INDEX

1. R/C Helicopter( abstract)

2. Introduction
3. Primary helicopter control
4. Circuit Diagram
5. Component’s Description
6. P.C.B. Manufacturing Process
7. BOARD TYPES
8. Chronology
9. PCB Layout
10. Theory
11. control
12. Coaxial RC helicopters
13. Military Services
14. Air Ambulance
15. Reference
 2

R/C Helicopter
ABSTRACT
Remote sensing is just what the expression implies: looking at an object
from the distance. Normally this is subconsciously associated with air- or
spacecraft in the classical sense. Unmanned aerial vehicles also known as
drones used for reconnaissance purposes were limited to the military due to
financial and logistical reasons. Recent developments however have given
rise to sophisticated remote controlled aerial vehicles known as quad-copters
that are able to carry sensors which have grown smaller and cheaper over the
years. Drones that used to be considered a privilege of the military have
gone mainstream and are now accessible to everybody with an abundance of
applications waiting to be implemented.” The earth will don an electronic
skin” The world with its varied systems is complex. The world has
accumulations of inhabitants and valuable infrastructure in places at risk.
The world is continuously changing. Therefore not only decision makers
need reliable information fast, which, as it happens, almost always has a
spatial context. In 1999 there was an article in Business Week titled “The
earth will don an electronic skin”1 whose author postulated that within 10
years there would be trillions of sensors equipped with a microprocessor and
radio, monitoring everything from the environment, our cities and highways
to the functions of our body and transmitting this information to the internet
in real-time. Remote sensing plays a vital role in this information gathering
as do terrestrial sensors that can corroborate the data ascertained by the
remote sensors.

TECHNICAL DATA & FEATURES

Range: approximately 500 meters due to the capacity of the remote control
and video downlink. Weight (empty): 720 g Payload: Up to 600 g. The
drone will carry 900 g which however reduces the flight time to 7min. Flight
duration: 10-30 minutes, depending on the payload Dimensions: Over-all
(propeller tips): 82 cm, motor-axis to motor-axis 52 cm Ground clearance:
15 cm Waypoint navigation: It is possible to uploada file with waypoints
which the drone will autonomously fly to. Action to be performed at each
waypoint, i.e. take a picture in a particular direction can be programmed.
GPS-come-home: The drone will autonomously go back to its initial starting
position provided this position was memorized at take-off. GPS-hold: The
drone will hold its position according to its GPS-fix without the pilot having
to intervene. This makes operating the drone very easy since one can
concentrate on other tasks too.
 3
SensorGIS – real-time geodata Having almost arrived at the designated point
in time of the 1999 article, at least from the authors’ perspective the part of
the environmental monitoring seems to have come true. There are wireless
sensor networks (WSN) in operation that are made up of numerous so-called
sensor nodes. These consist of a microprocessor, memory, radio, energy
supply and sensors. Switched on they will autonomously connect to their
neighbouring sensor-nodes and transmit data in a multi hop fashion to the
so-called gateway from where the data is then sent via the mobile radio
network to databases residing on the internet. Enhanced with a coordinate
the mere values are turned into geo-data which can be displayed on a map
and which are accessible to geographical information system (GIS) analysis.
The combination of WSN and standardized, webbased GIS (WebGIS) is
called SensorGIS2 which delivers geo-data in real-time. These SensorGIS-
nodes however are earth-bound and WSN to date typically
cover a few square kilometers at the most.Upgrading the information from
these
networks in real-time with photos or other.
sensory data from aeroplanes, helicopters or even satellites would be a costly
venture for
a comparatively small area if it were not forthe quad-copters that by now are
availableat affordable prices.Range: approximately 500 meters due to the
capacity of the remote control and video downlink. Weight (empty): 720 g
Payload: Up to 600 g. The drone will carry 900 g which however reduces the
flight time to 7min. Flight duration: 10-30 minutes, depending on the
payload Dimensions: Over-all (propeller tips): 82 cm, motor-axis to motor-
axis 52 cm Ground clearance: 15 cm Waypoint navigation: It is possible to
upload a file with waypoints which the drone will autonomously fly to.
Action to be performed at each waypoint, i.e. take a picture in a particular
direction can be programmed. GPS-come-home: The drone will
autonomously go back to its initial starting position provided this position
was memorized at take-off. GPS-hold: The drone will hold its position
according to its GPS-fix without the pilot having to intervene. This makes
operating the drone very easy since one can concentrate on other tasks too.
4
 5

Introduction

There are a number of quad-copter projects3 powered by enthusiasts who

enjoy tinkering with the technology and making it fly. There are in addition
some companies4 providing this technology for ‘serious’ applications. One
commercial product, which this article is based on, is called HighKopter
which sticks out because the flight software is open source which enables
the user to add his own features or improve on the ones that are already
there.Quad-copters look like props from a science-fiction film but are in fact
versatile little flight machines. On each end of two crossed rods are four
brushless propellers which provide the lift and steering capabilities.Opposite
propellers rotate in the same direction with one pair rotating clock- and the
other pair rotating anti-clockwise to get rid of the torque. Typical quad-
copters are powered by lithium-ion batteries,
are very quiet and eco-friendly. They can be flown indoors as well as
outdoors. With a lift-off weight of less than 5000 grams the drones are
considered toys which can be operated without a license in Germany.
German aviation law allows the operation to a maximum altitude of 150
meters although technically the drones can fly much higher. This however
requires a regular flight permission from the nearest flight controller. The
drone comes equipped with flight software, a GPS, barometric altitude
control, a tilt-compensated compass and a videodownlink so that the person
steering the drone actually sees what the drone ‘sees’ by way of its camera.
The equipment is shipped in ruggedized cases so that it is ready for outdoor
use. Aerial photos / Orthophotos As to quad-copter applications, one of the
most obvious uses is to attach a video- or still-camera to the drone and take
pictures. I will not list the possible areas of application, since there are
plainly too many. It is easy to see that an altered perspective can have great
 6
benefitssince a lot of information can be gleaned from these types of
pictures. One can take this process one step further by creating orthophotos
from these aerial images. Using a digital terrain model one can rectify the
distortions brought about by the perspective of the camera and the
topography being photographed. The result is an image that at the same time
has the qualities of a picture and that of a map: one can directly measure
angles, distances and areas while looking at the land surface as it is
without any map symbols. Digital terrain models The Department of
Photogrammetry, University of Bonn, has used images from a video
sequence filmed during the flight of the quad- copter to extract a digital
terrain model (DTM). The results are impressive: With a horizontal
resolution of 2-3 cm and a vertical resolution of approximately 7 cm the data
is good for a variety of applications: • Volume calculations for landfills
orstripmining renaturations• Planning noise-barriers in the context of the EU
directive on environmental noise • Monitoring glaciers, volcanoes, land-
slides Figure 6 shows the reconstructed surface from a video acquired by a
quad-copter flying at an altitude of 30 meters using a 1 megapixel camera in
the Siebengebirge near Bonn. A building in the upper left and a vineyard in
the lower right corner of the image can be discerned. The achievable
accuracy depends to a large extent on altitude, resolution and focal width of
the camera. Other sensors Any number of other sensors can be made tofly
provided they are not too heavy. Gas sensors that are able to detect air-
quality could provide valuable information for rescue organizations. Infrared
sensors that provide thermal images can be used to detect heat distributions
on built infrastructure or the environment. Sensors detecting humidity and
pressure can deliver meteorological information that would otherwise be
difficult to obtain. Here too, the list would be endless and only limited by the
imagination. Transport Besides actually fitting a sensor to a drone one can
use it for transport purposes albeit with a limited capacity. Moving sensors
to or from otherwise inaccessible locations is possible through the use of an
external cargo hook. The same holds true for retrieving samples from water
bodies, swamps and marshes. This too is just a small section of possible
scenarios.Geodata & Interoperability Since the drone is equipped with a
GPS all data that is transmitted to the ground can potentially be used as
geodata. An aerial photograph for example can be georeferenced and
incorporated into a WebGIS. This holds great potential for ‘patching’
existing data since data representing large areas is usually updated with a
cycle spanning several years.Other sensory data like air-quality
corresponding to a point is very easily displayed on a map. Provided the
WebGIS conforms to standards of the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC)
data can be made available to others on-the-fly through the use of
established protocols. Future prospects Basically a drone is a flying sensor
platform that allows the acquisition of data in a three dimensional space and
 7
grants access to areas that are otherwise difficult to reach The technology to
transmit this data in real-timeto appropriate information systems is available.
Future work will concentrate on fusing drone technology with
SensorGISapplications to gain that extra advantage forreal-time geodata
acquisition.

