TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS (LAB 1a)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To study and well-understood with the physical properties of minerals in laboratory by
hand.

2.0 THEORY
A mineral can be identified as a natural inorganic substance having a particular
chemical composition or range of composition, and a regular atomic structure to which
its crystalline form is related. 1It is said to be a naturally occurring substance that is
solid and stable at room temperature. The common distinguishing characteristics
include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre and diaphaneity, colour and streak,
cleavage, fracture, tenacity and specific gravity. To study rocks, it is necessary to know
the common minerals that formed the rock.
To observe and determine minerals’ physical properties, simple tests can be done to
identify the characteristic. Since mineral has a definite chemical composition and a
definite internal crystalline structure, all specimens of a given mineral, regardless of
when and where they were formed, all of them have the similar physical and chemical
properties. The physical properties are:

2.1 Crystal form and shape (external appearance)

The decisive factor in determining the external appearance and the physical
properties of a mineral is its internal structure which is formed by the
arrangement of the smallest structure parts, the atoms, ions or molecules. By
packaging in regular order then it forms as crystal lattice. Mineral with a crystal
lattice are called crystalline, those without a crystal structure are amorphous.

1
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral (Achieved by 28th February 2014)
 Types of crystal lattice of minerals. Minerals often have distinctive crystal form and
shape that allow them to be identified.

2.2 Colour of minerals

The colour of the minerals can be seen by eyes and it is resulted from a mineral’s
chemical composition, impurities that may present in the sample, flaws or
damage in the internal structure, the light in the room or strong reflective
surfaces. For many minerals, colour is a reliable diagnostic property used for
identification. However, it is not the most useful way to identify the
characteristic of minerals because some minerals display a set of rainbow colors.

2.3 Streak
2
The streak is the colour of finely powdered mineral particles, which may or
may not be identical to its body colour produced by scraping the specimen along
a roughened surface such as the streak plate (which is made out of porcelain
and coloured either white or black). The limitation of a streak plate is that it can
only be used on minerals with hardness less than seven otherwise the streak
plate will be powdered instead.

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Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral#Colour_and_streak (Achieved by 28th February
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 2.4 Cleavage and fracture
3
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along smooth planes parallel to
zones of weak bonding while fracture is the tendency of a mineral to break
along curved surfaces without a definite shape. Most minerals, when broken are
observed to split along particular planes. These features are called cleavage
planes. Some minerals do not have a cleavage (quartz) and the surface of
rupture is more irregular known as fracture.

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Retrieved from http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/grocha/mineral/cleavage.html (Achieved by
28th February 2014)
Types of cleavage

Types of fracture
 2.5 Luster
4
Luster is a property that results from the manner in which light is reflected
from a mineral. It is also said to be the overall sheen of its surface. It may have
the sheen of polished metal, or that of an unpolished metal that is pitted by
weathering – or it may have the sheen of glass, or look dull or earthy. Luster
should not be confused with colour. In short, luster is the degree of brightness
of a mineral.

It can be classified as below:

i. Metallic: having the look of a polished metal
ii. Submetallic: having the look of a metal that is dulled by weathering or
corrosion
iii. Non-metallic: not looking like a metal at all. Non-metallic luster is
divided into several sub-types:
 Adamantine: having the hard, sparkly look of a diamond
 Resinous: having the look of amber – not quite glassy
 Glassy/vitreous: having the look of glass
 Pearly: having iridescent look of mother-of-pearl; often found on the
cleavage face of a mineral having perfect cleavage
 Greasy/Oily: having the look of an oil-coated substance
 Silky: having the look of silk, fine parallel fibres of mineral – such as
chrysotile “asbestos”
 Dull: having a plain looking surface that is not submetallic
 Earthy: having the look of soil or clay

2.6 Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a mineral’s resistance to abrasion. It is identify using
an arbitrary scale of ten standard minerals which called as MOH’s scale of
hardness. The MOH’s hardness scale is a relative scale which means that a

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Retrieved from http://www.minsocam.org/msa/collectors_corner/id/mineral_id_keyi3.htm (Achieved
by 28th February 2014)
 mineral will scratch any substance lower on the scale and will be scratched by
any substance with a higher number according to the scale. 5 The scratch
hardness is related to the breaking of the chemical bonds in the material,
creation of microfractures on the surface, or displacing atoms (in metals) of the
mineral. Generally, minerals with covalent bonds are the hardest while minerals
with ionic, metallic, or van der Waals bonding are much softer.

