the k+1th iteration is 𝜆𝑘+1 = 𝜆𝑘 + ∆𝜆𝑘

 In the iterative process the condition is ∆𝑃𝑘 < 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

Solution by iterative method without losses:

The solution of the economic dispatch problem without loss can be obtained by the following
procedure:
𝑛 𝑏𝑖
𝑖=1 2𝑎 +𝑃𝐷
𝑖
i. Compute the value of 𝜆 = 𝑛 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎
𝑖
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
ii. Compute 𝑃𝐺𝑖 using the value of 𝜆 as 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖
iii. Check whether the 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is within the limit, i.e. 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑃𝐺 𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
If the value of 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is within the limit the obtained values of 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is the solution,
Else go to the next step.
iv. If 𝑃𝐺𝑖 is not within the limit, then
If 𝑃𝐺𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 , then 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛
If 𝑃𝐺𝑖 > 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥
v. Now 𝑃𝐷 𝑘 = 𝑃𝐷 𝑘−1 − 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑘

vi. Compute 𝜆𝑘+1

vii. Determine 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝑘+1 using𝜆𝑘+1 .
viii. Check whether the condition for optimality is satisfied.
𝜕𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝐺 𝑖 )
= 𝜆𝑘+1 , for 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 𝑃𝐺 𝑖 < 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖
𝜕𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝐺 𝑖 )
≤ 𝜆𝑘+1 ,for 𝑃𝐺 𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖
𝜕𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝐺 𝑖 )
≤ 𝜆𝑘+1 ,for 𝑃𝐺 𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖

If the condition is satisfied stop the process.

Else, eliminate the generating schedule not satisfying the optimality condition and
include it in the remaining units and modify 𝑃𝐷 𝑘 as 𝑃𝐷 𝑘+1 and go to step vii.
Problems:

1. The fuel cost of two generating units are given by:

𝐹1 = 0.1𝑃𝐺1 2 + 25𝑃𝐺1 + 1.6 Rs/hr
𝐹2 = 0.1𝑃𝐺2 2 + 32𝑃𝐺2 + 2.1 Rs/hr

Determine the economic load scheduling of the two generati0n units for a load of
250Mw.

𝑑𝐹1
𝜆1 = = 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 25
𝑑𝑃𝐺1

𝑑𝐹2
𝜆2 = = 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 32
𝑑𝑃𝐺2

For the two units the incremental cost, 𝜆1 = 𝜆2

 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 25 = 0.2𝑃𝐺1 + 32
 0.2𝑃𝐺1 − 0.2𝑃𝐺1 = 7 --- (1)

From the power balance equation, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2

 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 250 --- (2)

Solving (1) and (2), 𝑃𝐺1 = 142.5 and 𝑃𝐺2 = 107.5

Another method:

𝑛 𝑏𝑖 25 32
𝑖=1 2𝑎 + 𝑃𝐷 + 0.2 + 250
𝜆= 𝑖
= 0.2 = 53.5
𝑛 1 1 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎 +
𝑖 0.2 0.2
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖

53.5−25
 𝑃𝐺1 = = 142.5𝑀𝑤
0.2
53.5 − 32
𝑃𝐺2 = = 107.5𝑀𝑤
0.2

2. A power plant has 3 units whose cost functions are:

𝐶1 = 0.05𝑃𝐺1 2 + 23.5𝑃𝐺1 + 700Rs/hr
𝐶2 = 0.1𝑃𝐺2 2 + 20𝑃𝐺2 + 850 Rs /hr
𝐶3 = 0.09𝑃𝐺3 2 + 18𝑃𝐺3 + 960 Rs /hr
The minimum and maximum load ability of each unit is 150Mw and 40 Mw. Find the
optimal scheduling for a load of 275 Mw.
 𝑑𝐶1
𝜆1 = = 0.1𝑃𝐺1 + 23.5
𝑑𝑃𝐺1
𝑑𝐶2
𝜆2 = = 0.4𝑃𝐺2 + 20
𝑑𝑃2
𝑑𝐶3
𝜆3 = = 0.18𝑃𝐺2 + 18
𝑑𝑃3
𝑛 𝑏𝑖 23.5 20 18
𝑖=1 2𝑎 + 𝑃𝐷 + 2 × 0.2 + 2 × 0.09 + 275
𝜆= 𝑖
= 2 × 0.05 = 36.55
𝑛 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎 + +
𝑖 2 × 0.05 2 × 0.2 2 × 0.09
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖

36.55−23.5
 𝑃𝐺1 = = 130.5𝑀𝑤
2×0.05
36.55 − 20
𝑃𝐺2 = = 41.375𝑀𝑤
2 × 0.2
36.55 − 18
𝑃𝐺3 = = 103.055 𝑀𝑤
2 × 0.09
To check: 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3 = 130.5 + 41.375 + 103.055 = 275𝑀𝑤
3. Determine the economic generation schedule of three generating units in a power
system to meet a load of 925 Mw. The operating limits and the cost function of the
units are:
Unit I, 𝐹1 = 0.0045𝑃𝐺1 2 + 5.2𝑃𝐺1 + 580 Rs/hr, 250𝑀𝑤 ≤ 𝑃𝐺1 ≤ 450𝑀𝑤
Unit II, 𝐹2 = 0.0056𝑃𝐺2 2 + 4.5𝑃𝐺2 + 640 Rs /hr, 200𝑀𝑤 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤ 350𝑀𝑤
Unit III, 𝐹3 = 0.0079𝑃𝐺3 2 + 5.8𝑃𝐺3 + 820 Rs /hr, 125𝑀𝑤 ≤ 𝑃𝐺3 ≤ 225𝑀𝑤
𝑛 𝑏𝑖 5.2 4.5 5.8
𝑖=1 2𝑎 +𝑃𝐷 + + +925
 𝜆= 𝑛 1
𝑖
= 2×0.0045 2×0.0056 2×0.0079
1 1 1 = 8.6149
𝑖=1 2𝑎 + +
𝑖 2×0.0045 2×0.0056 2×0.0079
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖
8.6149−5.2
 𝑃𝐺1 = = 379.433𝑀𝑤
2×0.0045
8.6149 − 4.5
𝑃𝐺2 = = 367.401𝑀𝑤
2 × 0.0056
8.6149 − 5.8
𝑃𝐺3 = = 178.158 𝑀𝑤
2 × 0.0079
 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3 = 379.433 + 367.401 + 178.158 = 925𝑀𝑤
The power balance equation is satisfied. 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐷
 On check for generation limit, 𝑃𝐺2 = 367.401violates the limit200𝑀𝑤 ≤ 𝑃𝐺2 ≤
350𝑀𝑤.
As 𝑃𝐺2 > 𝑃𝐺2,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ; 𝑃𝐺2 = 𝑃𝐺2,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∴ 𝑃𝐺2 = 350𝑀𝑤
𝑃𝐷 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐺2 = 925 − 350 = 575𝑀𝑤
 Now units I and II have to share the load of 575 Mw.
𝜆1 = 𝜆3
 𝑑𝐹1 𝑑𝐹2
 =
𝑑𝑃𝐺 1 𝑑𝑃𝐺 2
 2 × 0.0045 𝑃𝐺1 + 5.2 = 2 × 0.0079 𝑃𝐺3 + 5.8
 0.009𝑃𝐺1 − 0.0158𝑃𝐺3 =0.6 --- (1)

𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺3 = 575 ---(2)