A look at primary RC helicopter controls

Learning the fundamentals of rc helicopter controls isn't as scary as it might
seem, and understanding which function does what on a radio control
helicopter will make life a lot easier for you in your early days as a model
heli pilot.
The primary method of making areal helicopter change direction while
flying is through pitch control of the main rotor blades, either
independently or collectively.
However, in the rc world in recent years there has been a huge influx of
electric rc helicopters that do not have complete independent pitch control -
these are known asFixed Pitch (FP) rc helicopters.
Emulating the real helicopters are the Collective Pitch (CP) models which,
although harder to learn on, are more agile and smoother to fly.

FP or CP, what's the real difference?

To control an rc helicopter, the pitch angle of the rotor blades must be
changed in relation to the air flowing over them; this change varies the
amount of lift generated by the blades (pitch angle is referred to as 'Angle of
Attack' when the blade is moving).
 8

But in truth, the terms 'FP' and 'CP' are a little misleading because both
terms only refer to the collective (ie altitude) control of the helicopter.
The cyclic(directional) control method is basically the same for FP and CP
helicopters.
This cyclic control changes the pitch angle of the whole rotor disc, which is
the imaginary circle in the air drawn by the tips of the spinning blades, and
both FP and CP rc helicopters use a flybar to influence the angle of the rotor
disc.
This flybar is a short rod perpendicular to the main rotor blades. At each end
of the flybar is an airfoil paddle, and the flybar moves in direct response to
the tilting of the swash plate, controlled by the servos - one for sideways
movement and the other for fore/aft movement.
 9

Above, the rotor head assembly of a Fixed Pitch rc helicopter

As the flybar rotates in response to the tilting of the swash plate, so the
Angle of Attack of the paddles changes. This effects the amount of lift being
generated by them and so they rise and fall accordingly. The paddles always
work against each other ie if one rises then the other falls, and vice versa.
This in turn exaggerates the movement of the flybar, and the end result is
that the whole rotor disc tilts in response to the changes in lift being
experienced at the paddles. The helicopter becomes 'unbalanced' and so
leans to the side that is experiencing lesser lift, thus changing direction.
So, the primary difference between FP and CP helicopters is in
the collectivecontrol, and this is influenced by the lift generated by the main
blades acting together ie 'collectively'.
In an FP model the main blades are fixed to the main rotor head and cannot
be pivoted about their longitudinal axis. Altitude has to be controlled by
thespeed of the blades (ie motor speed) - faster spinning blades generate
more lift and vice versa.
But in a CP model the main blades can be pivoted about their longitudinal
axis in relation to the main rotor head, thus changing the pitch angle of them
and the associated amounts of lift. The motor can therefore be kept at a more
 10
constant speed, and altitude is controlled by changing the pitch angle of the
blades.

Above left, an FP rotor head compared to the more complex CP one, right

Collective pitch is essential for any form of aerobatic flying, especially

inverted flight where negative blade pitch is a necessity.

RC helicopter control channels

For an rc helicopter to have proper control there needs to be at least 4
channels - left/right cyclic, fore/aft cyclic, left/right yaw and collective pitch
and/or throttle.
If these sound confusing, compare them to the 4 primary airplane controls
and you'll see the relationship:
Helicopter control Airplane control Action
left/right cyclic Left/right aileron roll
fore/aft cyclic elevator/thrust* airspeed
left/right yaw Left/right rudder yaw
collective
elevator/thrust* climb/dive
pitch/throttle
* airplane elevator and thrust are shown together because
both influence airspeed and climb/descent
Taking a basic 4 channel FP rc helicopter as an example, there will be 2
servos controlling the cyclic pitch - one for left/right and the other for
fore/aft. The 3rd channel will be main motor speed control and the 4th
channel will be tail rotor motor speed (left/right yaw).
This left/right yaw control is used in conjunction with, or against, the
naturaltorque force that is generated by the spinning main rotors; as a
natural reaction to the spinning blades, the fuselage of the helicopter will
always want to spin rapidly in the opposite direction.
 11
The tail rotor generates sideways thrust in the same way as a normal airplane
propeller does. If the amount of thrust equals the level of torque, then the
helicopter fuselage won't spin round. If the thrust exceeds the torque, the
fuselage will yaw one way and if the torque exceeds the thrust then the
fuselage will naturally yaw the other way.

The Gyro

The use of yaw control in rc helicopters is made

easier by a gyro which is an electronic device that is connected between the
receiver and the tail rotor control.
The gyro senses any rotational movement of the helicopter that isn't a result
of a signal to the receiver, and it makes fine adjustments to the tail rotor
speed or blade pitch to suit the torque force at that precise moment, hence
dampening out any unwanted yaw. Gyros make these calculations and
corrections at lightning speed, so much so that the pilot doesn't notice
anything other than a stable helicopter!
The gyro sensitivity (gain) can be adjusted by the pilot, and normal stick
movements at the transmitter send the receiver rudder signal through the
gyro so that the helicopter can be turned onto the desired heading by the
pilot.
Heading Hold Gyros go one step further than a standard gyro by
performing more complex calculations to keep the helicopter pointing in the
direction that the pilot intended. A more definite input is required from the
pilot to overcome an HHG, and the new change will be memorized by the
gyro which will maintain this heading to a fairly accurate degree, until a
further change is made.
 12

RC helicopter mixer boards/RXs

Most rc helicopters use micro-processor mixer boards to save space and
weight. The electronic circuit board based unit is a device that typically
combines the receiver, gyro and motor electronic speed control (ESC for
electric helicopters). A further function can be CCPM, or Cyclic/Collective
Pitch Mixing, but this is usually just found on the more advanced helis.

The mixer board unit is about the same size and appearance as a standard rc
receiver and weighs considerably less than using separate devices.

Circuit Diagram

TRANSMITTER

RECIEVER
 13

Component’s Description
RESISTORS: -

A Resistor is a heat-dissipating element and in the electronic circuits it

is mostly used for either controlling the current in the circuit or developing a
voltage drop across it, which could be utilized for many applications. There
are various types of resistors, which can be classified according to a number
of factors depending upon:
(I) Material used for fabrication
(II) Wattage and physical size
(III) Intended application
(IV) Ambient temperature rating
(V) Cost
Basically the resistor can be split in to the following four parts from
the construction viewpoint.
(1) Base
(2) Resistance element
(3) Terminals
(4) Protective means.
The following characteristics are inherent in all resistors and may be
controlled by design considerations and choice of material i.e. Temperature
co–efficient of resistance, Voltage co–efficient of resistance, high frequency
characteristics, power rating, tolerance & voltage rating of resistors.
Resistors may be classified as
(1) Fixed
(2) Semi variable
(3) Variable resistor.
In our project carbon resistors are being used.
 14

CAPACITORS

The fundamental relation for the capacitance between two flat plates
separated by a dielectric material is given by:-

C=0.08854KA/D
Where: -

C= capacitance in pf.
K= dielectric constant
A=Area per plate in square cm.
D=Distance between two plates in cm

Design of capacitor depends on the proper dielectric material with

particular type of application. The dielectric material used for capacitors
may be grouped in various classes like Mica, Glass, air, ceramic, paper,
Aluminum, electrolyte etc. The value of capacitance never remains constant.
It changes with temperature, frequency and aging. The capacitance value
marked on the capacitor strictly applies only at specified temperature and at
low frequencies.