2.7 Reaction with acid (dilute Hydrochloric acid)

6
This test is for the carbonate minerals, calcite and dolomite. Non-carbonate
minerals, especially silicates will not react with HCI. On calcite (CaCO3)
bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced, in some iron sulphide ores, hydrogen
sulphide is produced. A drop of dilute HCI on calcite effervesces (fizzes)
vigorously while dolomite reacts less vigorously.

5
Retrieved from http://www.minsocam.org/msa/collectors_corner/article/mohs.htm (Achieved by 28th
February 2014)
6
Retrieved from http://www.appstate.edu/~abbottrn/mnrl-id/ (Achieved by 28th February 2014)
3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MINERALS
3.1 A sets of 20 different minerals with reference names
3.2 Hardness Pens Set
3.3 Information and hints from module as well as lecturer and lab assistant
3.4 Eye dropper bottle with HCl (approximately 10% of dilution)
3.5 Mineral Colour Identification Chart

4.0 PROCEDURE
The sample of minerals were observed by doing few physical tests and the results were
tabulated throughout the observation. Below are the physical tests completed with the
aid of proper apparatus and guidance.
4.1 Name of mineral
4.2 Colour of mineral
4.3 Streak
4.4 Luster
4.5 Hardness
4.6 Reaction with Acid
4.7 Sketching of mineral

5.0 RESULTS
As attached in Table 1.1.1
6.0 DISCUSSION

A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature, having usually

a definite chemical composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain
characteristic atomic structure which is expressed in its crystalline form and other
physical.7 A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and stable at room
temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic, and has an
ordered atomic structure. It is different from a rock, which can be an aggregate of
minerals or non-minerals and does not have a specific chemical composition. The
term "mineral" refers to both a material's chemical composition, and its physical
structure. For a substance to be classified as a mineral, it must be a solid, non-liquid
substance, and a crystal structure. Minerals are either found in shapeless lumps which
call 'massive' or can form into polygonal shape known as crystals. Most minerals
form within the spaces between other minerals and grow into rough shapeless
masses. 8 Minerals are classified according to: Hardness, Specific Gravity, Color,
Luster, Streak, Cleavage and Crystal Form.9

Silicate class
This is the largest group of minerals (most rocks are ≥95% silicates). Silicates are
made from metals combined with silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions. They
make up over 90% of the weight of the earth’s crust. Most rocks are composed mainly
of this class of minerals. 33
Carbonate class
Carbonates are a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen, and a metallic element.
This group of minerals is soft and very reactive against acid. Some of these minerals
form by the acidic reaction of air and rain. Carbonate mineral contain the carbonate
ion, (CO3)2− ,as the basic structural and compositional unit and include calcite and
aragonite, dolomite and siderite. Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine
settings and evaporitic settings.

7
http://webmineral.com/Mineral_Definition.shtml#.UxMxssXMjNk
8
http://www.gemrock.net/content.asp?page=rocks-and-minerals
9
http://utahscience.oremjr.alpine.k12.ut.us/sciber00/7th/classify/sciber/minclas1.htm
 Sulfate class
Sulfates are made of compounds of sulfur combined with metals and oxygen. This
class of minerals tends to be evaporates or forms from volcanically heated water. As a
group they are soft and pale in colour and sometimes transparent or translucent. There
are many minerals in the sulfate group but most are rare in occurrence. Sulfate minerals
all contain the sulfate anion, SO42−. Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings
where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates
and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein
systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as
secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. The sulfate class also
includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals.10
Halide class
Halides form when halogenic elements reacts with metallic elements. They are very
soft and easily dissolved in water. Because of this solubility they usually occur only
under special conditions. Halite (NaCl) or rock salt is an exception to this notion. The
halide minerals are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite,
sylvite, and salt ammoniac. Halides are commonly found in evaporate settings such as
salt lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake.