Solving (1) and (2), 𝑃𝐺1 = 390.524, 𝑃𝐺3 = 184.476𝑀𝑤

 Check for optimality,

𝑑𝐹1
𝜆1 = 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 = = 2 × 0.0045 390.524 + 5.2 = 8.7147
𝑑𝑃𝐺1
𝑑𝐹2
𝜆2 = = 2 × 0.0056 350 + 4.5 = 8.42
𝑑𝑃𝐺1
𝑑𝐹3
𝜆3 = = 2 × 0.0079 184.476 + 5.8 = 8.7147
𝑑𝑃𝐺3
𝜆2 < 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 , so 𝑃𝐺2 = 350𝑀𝑤 is acceptable.
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3 = 390.524 + 350 + 184.476 = 925 𝑀𝑤
4. The fuel cost of plant I and II are given by the cost functions:
Unit I, 𝐹1 = 0.02𝑃𝐺1 2 + 40𝑃𝐺1 + 120 Rs/hr,
Unit II, 𝐹2 = 0.25𝑃𝐺2 2 + 30𝑃𝐺2 + 150Rs /hr,
Determine the economic scheduling and the corresponding cost of generation if the
maximum and minimum limits on each unit are 100 Mw and 25 Mw and the system
load is 180 Mw. Also determine the savings in cost obtained by equal incremental
production cost if the loads are equally shared.
 Determination of Economic scheduling:
𝑛 𝑏𝑖 40 30
𝑖=1 2𝑎 + 𝑃𝐷 + + 180
𝜆= 𝑖
= 2 × 0.02 2 × 0.25 = 75.5556
𝑛 1 1 1
𝑖=1 2𝑎 +
𝑖 2 × 0.02 2 × 0.25
𝜆−𝑏 𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 2𝑎 𝑖
75.5556 −40
 𝑃𝐺1 = = 88.88𝑀𝑤
0.4
75.5556 − 30
𝑃𝐺2 = = 91.111𝑀𝑤
0.5
𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 = 88.88 + 91.111 = 180𝑀𝑤

𝑃𝐺1 & 𝑃𝐺2 are within the limits.

∴ 𝑃𝐺1 = 88.88𝑀𝑤 and 𝑃𝐺2 = 91.111𝑀𝑤

 Determination of cost of generation:

𝐹1 = 0.02𝑃𝐺1 2 + 40𝑃𝐺1 + 120 = 0.02 × 88.882 + 40 × 88.88 + 120
= 5255.8Rs/hr
 𝐹2 = 0.25 × 91.1112 + 30 × 91.111 + 150 = 4958.64 Rs/hr
 Saving in cot if the load is equally shared by 2 units:
𝑃𝐷 180
If the loads are equally shared, 𝑃𝐺1 = 𝑃𝐺2 = = = 90𝑀𝑤
2 2
90 𝑑𝐹1 90
Saving in cost of unit I = 88.88 𝑑𝑃𝐺 1
𝑑𝑃𝐺1 = 88.88
0.4𝑃𝐺1 + 40 𝑑𝑃𝐺1
90
0.4𝑃𝐺 1 2
= + 40𝑃𝐺1 = 84.86
2
88.88
90 𝑑𝐹2 90
Saving in cost of unit II = 91.111 𝑑𝑃𝐺 2
𝑑𝑃𝐺2 = 91.111
0.5𝑃𝐺1 + 30 𝑑𝑃𝐺2
90
0.5𝑃𝐺 2 2
= + 30𝑃𝐺2 = −83.75
2
91.111
Net saving in cost = 84.86+(-83.75) =1.11 Rs/hr

Economic Dispatch Problem (Including losses):

Co-ordination equation with loss (Exact co-ordination equation):

 The objective function of the economic dispatch problem is min 𝐶 = 𝑛

𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
Where C is the total fuel cost,
n is the number of generating units
 The economic dispatch problem is subjected to the constraints,
𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 , where 𝑃𝐿 is the transmission loss
 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 0
 The lagrangian function can be written as,
𝑛 𝑛
∗
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝜆 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝜕𝐶 ∗
 For a minimization function, 𝜕𝑃 = 0
𝐺𝑖
∗
𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝐶𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝐿
= +𝜆 −𝜆 =0
𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝜕𝐶𝑖 𝜕𝑃
 = 𝜆 1 − 𝜕𝑃 𝐿
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖 𝐺𝑖
𝜕𝐶𝑖
where, is the incremental fuel cost
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝐿
= 𝐼𝑇𝐿 is the incremental transmission loss
𝜕𝑃𝐺 𝑖
𝑖 𝐼𝐶
∴ 𝜆 = 1−𝐼𝑇𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶𝑖 × 𝐿𝑖 , where 𝐿𝑖 is the penalty factor of the plant
𝑖
The above equation is the exact co-ordination equation of the economic dispatch
problem with losses.