LED (Light Emitting Diodes)

As its name implies it is a diode, which emits light when forward
biased. Charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from the N-
side cross the junction and recombine with the holes on the P side. Electrons
 15
are in the higher conduction band on the N side whereas holes are in the
lower valence band on the P side. During recombination, some of the energy
is given up in the form of heat and light. In the case of semiconductor
materials like Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Gallium phoshide (Gap) and
Gallium arsenide phoshide (GaAsP) a greater percentage of energy is
released during recombination and is given out in the form of light. LED
emits no light when junction is reverse biased.

TRANSISTOR:-
A transistor consists of two junctions formed by sandwiching either p-
type or n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types. Accordingly,
there are two types of transistors namely: -
(1) n-p-n transistor (2) p-n-p transistor

(NPN) (PNP)
An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by
a thin section of p type. However a p-n-p transistor is formed by two p
sections separated by a thin section of n-type.

In each type of transistor the following points may be noted.

1. There are two p-n junctions, therefore a transistor may be regarded as

combination of two diodes connected back to back.
2. There are three terminals taken from each type of semiconductor.
3. The middle section is a very thin layer, which is the most important
factor in the functioning of a transistor.
 16
4. Transistor can be used as an Amplifier also.
A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an
amplifier. The weak signal is applied between emitter base junction and
output is taken across the load Rc connected in the collector circuit (in
common emitter configuration). In order to achieve faithful amplification,
the input circuit should always remain forward biased. To do so, a dc voltage
is applied in the input in addition to the signal. This dc Voltage is known as
biasing voltage and its magnitude and polarity should be such that it always
keeps the input circuit forward biased regardless of the polarity to the signal
to be amplified.
As the input circuit has low resistance a small change in signal voltage
causes an appreciable change in emitter current. This causes change in
collector current (by a factor called current gain of transistor) due to
transistor action. The collector current flowing through a high load
resistance Rc produces a large voltage across it. Thus a weak signal applied
to the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the collector circuit. This
is how a transistor acts as an amplifier.
Transistor may be used in different configuration like CB (common base) &
CC (common collector) according to requirements of amplifier (impedance
matching, buffer amplifier etc.).

TRANSFORMER

Definition: -

The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one

alternating voltage (current) into another voltage (current). However, power
remains the some during the transformation. Transformers play a major role
in the transmission and distribution of ac power.
 17
Principle: -

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer

consists of laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary
and secondary coils are wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame,
linked by the common magnetic flux. When an alternating voltage is applied
across the primary coil, a current flows in the primary coil producing
magnetic flux in the transformer core. This flux induces voltage in
secondary coil.
Transformers are classified as: -
(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.
(1) Core type transformer
(2) Shell type transformer
(b) Transformation ratio:
(1) Step up transformer
(2) Step down transformer
(a) Core & shell types: Transformer is simplest electrical machine, which
consists of windings on the laminated magnetic core. There are two
possibilities of putting up the windings on the core

(1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer
(2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer.
(b) Step up and Step down: In these Voltage transformation takes place
according to whether the
Primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.
(1) Lower to higher-> Step up
(2) Higher to lower-> Step down
 18

DIODES
- +
It is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either
of Ge or Si crystal. The P and N type regions are referred to as anode and
cathode respectively. Commercially available diodes usually have some
means to indicate which lead is P and which lead is N.

RELAY

In this circuit a 12V magnetic relay is used. In magnetic relay, insulated

copper wire coil is used to magnetize and attract the plunger .The plunger is
normally connected to N/C terminal. A spring is connected to attract the
plunger upper side. When output is received by relay, the plunger is attracted
and the bulb glows.

P.C.B. Manufacturing Process

It is an important process in the fabrication of electronic equipment. The

design of PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards) depends on circuit requirements
like noise immunity, working frequency and voltage levels etc. High power
PCBs require a special design strategy.
The fabrication process to the printed circuit board will determine to a
large extent the price and reliability of the equipment. A common target
aimed is the fabrication of small series of highly reliable professional quality
 19
PCBs with low investment. The target becomes especially important for
customer tailored equipments in the area of industrial electronics.
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information of the board
before one can go on the artwork preparation. This means that a concept
which clearly defines all the details of the circuit and partly defines the final
equipment, is prerequisite before the actual lay out can start. The detailed
circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer but he must also be
familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the
equipment.

BOARD TYPES

The two most popular PCB types are:

1. Single Sided Boards

The single sided PCBs are mostly used in entertainment electronics

where manufacturing costs have to be kept at a minimum. However in
industrial electronics cost factors cannot be neglected and single sided
boards should be used wherever a particular circuit can be
accommodated on such boards.

2. Double Sided Boards

Double-sided PCBs can be made with or without plated through holes.

The production of boards with plated through holes is fairly
expensive. Therefore plated through hole boards are only chosen
where the circuit complexities and density of components does not
leave any other choice.
 20
Chronology

The following steps have been followed in carrying out the project.

1. Study the books on the relevant topic.

2. Understand the working of the circuit.

3. Prepare the circuit diagram.

4. Prepare the list of components along with their specification. Estimate

the cost and procure them after carrying out market survey.

5. Plan and prepare PCB for mounting all the components.

6. Fix the components on the PCB and solder them.

7. Test the circuit for the desired performance.

8. Trace and rectify faults if any.

9. Give good finish to the unit.

10. Prepare the project report.

 21
DESIGN SPECIFICATION

(I) STEPS TAKEN WHILE PREPARING CIRCUIT

(A) PCB DESIGNING
The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents
and signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to an insulating
base material sometimes called the substrate. This base is manufactured with
an integrally bounded layers of thin copper foil which has to be partly etched
or removed to arrive at a pre-designed pattern to suit the circuit connections
or other applications as required.
The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method
where a printed pattern is used as the mask over wanted areas of copper. The
PCB provides an ideal baseboard upon which to assemble and hold firmly
most of the small components.

From the constructor’s point of view, the main attraction of using

PCB is its role as the mechanical support for small components. There is less
need for complicated and time consuming metal work of chassis
contraception except perhaps in providing the final enclosure. Most straight
forward circuit designs can be easily converted in to printed wiring layer the
thought required to carry out the inversion cab footed high light an possible
error that would otherwise be missed in conventional point to point
wiring .The finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.

Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper
board. The board is then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12 hours. In this
process only the exposed copper portion is etched out by the solution.
 22
Now the petrol washes out the paint and the copper layout on PCB is
rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only the oxide
layers over the Cu are removed. Now the holes are drilled at the respective
places according to component layout as shown in figure.

(B) LAYOUT DESIGN:

When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size
(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout we
need all the required components in hand so that an accurate assessment of
space can be made. Other space considerations might also be included from
case to case of mounted components over the printed circuit board or to
access path of present components.

It might be necessary to turn some components around to a different

angular position so that terminals are closer to the connections of the
components. The scale can be checked by positioning the components on the
squared paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to avoid such
condition.