Oxide class
Oxides are mineral compounds combining a metal with oxygen or a metal combining
with oxygen and hydrogen. This is a large group of minerals that occur in most
geological environments and rock types. They span a wide range of characteristics
from common metal ores to precious gems. Oxide minerals are extremely important
in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted.
They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products
of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in
igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite, magnetite,

10
http://library.thinkquest.org/06aug/02459/minerals.html
chromite, spinel, ilmenite, and rutile. The oxide class includes the oxide and the
hydroxide minerals.
Sulfide class
The sulfides are made up of sulfur combined with another mineral, usually a metal.
This group of minerals tend to be dense, brittle, and metallic in appearance. Common
sulfide includes, chalcopyrite, pentlandite, and galena. The sulfide class also includes
the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the
sulfosalts.

Phosphate class
Phosphates are not as common in occurrence as the other families of minerals. They
are often formed when other minerals are broken down by weathering. They are often
brightly coloured. The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a
tetrahedral unit AO4 where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. The
phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, venerate, and antimonite minerals.

Element class
The elemental group includes native metals and intermetallic elements, semi-metals
and non-metals, natural alloys, phosphides, silicates, nitrides and carbides.

Organic class
The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes
have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound Minerals of the
organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates,
hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species.

Mineraloid class
Mineraloid is the term used for those substances that do not fit neatly into one of these
classes. Opal, jet, amber, and mother of pearl all belong to the mineraloids. They are
created from organic compounds or lack crystalline structure that would qualify them
to be real minerals.
CONCLUSION (Based on Table 1.1.1)
Minerals are classified by chemical composition. They are divided into classes
depending on the dominant anion, or anionic group. For example, oxides, halides, or
silicates. Once minerals have been grouped by chemical composition, they can be further
separated into groups on the basis of internal structure. Minerals can be described by
various physical properties which relate to their chemical structure and composition.
Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre,
diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, and specific gravity. More
specific tests for minerals include reaction to acid, magnetism, taste or smell, and
radioactivity.
TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCK (LAB 1b)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of igneous rock specimen in
the laboratory.

2.0 THEORY
(a) Criteria for distinguishing igneous rock

To identify the type of rock, one should proceed from general properties to particular.
Firstly is the external appearances, colour, behavior on weathering effect and any other
striking features. The steps of identifications are able to decide whether it is igneous or
other types of rock. The standard characteristics of the igneous rocks is given below,
but must be emphasized that one characteristic by itself proof positive that the rock
belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Interlocking grains, massive structures

Texture such as glassy, porphyritic, phaneritic, aphantic

Igneous
High feldspar or ferromahnesian content

Absent of stratification or fossils

Igneous rocks defined as rocks which are normally crystalline in nature having
solidified from an original molten state or magma that exists for long period of time
beneath the surface of earth. It also can be derived from the cooling of molten magma
or lava from volcanic eruption and also called as fire rocks that are formed either
underground or above ground. Underground, they are formed when the melted rock,
called magma, deep within the earth becomes trapped in small pockets. As these
pockets of magma cool slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous rocks which
we called Intrusive igneous rocks or Plutonic igneous rocks. Igneous ricks are also
formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma to rise above the earth’s surface.
When magma appears above the earth, it is called lave. Igneous rocks are formed as the
lava cools above the ground. This rocks we named as Extrusive or Volcanic igneous
 rocks. 11The difference between an Extrusive and Intrusive igneous rock is the way in
which they cool. An Extrusive igneous rock cools very fast on the surface and is created
by lava. Since the cooling process is very fast extrusive igneous rocks have very small
crystals (fine grained). On the other hand an Intrusive igneous rock cools very slowly
beneath the surface and is created by magma. Since the cooling process is very slow
intrusive igneous rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained). 12In short, igneous
rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material; intrusive igneous
rocks and extrusive igneous rocks.

11
Retrieved from http://www.archaeology.ncdcr.gov/ncarch/GeoArcheo/IgneousA.htm (Achieved by 4th
March 2014)
12
Retrieved from http://geology.com/rocks/igneous-rocks.shtml (Achieved by 4th March 2014)
Composition of Igneous Rocks

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The composition of an igneous rock is determined by the minerals present in a
sample. The mineralogy of an igneous rock is a product of the combination of silicon
dioxide with other elements originally present within a body of magma or lava. The
variations in compositions of igneous rocks is, in part, a result of the gradual cooling of
a body of magma underground. This slow process allows minerals that form at a high
temperature, like olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar, to crystallize and
separate from the remaining magma. Over time, this process alters the magma's

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by 4th March 2014)
 composition, forming progressively lower-temperature minerals like quartz and
potassium feldspar. This series of chemical changes was observed by N.L. Bowen, and
it is referred to as Bowen's Reaction Series.