Optimum allocation of generating units: (Considering Bij co-efficient)

Consider a two-bus system,

 The transmission loss, 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝐺𝑗
2 𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1
𝐵11
= 𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝐺𝑗 = 𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2
𝐵21
𝐵22 𝑃𝐺2
𝑃
= 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵11 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵21 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵12 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵22 𝐺1
𝑃𝐺2
= 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵11 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵21 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺1 𝐵12 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺2 2 𝐵22
2

 𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝐺1 2 𝐵11 + 2𝑃𝐺2 𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 2 𝐵22 (as 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 )
 The cost function of the two units are:
𝐶1 = 𝑎1 𝑃𝐺1 2 + 𝑏1 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑐1
𝐶2 = 𝑎2 𝑃𝐺2 2 + 𝑏2 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑐2
∴ Incremental cost of the two units,
𝐼𝐶1 = 2𝑎1 𝑃𝐺1 2 + 𝑏1
𝐼𝐶2 = 2𝑎2 𝑃𝐺2 2 + 𝑏2
𝜕𝑃
 Incremental transmission loss, 𝜕𝑃 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑇𝐿
𝐺𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑇𝐿1 = 𝜕𝑃 = 2𝑃𝐺1 𝐵11 + 2𝑃𝐺2 𝐵12 = 2(𝑃𝐺1 𝐵11 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵12 )
𝐺1

𝜕𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝑇𝐿2 = = 2𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1 + 2𝑃𝐺2 𝐵22 = 2(𝐵12 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 𝐵22 )
𝜕𝑃𝐺2
 Base point and Participation factor
 The economic dispatch problem has to be solved from one economical optimal schedule
to another for a small change in load.
 Initially the schedule is obtained considering an equal incremental cost and then for each
increase in demand how change in generation is needed for optimal scheduling is
obtained.
 Assume that the first and the second derivation of the cost function is available.
 The cost function , 𝐹𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 2 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖
𝜕𝐹 ∆𝐹
 The incremental cost, 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 = 𝜆 = 2𝑎𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝐹𝑖′ = ∆𝑃 𝑖
𝐺𝑖 𝐺𝑖
∆𝜆
 = 𝐹𝑖′′ = 2𝑎𝑖
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑖

 ∆𝜆 = 𝐹𝑖′′ . ∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
∆𝜆
 For n number of units, ∆𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 𝐹′′ for i = 1,2,… n
𝑖

 The power balance equation is, 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = 0

 Change in demand, ∆𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝐺1 + ∆𝑃𝐺2 + ⋯ ∆𝑃𝐺𝑛
∆𝜆 ∆𝜆 ∆𝜆 𝑛 1
= + 𝐹′′ + ⋯ 𝐹′′ = ∆𝜆 𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′
𝐹1′′ 2 𝑛 𝑖
∆𝜆 1
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑖 𝐹 ′′ 𝐹 ′′
 Participation factor, = 𝑛
𝑖
1 = 𝑛
𝑖
1
∆𝑃𝐷 ∆𝜆 𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ 𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′
𝑖 𝑖
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑖
 For a change in demand, 𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + . ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝐷

Problem: (Participation factor)

The input-out characteristics of three units are:

𝐹1 = 0.0016𝑃𝐺1 2 + 5.46𝑃𝐺1 + 940 Rs/hr,
𝐹2 = 0.0019𝑃𝐺2 2 + 5.35𝑃𝐺2 + 820Rs /hr,
𝐹3 = 0.0032𝑃𝐺3 2 + 5.65𝑃𝐺2 + 99Rs /hr,

Determine the schedule for a load of 600 Mw. Also calculate the dispatch if the load is
reduced to 550 Mw using participation factor method.