All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common

line routed around the perimeter of the layout. This will act as the ground
plane. If possible try to route the outer supply line to the ground plane. If
possible try to route the other supply lines around the opposite edge of the
layout through the center. The first set is tearing the circuit to eliminate the
crossover without altering the circuit detail in any way.
Plan the layout looking at the topside to this board. First this should be
translated inversely, later for the etching pattern large areas are
recommended to maintain good copper adhesion. It is important to bear in
 23
mind always that copper track width must be according to the recommended
minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for increased width
where termination holes are needed. From this aspect, it can become little
tricky to negotiate the route to connect small transistors.

There are basically two ways of copper interconnection patterns under

side the board. The first is the removal of only the amount of copper
necessary to isolate the junctions of the components to oneanother. The
second is to make the interconnection pattern looking more like
conventional point wiring by routing uniform width of copper from
component to component.

(C) ETCHING PROCESS:

Etching process requires the use of chemicals. acid resistant dishes

and running water supply. Ferric chloride is mostly used solution but other
etching materials such as ammonium per sulphate can be used. Nitric acid
can be used but in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes.

The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using
a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The pattern is laid firmly
on the copper using a very sharp knife to cut round the pattern carefully to
remove the paper corresponding to the required copper pattern areas. Then
apply the resistant solution, which can be a kind of ink solution for the
purpose of maintaining smooth clean outlines as far as possible. While the
board is drying, test all the components.
 24

Before going to next stage, check the whole pattern and cross check

with the circuit diagram. Check for any free metal on the copper. The
etching bath should be in a glass or enamel disc. If using crystal of ferric-
chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion
suggested. There should be 0.5 lt. of water for 125 gm of crystal.

To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the

solutions carefully by gently twisting or rocking the tray.

The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is
needed to remove just the right amount of copper. Inspite of there being a
resistive coating there is no protection against etching away through exposed
copper edges. This leads to over etching. Have running water ready so that
etched board can be removed properly and rinsed. This will halt etching
immediately.

Drilling is one of those operations that calls for great care. For most
purposes a 0.5mm drill is used. Drill all holes with this size first those that
need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the appropriate larger size.

(D) COMPONENT ASSEMBLY: -

From the greatest variety of electronic components available, which

runs into thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know
which is right for a given job.
 25
There could be damage such as hairline crack on PCB. If there are,
then they can be repaired by soldering a short link of bare copper wire over
the affected part.

The most popular method of holding all the items is to bring the wires
far apart after they have been inserted in the appropriate holes. This will
hold the component in position ready for soldering.
Some components will be considerably larger .So it is best to start mounting
the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before starting, be
certain that no further drilling is likely to be necessary because access may
be impossible later.

Next will probably be the resistor, small signal diodes or other similar
size components. Some capacitors are also very small but it would be best to
fit these afterwards. When fitting each group of components mark off each
one on the circuit as it is fitted so that if we have to leave the job we know
where to recommence.

Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items there are
good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last step. The main
point is that these components are very sensitive to heat and if subjected to
prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be internally
damaged.

All the components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so
that oxide layer is removed from the tips. Now they are mounted according
to the component layout.
 26

(E) SOLDERING: -
This is the operation of joining the components with PCB after this
operation the circuit will be ready to use to avoid any damage or fault during
this operation following care must be taken.

1.A longer duration contact between soldering iron bit & components lead
can exceed the temperature rating of device & cause partial or total damage
of the device. Hence before soldering we must carefully read the maximum
soldering temperature & soldering time for device.
2.The wattage of soldering iron should be selected as minimum as
permissible for that soldering place.
3.To protect the devices by leakage current of iron its bit should be earthed
properly.
4.We should select the soldering wire with proper ratio of Pb & Tn to
provide the suitable melting temperature.
5.Proper amount of good quality flux must be applied on the soldering point
to avoid dry soldering.
 27
PCB Layout
TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER

Radio-controlled helicopters (also RC helicopters) are model

aircraft which are distinct from RC airplanes because of the differences in
construction, aerodynamics, and flight training. Several basic designs of RC
helicopters exist, of which some (such as those with collective pitch,
meaning blades which rotate on their longitudinal axis to vary or reverse lift)
are more maneuverable than others. The more maneuverable designs are
often harder to fly, but benefit from greater aerobatic capabilities.
Flight controls allow pilots to control the collective and throttle (usually
linked together), the cyclic controls (pitch and roll), and the tail rotor (yaw).
Controlling these in unison enables the helicopter to perform most of the
same manoeuvres as full-sized helicopters, such as hovering and backwards
flight, and many that full-sized helicopters cannot.
The various helicopter controls are effected by means of small servo motors,
commonly known as servos. A piezoelectric gyroscope is typically used on
the tail rotor (yaw) control to counter wind- and torque-reaction-induced tail
movement. This "gyro" does not itself apply a mechanical force, but
electronically adjusts the control signal to the tail rotor servo.
The engines typically used to be methanol-powered two-stroke motors, but
electric brushless motors combined with a high-performance lithium
polymer battery are now more common, as improved performance and
decreasing prices bring these within reach of more people. Gasoline and jet
turbine engines are also used.
Types of R/C helicopters
Common power sources are Nitro (nitromethane-methanol internal
combustion), electric batteries, gas turbines, petrol and gasoline.
Mechanical layouts include CCPM in all power sources, fixed-pitch electric
rotors and coaxial electric rotors.
 28
Practical electric helicopters are a recent development but have rapidly
developed and become more common, overtaken nitro helicopters in
common use. Gas-turbine helicopters are also increasing in popularity,
although the high cost puts them out of reach of most people.

Nitro (Glow fuel)

Nitro or Glow fuel helicopters come in different sizes: 15, 30, 50, 60 and 90
size. These numbers originated from the size of engine used in the different
models (0.30 cu in, 0.50 cu in and so on). The bigger and more powerful the
engine, the larger the main rotor blade that it can turn and hence the bigger
the aircraft overall. Typical flight times for nitro helicopters is 7-14 minutes
depending on the engine size and tuning.
Electric

The 233 km/h fast electric helicopter TDR

Recent advancements in battery technology are making electric flying more
feasible in terms of flying time. Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries are able to
provide the high current required for high performance aerobatics while still
remaining very light. Typical flight times are 4-12 minutes depending on the
flying style and battery capacity.
In the past electric helicopters were used mainly indoors due to the small
size and lack of fumes. Larger electric helicopters suitable for outdoor flight
and advanced aerobatics have become a reality over the last few years and
have become very popular. Their quietness has made them very popular for
flying sites close to residential areas and in places such as Germany where
there are strict noise restrictions. Nitro helicopters have also been converted
to electric power by commercial and home made kits.
The smallest remote-controlled production model helicopter made (Guinness
World Records 2006) is the Picooz Extreme MX-1 sold at many toy stores
(although this is infrared controlled, not radio), electronics stores and
internet stores, costing about $30 (£28). The next smallest is thestandard
Picooz helicopter.
Recent advancements in battery technology are making electric flying more
feasible in terms of flying time. Lithium Polymer (LiPo) batteries are able to
provide the high current required for high performance aerobatics while still
 29
remaining very light. Typical flight times are 4-12 minutes depending on the
flying style and battery capacity.
In the past electric helicopters were used mainly indoors due to the small
size and lack of fumes. Larger electric helicopters suitable for outdoor flight
and advanced aerobatics have become a reality over the last few years and
have become very popular. Their quietness has made them very popular for
flying sites close to residential areas and in places such as Germany where
there are strict noise restrictions. Nitro helicopters have also been converted
to electric power by commercial and home made kits.
The smallest remote-controlled production model helicopter made (Guinness
World Records 2006) is the Picooz Extreme MX-1 sold at many toy stores
(although this is infrared controlled, not radio), electronics stores and
internet stores,. The next smallest is thestandard Picooz helicopter.
Several models are in contention for the title of the smallest non-production
remote-controlled helicopter, including the Pixelito family of micro
helicopters, the Proxflyer family, and the Micro flying robot.