Texture of Igneous Rocks

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The texture of an igneous rock is determined by its rate of cooling. Molten
elements trapped underground, called magma, requires from several days to thousands
of years to crystallize.

 Coarse-grained texture: Intrusive rocks, formed due to slow cooling of magma

underground, are composed of large crystals because crystals had a long time to
grow before the crystallization process was finished. This forms a coarse-grained
or phaneritic texture.
 Fine-grained texture: Extrusive rocks, formed due to rapid cooling of lava at
Earth's surface, are composed of tiny crystals or even unordered atoms because
crystallization was completed within a few seconds, hours, or perhaps days. The
resulting fine-grained or aphanitic texture is characteristic of volcanic igneous
rocks.

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Retrieved from
http://geology.campus.ad.csulb.edu/people/bperry/IgneousRocksTour/IntroToIgneousRocks.html (Achieved
by 4th March 2014)
  Glassy texture: forms as lava cools very rapidly at Earth's surface, in a matter of
seconds or a few minutes. The resulting rock is composed of unordered atoms
forming a non-crystalline mass, such as the volcanic rock obsidian.
 Frothy texture: forms as gas-charged lava cools very rapidly at Earth's surface.
An example of such a volcanic rock is pumice, which is glassy like obsidian, but
full of holes formed when trapped gasses expanded as the lava solidified.
 Porphyritic texture: forms due to two cycles of cooling, initially very slowly
underground, then rapidly at Earth's surface.
 Pyroclastic texture: forms as an explosive volcanic eruption mixes fragments of
the volcano with hot ash in the atmosphere. As this hot combination of tiny ash
particles and larger, angular fragments settles to the ground, they blanket the
Earth's surface and weld together.

(b) Description

Physical
Colour
characteristics

Structure Massive – rock is uniform in appearance showing no banding or other

structural features

Pegmatite – the rock is very coarse grained

Vesicular – the rock contains many cavities

Crystallinity or degree of crystallization

Texture Holocrystalline – wholly crystalline

Hemicrystalline – partly crystals and partly glass

Holohyaline – wholly glass

Granularity, the size of crystals

Fine-grained when particles are 1 mm or less in diameter

Medium grained when particles are 1-5 mm or more in diameter

Coarse grained when the particles are 5 mm or more in diameter

 There are various ways of classifying igneous rocks. The most significant are
mineralogical and chemical composition and rock texture. Igneous rocks have distinctive
texture, characterized mostly by the interlocking grains that grow from cooling magma. In
igneous rocks, the cooling history and environment is the function of the formation of
textures. Magmas located deep within the Earth’s crust cools slowly and thus the individual
minerals grains may grow. In contrast, lava extruded at the Earth’s surface cools rapidly,
where mineral grains do not have time to grow, therefore cannot be seen without the aid of
a microscope. The rocks appear massive and structure-less.

3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

3.1 Igneous rocks from reference set
3.2 Igneous classification chart

4.0 PROCEDURE
The samples of 5 different igneous rocks were observed by doing few physical tests and
the results were tabulated for every observations. Below are the physical tests completed
with the aid of igneous classification chart and guidance.
4.1 Rock name
4.2 Texture
4.3 Colour
4.4 Mineral composition
4.5 Chemical composition
4.6 Origin
4.7 Sketching of rocks

5.0 RESULTS
As attached in Table 1.2.1
6.0 DISCUSSION

Briefly explain two (2) types of igneous rocks

15
Igneous rocks can be categorized into two broad groupings based on where the molten
rock solidified or simply its origin. The two origins are volcanic, which is also termed as
extrusive igneous rocks and plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks. Basically, by looking at
what type of mineral composition an igneous rock has the type of magma that made it and
what environment it was made in can be determined.
a. Volcanic igneous rocks
16
Rocks formed when lava cools and crystallizes on the surface of the Earth. An
Extrusive igneous rock cools very fast on the surface and is created by lava. Since
the cooling process is very fast extrusive igneous rocks have very small crystals
(fine grained).

b. Plutonic igneous rocks

The rocks formed as an outcome of magma that cools and crystallizes at a depth
beneath the earth. An Intrusive igneous rock cools very slowly beneath the surface
and is created by magma. Since the cooling process is very slow intrusive igneous
rocks have very large crystals (coarse grained).