Base case:

𝐹1 ′ = 0.0032𝑃𝐺1 + 5.46

𝐹2 ′ = 0.0038𝑃𝐺2 + 5.35

𝐹3 ′ = 0.0064𝑃𝐺3 + 5.65

We know that, 𝜆 = 𝐹1 ′ = 𝐹2 ′ = 𝐹3 ′

 0.0032𝑃𝐺1 + 5.46 = 0.0038𝑃𝐺2 + 5.35 = 0.0064𝑃𝐺3 + 5.65

Considering, 0.0032𝑃𝐺1 + 5.46 = 0.0038𝑃𝐺2 + 5.35

 𝑃𝐺2 = 0.842𝑃𝐺1 − 28.94 --- (1)

Considering, 0.0032𝑃𝐺1 + 5.46 = 0.0064𝑃𝐺3 + 5.65

 𝑃𝐺3 = 0.5𝑃𝐺1 − 28.875 --- (2)

According to the power balance equation, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐺1 + 𝑃𝐺2 + 𝑃𝐺3

 600=𝑃𝐺1 + 0.842𝑃𝐺1 − 28.94+0.5𝑃𝐺1 − 28.875

 2.342𝑃𝐺1 = 657.815
 𝑃𝐺1 = 280.877

Substituting 𝑃𝐺1 = 280.877 in (1) and (2)

𝑃𝐺2 = 207.558 And 𝑃𝐺3 = 115.5635

Increase in demand by 50 Mw:

1
∆𝑃𝐺 𝑖 𝐹 ′′
𝑖
Participation factor, = 𝑛 1
∆𝑃𝐷 𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′
𝑖

1 1 1
∆𝑃𝐺1 𝐹1′′ 𝐹1′′ 0.0032
= = = = 0.43
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
𝑖 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064

1 1 1
∆𝑃𝐺2 𝐹2′′ 𝐹2′′ 0.0038
= = = = 0.3595
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
𝑖 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064

1 1 1
∆𝑃𝐺3 𝐹3′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0064
= = = = 0.2135
∆𝑃𝐷 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑖=1 𝐹 ′′ + + + +
𝑖 𝐹1′′ 𝐹2′′ 𝐹3′′ 0.0032 0.0038 0.0064

∆𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑃𝐺𝑖,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + . ∆𝑃𝐷
∆𝑃𝐷

𝑃𝐺1,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 280.77 + 0.43 × −50 = 259.27

𝑃𝐺2,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 207.588 + 0.3595 × −50 = 189.613

𝑃𝐺3,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 115.5635 + 0.2135 × −50 = 104.89

 Unit Commitment Problem
Statement of Unit Commitment Problem:

The objective of the unit commitment problem is to commit the units such that the
load is met without violating the constraints and the cost of generation is economical.

Constraints in Unit Commitment Problem:

The various constraints are:

i. Spinning Reserve:
 Spinning reserve is the generator connected to the system without load.
 Spinning reserve is the difference between the total amount of generation by the
synchronized generators available in the system and the sum of demand and loss
of the system.
 Spinning reserve is operated in the system inorder to meet the demand in case of
loss of generation by units.
ii. Thermal Unit constraints:
a. Minimum up time:
It is the time to make the thermal unit to turn off. Once the thermal unit is made
on it cannot be switched off immediately.
b. Minimum down time:
It is the minimum time to make the thermal to turn on. Once the thermal unit is
made off, it requires a minimum time to make it on.
c. Crew constraints:
The units in a thermal power plant have to be committed accordingly to the
availability of operators in the plant.
d. Start up cost:
The start up cost depends on the time interval between the shut down and restart
of the unit. If the system is restarted immediately after the shutdoum then the start
up cost is zero.
i. Startup cost when cooling:
 Start up cost is proportional to the cooling of the unit.
1
 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐶𝐶 1 − 𝑒 −𝛼 𝐹 + 𝐶𝑓
Where 𝐶𝐶 - Cold start up cost
F – Fuel cost
𝐶𝑓 - Fixed cost
𝛼 – Thermal time constant for the unit
𝑡− time in which the unit was cooled.
ii. Start up cost when banking (Shut down):
 Banking should be done such that the sufficient energy is incurred into the
boilers to maintain the temperature and pressure.
  Start-up cost when banking= 𝐶𝑡 × 𝑡 × 𝐹 × 𝐶𝑓
Where, 𝐶𝑡 is the cost of maintain the temperature of the boiler.
iii. Hydro-constraints:
 The unit commitment includes only the thermal units.
 But in case of hydro-thermal scheduling the allocation is done such that more
number of hydro units is preferred when the availability of water resources is
more.
 In case of hydro plants the start up cost, shut down cost, operating costs are
negligible.
iv. Must Run constraints:
 Practically the nuclear power plants are operated in must run status to maintain
the voltage in the transmission lines.
v. Fuel Constraints:
If hydro and thermal plants are available for generation, the combined operation will
be more advantageous and economical.

Solution for unit commitment problem:

The solution of the unit commitment problem can be achieved by:

a. Brute force technique or simple priority list scheme
b. Priority list method
c. Dynamic Programming technique

Brute Force technique:

Illustration:

Consider that three thermal units are to be committed for a load of 800 MW. The fuel cost
and the operating limits of the three units are:

𝐹1 = 0.006𝑃𝐺1 2 + 7𝑃𝐺1 + 600 Rs/hr, 100 < 𝑃𝐺1 < 400 𝑀𝑤

𝐹2 = 0.01𝑃𝐺2 2 + 8𝑃𝐺2 + 4000Rs /hr, 50 < 𝑃𝐺2 < 300 𝑀𝑤
𝐹3 = 0.008𝑃𝐺3 2 + 6𝑃𝐺3 + 500Rs /hr, 150 < 𝑃𝐺2 < 500𝑀𝑤

Solution:
 Number of combinations: 2𝑛 − 1 = 23 − 1 = 7
 Determining the feasibility:
S. I II III 𝑃𝐺1 𝑃𝐺2 𝑃𝐺3 Max Min Feasibilility Fuel
No Cost
1 0 0 0 - - - - - No -
2 0 0 1 - - - 500 150 No -
3 0 1 0 - - - 300 50 No -
4 0 1 1 - 300 500 800 200 Yes 9200
5 1 0 0 - - - 400 100 NO -
6 1 1 0 400 - 400 900 250 Yes 8540
7 1 1 1 335 151 314 1200 300 Yes 8627.04
 Priority List Method: (Using FLAPC)
 Priority List method using FLAPC (Full Load Average Production Cost) is the
simplest method.
 The priority list is formed based on the FLAPC of each unit.
𝐶𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 ) 𝐾.𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
 𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃𝐶 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = =
𝑃 𝐺𝑖 𝑃𝐺𝑖
 Assumptions:
o No load cost is zero
o Unit input-output characteristics are linear
o Start cost is fixed.
o Minimum up and down times are ignored
 Procedure of Priority List method:
i. Find the FLAPC of all the units.
ii. Form the priority list considering the FLAPC in ascending order.
iii. Commit the units according to the priority list.
iv. Determine the generation for each unit according to the commitment and find
the feasibility.
v. In case of drop in the load curve, check for the necessity of the committed
units for the next hours. If needed in few hours the unit will act as a spinning
reserve else go to the next step.
vi. Calculate the time (T) at which again the unit is required for generation.
If T < minimum shut down time, go to step ii.
vii. Calculate the cost of
a. Sum of hourly production cost for the next T hours (A)
b. Calculate the start up cost for either banking or cooling (B)
If B<A, make the unit to be on and Go to step ii.
 Advantages:
i. Less complicated.
ii. No much importance to the constraints.
iii. Less number of combinations
 Disadvantages:
i. Less number of constraints is considered.
ii. No load cost is not considered.
iii. Start up cost is fixed.