RADIO GEAR
of the transmitted pulses 1 per servo position
Small fixed-pitch helicopters need a 4-channel radio
(throttle, elevator, aileron, rudder), although micro helicopters that utilize a
2-channel infrared control system also exist; while collective-pitch models
need a minimum of 5 channels with 6 being most common
(throttle, collective pitch, elevator, aileron, rudder and gyro gain). Because
of the normal interaction of the various control mechanisms, advanced
radios include adjustable mixing functions, such as throttle/collective and
throttle/rudder.
Well-known manufacturers of helicopter-specific radio controllers
include: JR, Spektrum, Futaba, Hitec, Sanwa (known as "Airtronics" in
North America), Multiplex (a division of Hitec)
 30

Modulation
Radios emit the FM signal in two types of modulation.
PPM is cheaper than PCM and is generally used in low-end helicopters. The
lack of a failsafe in PPM makes it more suited to small, less dangerous
models. Higher-end radios offer PCM and PPM modulation for better
compatibility with all radio receivers.
PCM
Pulse Code Modulation. A scheme in which the commanded position for
each servo is transmitted as a digitally encoded number. Manufacturers use
their own proprietary system to encode this number with various levels of
precision (i.e. variable number of bits per servo position). JR use Z-PCM (9
bits, 512 different values: 0...511) then S-PCM (10 bits, 1024 values:
0...1023). Futaba use PCM-1024 and G3 PCM (11 bits, 2048 values:
0...2047). With PCM not all positions are broadcasted at one time (each
frame) to save time. The odd numbered positions are sent as absolute in one
frame, with the even sent only as differences from their previous values. The
next frame the opposite is done. PCM includes a checksum at the end of the
frame to check the signal's validity. Hence, if there is interference and the
signal arrives distorted at the Receiver, utilizing the checksum it is able to
know if it is the original. In case it is not, a feature called Fail-Safe is
implemented to set servo positions to a predefined position, or to hold them
at the last valid position.
PPM
Pulse-position modulation. A scheme in which the commanded position for
each servo is transmitted .
 31

How helicopters fly and are controlled

Helicopters truly are amazing aircraft, and how helicopters fly is what makes
them such versatile machines, being perfectly suited to roles ranging from
military use to fire fighting and search and rescue.
Helicopters have been around for centuries - well, the principle anyway - but
it was Russian aircraft pioneer Igor Sikorsky who designed, built and in
1939 flew the first fully controllable single rotor / tail rotor helicopter - the
fundamental concept that would shape all future helicopters.

Why helicopters are so versatile

A normal airplane can fly forward, up, down, left and right. A helicopter can
do all this plus has the ability to fly backwards, rotate 360 degrees on the
spot and hover ie stay airborne with no directional movement at all.
Helicopters may be limited in their speed, but the incredible maneuverability
mentioned above is what makes them so useful in so many situations.

Above, the directions a helicopter can move in and the associated name of
control

Controlling a helicopter
Helicopters require a completely different method of control than airplanes
and are much harder to master. Flying a helicopter requires constant
concentration by the pilot, and a near-continuous flow of control corrections.
A conventional helicopter has its main rotor above the fuselage which
consists of 2 or more rotor blades extending out from a central rotor head,
or hub, assembly.
The primary component is the swash plate, located at the base of the rotor
head. This swash plate consists of one non-revolving disc and one revolving
disc mounted directly on top. The swash plate is connected to the cockpit
control sticks and can be made to tilt in any direction, according to the cyclic
stick movement made by the pilot, or moved up and down according to the
collective lever movement.
But first, to explain how the main rotor blades are moved by the pilot to
control the movement of the helicopter, we need to understand pitch...
 32
The basics of pitch
Each rotor blade has an airfoil profile similar to that of an airplane wing, and
as the blades rotate through the air they generate lift in exactly the same way
as an airplane wing does [read about that here]. The amount of lift generated
is determined by the pitch angle (and speed) of each rotor blade as it moves
through the air. Pitch angle is known as the Angle of Attack when the rotors
are in motion, as shown below:

This pitch angle of the blades is controlled in two ways

- collective andcyclic....

Collective control
The collective control is made by moving a lever that rises up from the
cockpit floor to the left of the pilot's seat, which in turn raises or lowers the
swash plate on the main rotor shaft, without tilting it.
This lever only moves up and down and corresponds directly to the desired
movement of the helicopter; lifting the lever will result in the helicopter
rising while lowering it will cause the helicopter to sink. At the end of the
collective lever is the throttle control, explained further down the page.
As the swash plate rises or falls, so it changes the pitch of all rotor blades at
the same time and to the same degree. Because all blades are changing pitch
together, or 'collectively', the change in lift remains constant throughout
every full rotation of the blades. Therefore, there is no tendency for the
helicopter to move in any direction other than straight up or down.
The illustrations below show the effect of raising the collective control on
the swash plate and rotor blades. The connecting rods run from the swash
plate to the leading edge of the rotor blades; as the plate rises or falls, so all
blades are tilted exactly the same way and amount.
Of course, real rotor head systems are far more complicated than this picture
shows, but the basics are the same.

Cyclic control
The cyclic control is made by moving the control stick that rises up from the
cockpit floor between the pilot's knees, and can be moved in all directions
other than up and down.
Like the collective control, these cyclic stick movements correspond to the
directional movement of the helicopter; moving the cyclic stick forward
makes the helicopter fly forwards while bringing the stick back slows the
 33
helicopter and even makes it fly backwards. Moving the stick to the left or
right makes the helicopter roll and turn in these directions.
The cyclic control works by tilting the swash plate and increasing the pitch
angle of a rotor blade at a given point in the rotation, while decreasing the
angle when the blade has spun through 180 degrees.
As the pitch angle changes, so the lift generated by each blade changes and
as a result the helicopter becomes 'unbalanced' and so tips towards
whichever side is experiencing the lesser amount of lift.
The illustrations below show the effect of cyclic control on the swash plate
and rotor blades. As the swash plate is tilted, the opposing rods move in
opposite directions. The position of the rods - and hence the pitch of the
individual blades - is different at any given point of rotation, thus generating
different amounts of lift around the rotor disc.

To understand cyclic control another way is to picture the rotor disc, which
is the imaginary circle above the helicopter created by the spinning blades,
and to imagine a plate sat flat on top of the cyclic stick. As the stick is
leaned over in any direction, so the angle of the plate changes very slightly.
This change of angle corresponds directly to what is happening to the rotor
disc at the same time ie the side of the plate that is higher represents the side
of the rotor disc generating more lift.

Above, the layout of helicopter controls in relation to the pilot's seat

Rotational (yaw) control

At the very rear of the helicopter's tail boom is thetail rotor - a vertically
mounted blade very similar to a conventional airplane propeller. This tail
rotor is used to control the yaw, or rotation, of the helicopter (iewhich way
the nose is pointing) and to explain this we first need to understand torque.
Torque is a natural force that causes rotational movement, and in a
helicopter it is caused by the spinning main rotor blades; when the blades are
spinning then the natural reaction to that is for the fuselage of the helicopter
to start spinning in theopposite direction to the rotors. If this torque isn't
controlled, the helicopter would just spin round hopelessly!
So to beat the reaction of the torque, the tail rotor is used and is connected
by rods and gears to the main rotor so that it turns whenever the main rotor
is spinning.
As the tail rotor spins it generates thrust in exactly the same way as an
airplane propeller does. This sideways thrust prevents the helicopter fuselage
from trying to spin against the main rotor, and the pitch angle of the tail
 34
rotor blades can be changed by the pilot to control the amount of thrust
produced.