Explain the igneous rock classification according to the texture and chemical and
mineral composition.
i. Texture
It determined by the grain size of igneous rock depending on the rate of cooling.
For example a smooth igneous rock was cooled very fast hence has small crystals
and is therefore an extrusive rock. The texture of this rock would be called fine
grained or aphanitic. In contrary, an igneous rock that cooled slowly will form large
grains and hence be described as coarse grain or phaneritic texture.

15
Abidin, M.H.Z. et al. (2008). Engineering Geology (BFC/21303/3013) Learning Module 1st Edition. Penerbit
UTHM
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Retrieved from http://www.archaeology.ncdcr.gov/ncarch/GeoArcheo/IgneousA.htm (Achieved by 4th
March 2014)
 ii. Chemical and mineral composition
There are four different mineral compositions; Felsic, Intermediate, Mafic, and
Ultramafic. Igneous rocks contain the following common minerals: Plagioclase
feldspar, Olivine, Potassium feldspar, Pyroxene, Quartz, Amphibole, Biotite, and
Muscovite. The percentage of each mineral determines the composition. Felsic
rocks are those that are light in color and are mostly made up of feldspars and
silicates. Mafic rocks are darker colored and are mostly made up of magnesium and
iron. Intermediate rocks fall somewhere in between being Felsic and Mafic.
Ultramafic rocks are very dark colored. For more detailed descriptions of each type
click on its name to be redirected to the glossary.

7.0 CONCLUSION (Based on Table 1.2.1)

Igneous rocks are important to suit the design and function in construction industry.
The colour for instance, has a variance and that aids in the design. The colours can be bright
or dark and hence give aesthetic value to the construction work. The texture especially
coarse could help in giving three-dimensional sense hence decorate a structure, no matter
17
building or sculpture. For functional purpose, Pumice for instance traps gasses as it
solidifies, and hence has a floating property. Not only was it used in the construction of
the world's largest reinforced concrete dome - the Pantheon, it also serves in being cosmetic
exfoliant, and even broken down into fertiliser.

17
Retrieved from
http://geology.campus.ad.csulb.edu/people/bperry/IgneousRocksTour/IntroToIgneousRocks.html (Achieved
by 4th March 2014)
TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK (LAB 1c)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of sedimentary rock
specimen in the laboratory.

2.0 THEORY
(a) Criteria for distinguishing sedimentary rock

In describing any rock, one should proceed from the general to the particular, nothing firstly
its colour, behaviour on weathering and any other striking features and then deciding
whether it is sedimentary or other types of rock. The outstanding characteristics of the
sedimentary rocks is given below, but must be emphasized that one characteristic by itself
proof positive that the rock belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Stratification and sorting of grains into layers according to their size.

Fragmental texture.

Grains often rounded.

Sedimentary Structures such as bedding, ripple marks and mud cracks.

Presence of fossils.

Presence of minerals of chemical or organic origin, such as halite,

gypsum, chert carbonates.

Absence of easily weathered minerals such as biotite and augite.

18
Sedimentary rocks form when mud and sand are deposited in layers on the Earth’s
surface. The layers are deposited in many environments including oceans, rivers and deserts.
These layers of sand and mud are later buried. The weight of overlying layers compresses the
mud and sand to form solid rock. Because sedimentary rocks begin to form at the Earth’s
surface, they tell us about ancient landscapes.

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Retrieved from http://www.nature.nps.gov/views/Sites/DETO/HTML/ET_Sedimentary.htm (Achived by 5th
March 2014)
 Sedimentary rocks are the second great rock class. Whereas igneous rocks are born hot,
sedimentary rocks are born cool at the Earth’s surface, mostly under water. They usually
consist of layers or strata, hence they are also called stratified rocks.

19
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are three basic
types of sedimentary rocks: 1) clastic sedimentary rocks such as breccia, conglomerate,
sandstone and shale, that are formed from mechanical weathering debris; 2) chemical
sedimentary rocks such as rock salt and some limestones, that form when dissolved materials
precipitate from solution; and, 3) organic sedimentary rocks such as coal and some limestones
which form from the accumulation of plant or animal debris.