Problem:

Obtain the priority list for the commitment of units using FLAPC for a demand of 550
Mw. The heat rate function of the units is:
𝑯𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝑷𝑮𝟏 𝟐 + 𝟕. 𝟐𝑷𝑮𝟏 + 𝟓𝟏𝟎Rs/hr, 𝟏𝟓𝟎 < 𝑃𝑮𝟏 < 600𝑴𝒘
𝑭𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟒𝑷𝑮𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟕. 𝟖𝟓𝑷𝑮𝟐 + 𝟑𝟏𝟎Rs /hr, 𝟏𝟎𝟎 < 𝑃𝑮𝟐 < 400 𝑀𝑤
𝑭𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟖𝟐𝑷𝑮𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟕. 𝟗𝟕𝑷𝑮𝟑 + 𝟕𝟖Rs /hr, 𝟓𝟎 < 𝑷𝑮𝟐 < 200𝑴𝒘
The fuel cost of unit 1, 2 and 3 are 1.1, 1.0 and 1.2 respectively.
Step 1: Calculate the FLAPC of each unit.

𝐾. 𝐻𝑖 (𝑃𝐺𝑖 )
𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃𝐶 =
𝑃𝐺𝑖

𝐾. 𝐻1 (𝑃𝐺1 ) 1.1 × ( 0.0014 × 6002 + 7.2 × 600 + 510)

𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃𝐶1 = = = 9.79
𝑃𝐺1 600

𝐾. 𝐻2 (𝑃𝐺2 ) 1.0 × ( 0.00194 × 4002 + 7.85 × 400 + 310)

𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃𝐶2 = = = 9.4
𝑃𝐺2 400

𝐾. 𝐻3 (𝑃𝐺3 ) 1.2 × ( 0.00482 × 2002 + 7.97 × 200 + 78)

𝐹𝐿𝐴𝑃𝐶3 = = = 11.188
𝑃𝐺3 200

Step 2: Form the Priority List based on FLAPC (in ascending order)

Unit FLAPC Minimum Maximum

Generation Generation
2 9.4 100 400
1 9.79 150 600
3 11.188 50 200
Step 3: Unit Commitment:

Combination of Min generation Maximum

units Generation
2+1+3 300 1200
2+1 250 1000
2 100 400

From the above table it is inferred that, all the three units should be operated for the load of
1000 Mw and unit 2 and 1 can be operated up to 400 Mw. For a demand of 550 MW, the unit
2 and 1 should be operated.

Dynamic Programming:

 Assumptions:
i. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest
offline.
ii. The start up cost is independent of the time at which it is off-line.
iii. No shutting down cost.
iv. There is a strict priority order, and in each interval a specified minimum amount
of capacity must be operating.
 Advantages:
i. Dimension of the problem is reduced.
ii. Number of combination is n for a n-bus system
 Forward Dynamic Programming
 The dynamic programming can be run from backward in time starting from the final
hour to the initial hour. Similarly it can be run vice versa.
 But solving the unit commitment problem in forward mode is advantageous as the
previous history can be considered at each stage and also the initial conditions are
specified.
 Algorithm:
 Strategy: It is the transition or the path from one state at a given hour to a state
at the next hour.\
 Least cost to arrive at state,
(K.I), 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾, 𝐼 = min{𝐿} 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾, 𝐼 + 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾 − 1, 𝐿: 𝐾, 𝐼 + 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾 − 1, 𝐼
Where, 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾, 𝐼 Production cost for state (K,I)
𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝐾 − 1, 𝐿: 𝐾, 𝐼 transition cost from state (K-1,L) to state (K,I)