Increasing the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades will increase the thrust,
which in turn will push the helicopter round in the same direction as the
main rotor blades. Decreasing the pitch angle decreases the amount of thrust
and so the natural torque takes over, letting the helicopter rotate in the
opposite direction to the main rotors.
The pilot controls the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades by two pedals at his
feet, in exactly the same way as the rudder movement is controlled in an
airplane.
NOTAR is an alternative method of yaw control on some helicopters -
instead of a tail rotor to generate thrust, compressed air is blown out of the
tail boom through moveable slots. These slots are controlled by the pilot's
pedals in the same way as a tail rotor is. To generate more thrust, the slots
are opened to let out more air, and vice versa.
NOTAR helicopters respond to yaw control in exactly the same way as tail
rotor models and have a big safety advantage - tail rotors can be very
hazardous while operating on or close to the ground and in flight a failing
tail rotor will almost always result in a crash.

Throttle control
The throttle control is a 'twist-grip' on the end of the collective lever and is
linked directly to the movement of the lever so that engine RPM is always
correct at any given collective setting. Because the cyclic and collective
pitch control determines the movement of the helicopter, the engine RPM
does not need to be adjusted like an airplane engine does. So during normal
flying, constant engine speed (RPM) is maintained and the pilot only needs
to 'fine tune' the throttle settings when necessary.
There is, however, a direct correlation between engine power and yaw
control in a helicopter - faster spinning main rotor blades generate more
torque, so greater pitch is needed in the tail rotor blades to generate more
thrust.
It's worth noting that each separate control of a helicopter is easy to
understand and operate; the difficulty comes in using all controls together,
where the co-ordination has to be perfect! Moving one control drastically
effects the other controls, and so they too have to be moved to compensate.
This continuous correction of all controls together is what makes flying a
helicopter so intense. Indeed, as a helicopter pilot once said... "You don't fly
a helicopter, you just stop it from crashing"!
 35

Electric coaxial rc helicopters, sometimes referred to as dual-

rotor or contra-rotating helicopters, have been responsible for bringing
thousands of new people into the hobby of radio control flying in the last
few years, and it's easy to see why.
Coaxial rc helicopters are veryeasy to fly, and their inherentstability in the
air makes them perfect first-time helicopters.
Of course, they're not limited to new pilots; very experienced rc helicopter
pilots are having a great deal of fun with coaxial helicopters too!
Shown below are a couple of the most popular coaxials currently available,
the Blade CX3, left, and its mega-successful predecessor the Blade CX 2,
right, both from E-flite, a well respected name in beginner electric rc
helicopters:

Coaxial rc helicopters like the Blade CX2 and CX3 come RTF, or 'Ready
To Fly', and can be flown with confidence pretty much straight from the
box. They are much much easier to master than a conventional helicopter
that has a single main rotor and tail rotor, and are equally capable of holding
a steady hover - steadier, in fact. Flying them indoors is a realistic option,
because their stability makes them easy to control within confined spaces.
See the Blade CX2 and CX3 in more detail here.

Coaxial RC helicopters
A conventional helicopter has a single main rotor consisting of two or more
blades. When the rotor turns, a natural force called torque is generated. This
torque makes the helicopter fuselage turn in the opposite direction to the
spinning blades in a similar way to when you twist something up, it naturally
wants to untwist itself.
To counteract this force, a tail rotor is used to generate sideways thrust to
push against the fuselage rotation. This prevents the helicopter from
spinning wildly out of control.
The amount of thrust generated by the tail rotor can be changed, either by
altering the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades or, on smaller models, by
changing the speed of the tail rotor motor. This change in thrust controls
theyaw of the helicopter ie which direction the nose is pointing, by either
 36
giving in to the natural reaction against the torque (lessening tail rotor thrust)
or by pushing the helicopter round in the same direction as the main blades
(increasing the thrust).
The illustration below shows these basic forces at work:

However, coaxial rc helicopters don't have a tail rotor, and instead of a

single rotor they have two main rotors, one mounted directly above the
other. These 2 main rotors spin in opposite directions to each other, as the
illustration below shows:

Because the blades are spinning against each other, each one cancels out any
torque generated by the other one. As a result, there is no tendency for the
fuselage of the helicopter to spin round one way or the other.
This is only the case, however, so long as both sets of blades are spinning at
exactly the same speed. As soon as one set changes speed relative to the
other one, then torque immediately appears.
This is exactly how yaw is controlled in coaxial rc helicopters, by making
one set of blades spin faster or slower then the other set, to purposely
generate torque which will cause the helicopter to change direction.
In most coaxial rc helicopters, the top blades are mounted on the main shaft
and the lower blades are mounted on a larger diameter hollow shaft that runs
up outside of the main one.
Twin side-by-side electric motors control one shaft each, and hence
independent rotor speed control is possible. The picture to the right shows a
typical coaxial setup for the main drive gear, with each motor cog driving
one of the main sprockets. This photo is of the Blade mCX.

Coaxial rc helicopters are, without doubt, the easiest and safest way of
getting into the hobby of flying radio control helicopters, and they're suitable
for anyone, regardless of helicopter-flying experience. They can easily be
flown indoors, but are equally suited to outdoor flying also.

Full size coaxial helicopters

You could be forgiven for thinking that rc helicopters with two sets of rotors
are completely fictitious designs, and unique to the radio control world, but
there are a number of such full size helicopters. The Russian helicopter
manufacturer Kamov have produced several dual rotor helicopters for both
civilian and military use, the KA32 shown below is one such example:
 37
There's also a safety factor with coaxial helicopters; no tail rotor means less
danger when the helicopter is on the ground. And in flight, a failing tail rotor
will almost definitely cause the helicopter to come down out of control. No
tail rotor eliminates this risk.

The transmitter...
The tx is very 'plasticy' but it does the job, and it's fairly typical of all
transmitters sold with 4-channel RTF electric helicopters these days. You
need to purchase 8 AA size batteries to operate it - you can use good
qualitydry cells or rechargeables. I use 700mAh NiMH batteries, and there
is a charging socket in the back of the tx that accepts a standard tx charging
plug. Incidentally, the tx battery holder is removable with a 2-pin JST
connector.
The battery level indicator is in the top/center of the tx face. 10 vertical
bars increase in height from left to right and when the tx is switched on they
illuminate over a range of red (left), orange (middle) to green (right).
Obviously you want the green to be there - if they stop at orange then your
batteries are in borderline condition, and if only the red is showing then you
need to replace/fully recharge them.
You'll need to screw the antenna into the top of the tx body - a fairly
straightforward task. No need to get the pliers onto it, just screw it in as tight
as you can get it by hand.

A good route from the rx is: down the left front leg, along the left skid, up
the left rear leg and out along tail boom. Tape it in position just before the
point where the tail rotor tip is at its most forward. From here, coil it round
the tail boom back towards the canopy, run it down the right rear leg and
wind the remaining amount of antenna round the right skid.
Use tape on the tail boom and tape or small bands of heat shrink tubing
(don't heat shrink them though!) to hold the antenna in place on the skids...