20Sediment origin:

a. Fragmental (or clastic) sediments are made up of particles of weathered rock, including
rock fragments, residual mineral grains (especially quartz, which is both hard and
chemically inert) and clay minerals. Examples include: conglomerate, sandstone,
mudstone & shale.
b. Organic sediments are, as the name suggests, formed largely or entirely of sediment
generated by living organisms (e.g. shell or plant material). The resulting rocks include
many limestones (e.g. shelly limestone, chalk); and also coal.
c. Chemical sediments, (or evaporites) are formed by direct chemical precipitation,
typically in hot climates. These include some limestones (e.g. oolitic limestone),
gypsum, and halite (rock salt).

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Retrieved from http://geology.com/rocks/sedimentary-rocks.shtml (Achieved by 5th March 2014)
20
Retrieved from http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3661.html
(Achieved by 5th March 2014)
(b) Description

Physical
Colour
characteristics

Structure Massive, bedded or cross bedded

Note whether grain is uniform or uneven.

Grain and To be uneven, there must be marked contrast between larger and
constituents smaller grains. If the rock is uniform, it is usually fine in grain and
does not show definite fragments, but may contain fossils.

Most sedimentary rocks are derived by processes of weathering, transportation, deposition, and
diagenesis. The final texture (grain size, shape, sorting, mineralolgy, etc.) in a sediment or
sedimentary rocks is dependent on process that occur during each stage.
3.0 EQUIMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Sedimentary rock from reference set

b) Sedimentary classification chart

4.0 PROCEDURE

The samples of 5 different sedimentary rocks were observed by doing few physical tests
and the results were tabulated for every observations. Below are the physical tests
completed with the aid of sedimentary classification chart and guidance.

4.1 Rock name

4.2 Texture
4.3 Mode of origin
4.4 Composition of clastic rock
4.5 Composition of crystalline rock
4.6 Sketching of rocks

5.0 RESULTS

As attached in Table 1.3.1

6.0 QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

21
1. List the characteristics that distinguish sedimentary rocks from igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rocks commonly have a composition consisting of olivine, pyroxene

and feldspar crystals. They also may exhibit a ropy type of banding, this is caused
by cooling lava.
Sedimentary rocks are generally layered and exhibit a clastic texture. They also
preserve fossils and other organic remains. Common places that sedimentary
rocks occur at are river beds, deltas, beaches, sand bars and extensive flat layers
(depositional environments).
Metamorphic rocks have textures such as folds, fractures, faults and foliation.
Foliation is the most common indicator of a metamorphic rock. Often the
composition consists of garnet, tourmaline and mica. It is a metamorphic rock if
it contains serpentine, epidtoe, graphite, galena or sphalerite because these
minerals only occur in metamorphic rocks.

2. Explain all the genesis of sedimentary rocks.

22
Sedimentary rock is the second major rock group. Sedimentary rocks are
formed by the accumulation of sediments. Sedimentary rocks are generally found
to occur at or near the Earth’s surface and cover about 70% on the surface but
only 10% of Earth’s crust.

The whole process which used to produce sedimentary rock is called diagenesis.
The genesis of sedimentary rocks involves four major processes which are
i. Weathering
ii. Transportation
iii. Deposition
iv. Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)

21
Retrieved from http://www.archaeology.ncdcr.gov/ncarch/GeoArcheo/RocksA.htm (Achieved by 5th March
2014)
22
Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock (Achieved by 5th March 2014)
 In the weathering process, number of chemical and mechanical processes
that act to break up rocks exposed at the Earth's surface and elements in the
atmosphere. The purpose of the chemical process is used to increase the volume
of minerals produced. While the mechanical process is used when need to
breakdown the rocks into smaller fragments without undergoing a change in
chemical composition. The pre-existing rocks can disintegrate and decompose
either by physically or chemically and forms layer of loose, decayed rock debris
or soil. The unconsolidated material can then be transported easily by various
agents.

In transportation process, running water carried large quantities of

sediment towards the sea and deltas are formed from sediment transported by
rivers. Wind and glaciers also transport sediment but restricted to certain climatic
zones. Sorting that occurs during transportation is an important factor in the
genesis of sedimentary rock. The velocity of fluid (water and air) will influence
the size of detrital material that can be transported. On the other hand, ice can
transport all sizes of sediment independent of the velocity at which the ice is
moving as ice is in solid state.

After that, deposition process will take place. Deposition process will take
places due to settlement of sediments and loose aggregates. The characteristics
of sedimentary rock formed depend on the depositional environment.

Lastly, the sediments will undergo lithification process. It is a process of

converting unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rocks by undergo
compaction and cementation. Compaction is the process whereby loose
sediments are compacted to a denser state by additional stress from accumulated
material deposited or even tectonic forces. The process of expulsion of water
from void spaces between particles takes place as they are forced closer together.
Clayey-rich sediments can be compacted much better than sands. Cementation is
process that transforms sediment into solid rock. The process takes place by
filling the voids in pore spaces by chemical precipitation from groundwater so
 that particles can be bonded together. This is the most effective lithification
process due to the chemical cement that bonds the particles together.

Based on the processes for formation, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided

into four groups which is clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (or organic)
sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary (or inorganic) rocks and a fourth
category for "other" sedimentary rocks.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of silicate minerals and rock

fragments that were transported by moving fluids and were deposited when these
fluids came to rest. This kind of rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar, rock
(lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and mica.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials
dissolved in air or water to build their tissue.

Chemical sedimentary rocks forms when mineral constituents in solution

become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical
sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite
minerals. Evaporites form by precipitation from sea water or brackish fresh water.

Other sedimentary rocks are formed by Pyroclastic flows, impact breccias,

volcanic breccias, and other relatively uncommon processes.

7.0 CONCLUSION (Based on Table 1.3.1)

Sedimentary rocks have variety rock type on the surface of Earth. It is formed through
the process of diagenesis. In diagenesis, the sediments will undergo weathering,
transportation, deposition and lithification to become sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are divided into four different groups which is clastic sedimentary rocks,
biochemical (or organic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary (or inorganic) rocks
and other sedimentary rocks.
TOPIC: IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK (LAB 1d)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To recognize, identified and observed distinguishing features of metamorphic rock
specimen in the laboratory.

2.0 THEORY
(a) Criteria for distinguishing sedimentary rock
In describing any rock, one should proceed from the general to the particular, nothing
firstly its colour, behaviour on weathering and any other striking features and then
deciding whether it is metamorphic or other types of rock. The outstanding
characteristics of the metamorphic rocks is given below, but must be emphasized that
one characteristic by itself proof positive that the rock belongs to a certain class.

Rock Type Characteristic

Parallel orientation of mineral crystals.

Interlocking crystal.
Metamorphic Secondary cleavage independent bedding.
Foliation, schistosity and slaty texture.

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Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are classified
by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies). They may
be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to high
temperature and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from
tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure,
friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of
hot molten rock called magma from the Earth’s interior.

24
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure and chemical process
usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions
has altered the mineralogy, texture and chemical composition of the rocks. There are

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Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock (Achieved by 6th March 2014)
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Retrieved from http://geology.com/rocks/metamorphic-rocks.shtml (Achieved by 6th March 2014)
two basic types of metamorphic rocks: 1) foliated metamorphic rocks such as gneiss,
phyllite, schist and slate which have a layered or banded appearance that is produced
by exposure to heat and directed pressure; and, 2) non-foliated metamorphic rocks such
as marble and quartzite which do not have a layered or banded appearance.
 (b) Description

Physical Colour
characteristics
Decide whether the rock is best described as uniform
fine grained, medium fine grained or coarse grained.

Structure and The coarser grained granular rocks results from

Grain high-grade metamorphism in which great pressure

from many directions, not from one direction only,
has been the dominant factor.

Types of texture

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Foliation - This represents a distinct plane of weakness in the rock. Foliation is caused
by the re-alignment of minerals when they are subjected to high pressure and
temperature. Individual minerals align themselves perpendicular to the stress field such
that their long axes are in the direction of these planes (which may look like the cleavage
planes of minerals). Usually, a series of foliation planes can be seen parallel to each
other in the rock. Well-developed foliation is characteristic of most metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks often break easily along foliation planes.

Granular - This describes a metamorphic rock consisting of interlocking equant crystals

(granules), almost entirely of one mineral. A granular texture is developed if a rock's
chemical composition is close to that of a particular mineral. This mineral will
crystallise if the rock is subjected to high pressure and temperature. A granular texture
is characteristic of some metamorphic rocks.