Whatever you do, don't cut the antenna! This drastically reduces the radio
range of the model, with disastrous consequences. Any antenna that is left
over, just wrap around the skid as in the picture above.
Helicopter Center of Gravity (CG)...
The next very important thing to do is to check the balance of the helicopter
itself - a badly balanced heli will be at best difficult to fly, and at worst
completely uncontrollable.
 38
The helicopter's center of gravity (CG) is at the main rotor shaft, and its
balance is influenced by the position of the battery pack - so you'll have to
do this step with the pack in position on the heli.
Rotate the flybar so that it is perpendicular to the fuselage and lift the
helicopter off the ground, with the flybar resting on the tips of your two
index fingers, one just each side of the rotor head assembly.
Also at this point, make sure that you've got the rubber band on the cage to
prevent the two halves sliding apart.
If, at this point, the battery is as far forward as it will go and the helicopter
still hangs with its tail down, add some weight to the nose of the helicopter
canopy - small coins, fishing shots or modeling clay make good ballast.
The disadvantage with adding nose-weight is that it adds to the whole
weight of the helicopter, which reduces flight times because more power is
needed. But, a marginally shorter safe flight is better than an out-of-control
one in my opinion!
Fit heat sinks...
Finally, as an option, you might want to consider fitting heat sinks to both
motors.
On this kind of rc helicopter, the tail motors especially are prone to burning
out and heat sinks are a good way to help prolong the motor life. They clip
around the motor body and carry heat away from the motor itself - they're
not available for the Dragonfly 4 specifically but the eSky
EK10223 &EK10224 fit the Dragonfly motors, with a tiny amount of
bending.

Fitting training skids...

Electric rc helicopter training skids are a great idea and are definitely worth
the few dollars that they cost.
They may not look too flattering, but they do prevent possible damage which
can result from the helicopter tipping over in a bad landing.

The standard kit includes 4 skids, each one a carbon fiber leg with a plastic
ball at the end. There is also a central hub and 4 attachments that clip over
the main skids of the helicopter, at the joint of the skid and leg.
 39

Being the PNP version there was a notable absence of Tx, charger and motor
battery pack - the only items to accompany the helicopter in the box were
the instruction manual and a small plastic bag of tools and accessories (allen
keys, screwdriver, zip ties...).
Initial inspection of my E-flite Blade 400 revealed a definite 'quality' feel to
it and it looked to be a very well thought out heli indeed. The positioning of
all the components was good, and access to all the crucial parts looked
relatively unimpeded. The helicopter felt solid too, certainly not a cheap n'
cheerful model that was going to fall to pieces after three flights!
Of course, being 3D capable the Blade 400 has been designed and
manufactured accordingly, hence its solid feel. It's a nice size too, a typical
'class 400' electric rc CP helicopter.

Above, a very well thought out and not overly complicated heli, I think!

Now, the fact that the E-flite Blade 400 is 3D capable doesn't mean that
mine is ever likely to see any 3D action! The fact that this is my very first
Collective Pitch rc helicopter means that mastering straightforward flight is
the number one priority, and the fact that I can do a few basic 3D maneuvers
on the simdoesn't mean that I'll ever have the nerves to try them for real!
Anyway, back to the setting up... I had chosen to go with the same receiver
for my PNP version heli that the RTF one is sold with, the Spektrum
AR6100e. Following the manual's guidelines, installation of the Rx was very
straightforward - some double-sided sticky tape and a small zip tie did the
job of holding the receiver comfortable in place on the base of the main
frame, behind the ESC.
The other crucial component not supplied with a PNP aircraft is of course a
motor battery pack, but fortunately I already had a suitable pack (2100mAH
11.1V 3S) ready for action. Although marginally larger and heavier than
therecommended E-flite pack, it fits perfectly well in place, held securely by
the velcro strip and strap.

Above, my 'FlyPo' pack and the receiver (arrowed yellow) in place

Time to spool up!

As I said earlier, I'm not a complete newbie to rc helicopters but this E-flite
Blade 400 was an entirely different beastie to anything I'd flown before.
Following the invaluable advice given in John Salt's excellent eBook "Setup
& Tips for 400 Size RC Helicopters", I invested in a set of rc helicopter
 40
training gear, reduced the Pitch and throttle Curve settings from the
factory-set default 3D values (essential if you want to keep your heli in one
piece!) and prepared my nerves for action...
Doing exactly what you shouldn't do, I placed my heli in a small, enclosed
space (our laundry area!) knowing full well that the downwash created by
the spinning main blades wouldn't get cleared away because of the four
walls closely surrounding the helicopter, but instead would cause havoc with
the heli's stability. But I justified this potentially dangerous decision simply
because I knew that I could hover an FP helicopter without problem, and
could hover a CP one on the sim.
On spooling up the Blade 400, my initial surprise was at the noise of those
325mm blades. Wow, impressive! Of course, the sound was amplified
because of the four walls but it sounded great, more like a real helicopter
than a model one!
The next thing I had to get used to was that I could have the blades spinning
at speed without the heli lifting, in total contrast to a Fixed Pitch helicopter
that starts to lift as soon as the main blades pick up any speed.
So, with the 400 sat there, blades spinning and my heart pounding, I slowly
increased the throttle stick to start introducing some positive pitch and the
helicopter gracefully lifted off the ground. A small amount of right cyclic
was needed to counteract the left drift caused by the tail rotor, but I had
anticipated this being the case so was fully prepared.

Military service

Weaponised HAL Dhruv helicopter.

Deliveries of the Dhruv commenced in 2002, a full ten years after the
prototype's first flight, and nearly twenty years after the program was
initiated. The Indian Coast Guard became the first service to bring Dhruv
helicopters into service. This was followed by the Indian Army, Indian
Navy, Indian Air Force and the Border Security Force. Seventy five Dhruvs
were delivered to the Indian armed forces by 2007 and the plan is to produce
forty helicopters yearly. One of only three helicopter display teams in the
world, the Sarang aerobatic display team of the Indian Air Force performs
with four Dhruv helicopters.
The Dhruv is capable of flying at high altitudes, a crucial requirement for the
Army, which requires helicopters for operations in Siachen
 41
Glacier and Kashmir. In September 2007, the Dhruv was cleared for high-
altitude flying in the Siachen Sector after six-month long trials.[6][7]. In
October 2007, a Dhruv flew to an altitude of 27,500 feet (8,400 m) ASL in
Siachen. This was the highest that the Dhruv had flown, and was higher than
the 25,000 feet (7,600 m) record set by an IAF Cheetah helicopter in 2005.
A further order for 166 helicopters were placed with HAL since the
helicopter is working well in higher altitude areas with the Indian
Army TheArmed Forces may order 12 ambulances versions for use by the
Armed Forces Medical Services for MEDEVAC operations . HAL Dhruv
ambulances will have all the emergency medical equipment for the treatment
of injured soldiers. In June 2008, the Hindustan Times reported that the
Indian Navy had decided against placing further orders for the Dhruv Naval
variant, stating it has failed to meet basic operational requirements However
these rumours were put to rest by the recent comments of the defence
minister who stated in the parliament that the navy had not rejected the
dhruv as eight Dhruv helicopters are already operating in the Utility role.
The Anti-submarine version will not be inducted since it did not suit the
requirements of the Indian Navy in anti-submarine role.
Civilian service

Civilian variant of HAL Dhruv.

HAL also produces a civilian variant of the Dhruv for VIP transport, rescue,
policing, offshore operations and air-ambulance role, among others.
In April 2008, HAL chairman Mr Baweja confirmed that the Home
Ministry had "placed an order for six ALHs"
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has placed an order
for 12 Advanced Light Helicopters (ALH) with Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited (HAL). Chief Test Pilot Wing Commander Upadhyay said the
helicopters will have a full set of medical equipment, including ventilators
and two stretchers.
Other buyers include the Geological Survey of India (GSI) (1
Helicopter), ONGC for its offshore operations, as well as state governments
for VIP transport and policing.
Foreign sales
 42

Dhruv helicopters of the Ecuadorian Air Force

A Dhruv helicopter of the Maldives National Defence Force

This file is a candidate for speedy deletion. It may be deleted after Tuesday,
4 May 2010.
The Dhruv has become the first major Indian weapons system to have
secured large foreign sales. HAL hopes to sell 120 Dhruvs over the next
eight years,and has been displaying the Dhruv at airshows,
including Farnborough and Paris in order to market the Dhruv.