3.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

a) Metamorphic rock from reference set
b) Metamorphic classification chart

25
Retrieved from http://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/rocks/metamorphic.html (Achieved by
6th March 2014)
4.0 PROCEDURE
The samples of 5 different metamorphic rocks were observed by doing few physical tests
and the results were tabulated for every observations. Below are the physical tests
completed with the aid of metamorphic classification chart and guidance.
4.1 Rock name
4.2 Structure
4.3 Grain
4.4 Mineral composition
4.5 Parent rock
4.6 Metamorphism type
4.7 Sketching of rocks

5.0 RESULTS
As attached in Table 1.4.1

6.0 DISCUSSION

1. What is foliation?
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The parallel alignment of minerals in a metamorphic rock is called foliation. Foliation
is any planar set of minerals, or banding of mineral concentrations, especially the planar
structure that results from flattening of the mineral grains, like micas. Each layer may
be as thin as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in thickness. It is caused by shearing
forces or differential pressure. The layers form parallel to the direction of the shear, or
perpendicular to the direction of higher pressure.

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2. Distinguish between slaty cleavage, phyllitic, schistosity and gneissic texture.
 Slate Texture
This is a foliation in which microscopic platy minerals have a parallel alignment.
This parallel alignment causes the rock to tend to break along parallel planes
forming sheet-like pieces and called rock cleavage. Slaty metamorphic rocks

26
Retrieved from http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/MetaRx/Metatexture.html (Achieved by 6th March
2014)
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Retrieved from http://faculty.chemeketa.edu/afrank1/rocks/metamorphic/mtexture.htm (Achieved by 6th
March 2014)
 are also finely crystalline (Fine texture, rocks characteristically split into thin
slabs) and tend to appear dull. Slate can be converted to phyllite which is coarser
grained than shale if the metamorphism grade is increased.

 Phyllitic Texture
This texture is formed by the parallel arrangement of platy minerals, usually
micas that are barely macroscopic (visible to the naked eye). The parallelism is
often silky, or crenulated. This is similar to slaty foliation except that the crystals
are slightly larger while still fine. Rocks with a phyllitic foliation tend to be
shiny and have good, sometimes wrinkles or folded rock cleavage. These rocks
are formed under slightly higher pressures and temperatures than slaty
metamorphic rocks and are of low to medium grade.

 Schistose Texture
This is a foliated texture in which the rock is dominated by visibly platy
minerals such as micas or chlorite which are in parallel to sub-parallel
orientation. Other common minerals present are quartz and amphiholes.
Schistose metamorphic rocks often have a poor rock cleavage. At intermediate
and high grades of metamorphism the chlorite breaks down and recrystallizes
 to form quartz, feldspar, and mica. The grain sizes are large enough and
individual mineral grains can be seen with the unaided eye. But the average
grain size of the minerals is generally smaller than in gneiss. The foliation
consists of alternate bands of light and dark coloured minerals. Light coloured
minerals are mainly composed of quartz and feldspar whereas the dark layers
contain biotite, hornblende, augite and other minerals.

 Gneissic Texture
This is a coarsely foliated texture in which there are alternating layers which are
dominated by one or two minerals. At the highest grades of metamorphism,
minerals begin to segregate into separate bands. These bands range in thickness
from 1mm to several centimetres. Light-coloured bands commonly contain
quartz and feldspar and the dark bands are commonly composed of hornblende
and hiotite. For example gneissic is a rock with gneissic texture. Rocks with a
gneissic texture are produced by exposure to high pressures and temperatures
and are considered high grade metamorphic rocks.
7.0 CONCLUSION (Based on Table 1.4.1)

Metamorphic rocks are especially significant because they constitute a large part of the
continental crust and indicate that the continentals have been mobile and dynamic throughout
most of the geologic time. Unaltered and unfractured non foliated metamorphic rocks are
considered strong materials and poses similar engineering properties to intrusive igneous rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when an existing rock changes shape or size due to intense heat
and/or pressure. The metamorphism has often resulted in hard minerals and high intact rock
strength. The most two common metamorphic rocks used in building are marble and slate. The
metamorphic rock marble is used in high-end construction projects, where it is made into
kitchen counter tops and luxury flooring tiles. The formation of marble is rare and so it is seen
as an expensive, luxury item in construction. Besides of marble, slate is more commonly used.
It is made into tiles for roofs.