With a unit price at least 15% less than its rivals, Dhruv has elicited interest
in many countries, mostly from Latin America, Africa, West Asia, South
East Asia and the Pacific Rim nations. Air forces from around 35 countries
have sent in their inquiries, , along with requests for demonstrations.
The first foreign orders for the Dhruv were placed by Nepal in early 2004,
for 2 Dhruvs. Another Dhruv, a civilian version, was leased to the Israeli
Defense Ministry in 2004
In June 2008, the government of Peru ordered two air ambulance Dhruvs for
use by the Peruvian health services. Peru has also shown interest in the
military version Dhruv.
HAL also secured an order from the Ecuadorian Air Force for seven Dhruvs.
HAL has gained this order amidst strong competition
from Elbit, Eurocopter and Kazan. HAL’s offer of $ 50.7 million for seven
helicopters was about 32% lower than the second lowest bid from Elbit. Five
helicopters will be delivered in February 2009, during the Aero India 2009.
The remaining two helicopters will be delivered within six months.
Ecuadorian Army and Ecuadorian Navy have also expressed unofficial
interest in purchasing the helicopter.
On August 10, 2008 HAL chairman confirmed it had finalized a deal
with Turkey to supply 3 Dhruvs for $20 million. Turkey is planning to buy
as many as 17 helicopters in medical assistance role.
India is also reportedly planning to transfer several Dhruvs to Burma. This
led to protests from Amnesty International, who pointed to the use of
 43
components sourced from European suppliers as a possible violation of
the EU Arms Embargo of Burma. In a letter to the President of the EU
Council of Ministers, Amnesty stated that it had evidence that India planned
to transfer two Dhruvs (with European components) to Burma. These reports
have been denied by the Indian Government .

Attack helicopter

An AH-64 Apache helicopter of the U.S Army

An attack helicopter is a military helicopter specifically designed and built
to carry weapons for attacking targets on the ground, such as enemy
infantry, armored vehicles and structures. Weapons used on attack
helicopters can include autocannons, machine-guns, rockets, and
guided missiles such as the Hellfire. Many attack helicopters are also
capable of carrying air to air missiles, though mostly for purposes of self-
defense. Today's attack helicopter has two main roles: first, to provide direct
and accurate close air support for ground troops, and the second, in the anti
tank role to destroy enemy armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also
used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.
 44

Air ambulance
Air ambulance

An air ambulance helicopter landing in a car park

An air ambulance is an aircraft used for emergency medical assistance in
situations where either a traditional ambulance cannot reach the scene easily
or quickly enough, or the patient needs to be transported over a distance or
terrain that makes air transportation the most practical transport. These and
related operatations are referred to asAeromedical. Air ambulance crews are
supplied with equipment that enables them to provide medical treatment to a
critically injured or ill patient. Common equipment for air ambulances
includes ventilators, medication, an ECG and monitoring
unit, CPRequipment, and stretchers.
 45
Air ambulances were useful in remote areas, but their usefulness in the
developed world was still uncertain. Following the end of the Second World
War, the first civilian air ambulance in North America was established by
the Saskatchewan government in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, which had
both remote communities and great distances to consider in the provision of
health care to its citizens. The Saskatchewan air ambulance service
continues to be active as of 2009.
Back in the United States, 1947 saw the creation of the Schaefer Air Service,
the country's first air ambulance service. This service was founded by J.
Walter Schaefer, of Schaefer Ambulance Service in Los Angeles,
California. Schaefer Air Service was also the first FAA-certified air
ambulance service in the United States. At the time of the creation of the
Schaefer and Saskatchewan services, paramedicine was still decades away,
and unless the patient was accompanied by a physician or nurse, they
operated primarily as medical transportation services. A great deal of the
early use of aircraft as ambulances in civilian life, particularly helicopters,
involved the improvised use of aircraft belonging to branches of the military.
Eventually this would become more organized. This mode of usage occurred
not only in the United States, but also in other countries, and persists to this
day.
Military Aircraft Supporting Civilian Air Ambulance

Swedish Search and Rescue Dutch Search and Rescue Israeli Military Helicopter as Air Ambulance
 46
Two programs were implemented in the U.S. to assess the impact of medical
helicopters on mortality and morbidity in the civilian arena. Project
CARESOM was established in Mississippi in 1969. Three helicopters were
purchased through a federal grant and located strategically in the north,
central, and southern areas of the state. Upon termination of the grant, the
program was considered a success and each of the three communities was
given the opportunity to continue the helicopter operation. Only the one
located in Hattiesburg did so, and it was therefore established as the first
civilian air medical program in the United States. The second program, the
Military Assistance to Safety and Traffic (MAST) system, was established
in Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio in 1969. This was an experiment by
the Department of Transportation to study the feasibility of using military
helicopters to augment existing civilian emergency medical services. These
programs were highly successful at establishing the need for such services.
The remaining challenge was in how such services could be operated most
cost-effectively. In many cases, as agencies, branches, and departments of
the civilian governments began to operate aircraft for other purposes, these
aircraft were frequently pressed into service to provide cost-effective air
support to the evolving Emergency Medical Services.
Government operated

Scottish Ambulance Service - The UK's only Government funded air

ambulance service.
In some cases, air ambulance services will be provided by government,
either directly or by means of a negotiated contract with a commercial
service provider, such as an aircraft charter company. Such services may
focus on the transfer of critical care patients, may support ground-based
EMS on scenes, or may perform a combination of these roles. In almost all
cases, the government will provide guidelines for use to both hospitals and
EMS systems, in order to keep operating costs under control, and may
specify operating procedures in some level of detail in order to limit
potential liability, but almost always takes a 'hands-off' approach to the
actual running of the system, relying instead on local managers with subject
matter (physicians and aviation executives) expertise. Ontario's ORNGE
program and the Polish LPR are examples of this type of operating system.
In North East Ohio, including Cleveland, the Cuyahoga County-owned
 47
MetroHealth Medical Center uses its Metro Life Flight to transport patients
to Metro's level I trauma and burn unit. There are 5 helicopters for North
East Ohio and, in addition, Metro Life Flight has one fixed-wing airplane.

Reference
REFERENCE FOR TECHNICAL INFORMATION FROM FOLLOWING BOOKS:

1. Micro Processor Architecture by Ramesh S. Gaonkar .

2. Communication System by Tob & Shilling.
3. Micro controller by K. J. Ayala.
4. Integrated Electronics by Millman & Hawlkiwas.
5. Let us C by Yashwan Kanitker.

REFERENCE FOR ARTICLES & TECHNICAL INFORMATION ON REMOTE

ACCESS TERMINAL FROM FOLLOWING SITES:

http://www.yahoo.com (yahoo search engine)

http://www.google.com (google search engine)
http://www.national.com/pdf/ AT89C51.PDF
http://www.national.com/pdf/ ADC0804.PDF
http://www.national.com/pdf/ CD4051.PDF
http://www.fairchildsemi.com/pf/1N/1N4007.html

http://www.fairchildsemi.com/pf/1N/1N4148.html

http://www.ascom.com
http://www.metricom-corp.com/fec.html
http://www.homeplug.org/powerline/index.html
http://www.schaffner.com/index.asp?
menu=comp&scopy=compnews
 48
http://www.dzu.inetg.bg/dzu/telecom.htm
http://www.electricomconsulting.co.uk/overview.html
http://www.plugtek.com/morearticles.shtml
http://www.howstuffworks.com/home-network15.htm
http://www.electricomconsulting.co.uk/overview.html
http://www.plugtek.com/morearticles.shtml
http://www.electronicprojects.com
http://home1.pacific.net.sg/~vunch/Tutorial.html
http://www.hometoys.com/htinews/aug00/articles/metricom/
mathieu.htm