Chapter 2: Bars and Beams

■ Static analysis: forces are constant in time or change very

slowly.

■ Linear analysis: deflections are small so that material

behavior is elastic. No failure, no gaps that open or close.

■ Truss elements (bars, rods): pinned(hinged) at connection

points; resist axial forces only. Hence it has axial dofs only.

■ Frame elements (beams): welded (or, connected with

multiple fasteners) at connection points; resist axial and
transverse forces and bending moments. Has axial,
transverse and rotational dofs.

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 Bar Element: Nodal displacements and nodal forces
■ Nodal displacements and nodal forces of a finite element are
related through the stiffness matrix of the element.

■ We’ll derive the stiffness matrix of a bar element now:

u1 (a) (b) u2
A, E A, E
F11 • • F21 F12 • • F22
1 x 2 1 x 2
L L
In Fig. (a), the left node is displaced while u2=0. In Fig. (b), it
is the opposite. The forces to maintain these displacements:

F11= -F21=(AE/L)u1 ; -F12= F22=(AE/L)u2

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 Bar Element: Stiffness Matrix Derivation
■ If both u1 and u2 are nonzero, the nodal forces are

F1=F11+F12=(AE/L)(u1-u2) ; F2=F21+F22=(AE/L)(u2-u1)

■ Writing these equations in matrix form:

AE  1 − 1  u1   F1 
   = 
L − 1 1  u2   F2 

where the coefficient matrix is called the element stiffness

matrix.
AE  1 − 1  u1   F1 
k=   and kd = r with d ≡  , r ≡  
L − 1 1  u2   F2 

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 General Stiffness Matrix Formulation

■ The above is a direct method to compute the element

stiffness matrix. This method is feasible for simple elements
only. There is also a formal procedure which uses the
following:
k = ∫ BT EBdV

where B: strain-displacement matrix for the element

E: stress-strain matrix
dV: volume element

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 Bar Element: Shape (interpolation) functions
■To derive B we interpolate axial displacement u of an
arbitrary point on the bar between its nodal values u1 and u2:

u=N1u1+N2u2
x
u2
u1
L

where N1 and N2 are called the shape functions:

N1=(L-x)/L N2=x/L
1 1
x x

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 Bar Element: Strain matrix B

■ Rewriting u:
L − x x   u1 
u=    = Nd
 L L  u2 
where N is the shape function matrix. Then,

du d (Nd)  dN   1 1
εx = = =  d = Bd where B = −
dx dx  dx   L L 

Now, since there is only one stress component in an axial bar,

σ=Eε and, therefore, the stress-strain matrix is just the elastic
modulus E.

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 Bar Element: Stiffness Matrix derivation

■Substituting B and E into the integral expression for the

element stifness matrix,

L
− 1 / L   1 1 AE  1 − 1
k= ∫

 E −
1/ L   L 
L
Adx =
L − 1 1 
0

which is the same matrix as before.

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 Bar Element: When is element exact?
NOTES:
■ The two-node bar element we’ve just derived can only

represent a constant state of strain within a bar.

■ If
◆ axial forces are applied along the length of an actual bar
(instead of just the nodes),
◆ the bar is not uniform (non-uniform A and/or E)

then the bar element represents the actual bar only

approximately. Then the actual bar can be divided into
multiple bar elements and the exact results are approached as
more and more elements are used to model the actual bar.

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Plane Beam Element: Nodal displacements and nodal forces

■ Resists transverse shear force and in-plane bending only

■The corresponding displacements are transverse displacement,

v=v(x), and rotation, θ=θ(x), respectively.

■The element, therefore, has two degrees of freedom (d.o.f) at

each node (i.e., at each end) : (v1, θ1) and (v2, θ2)
L x
M1 M2 θ1 θ2

F1 F2 v1 v2

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 Plane Beam Element: Stiffness Matrix Derivation
■ Similar to bar element, we can derive the entries of the
stiffness matrix by making all nodal d.o.f. zero except one (see
Fig. 2.3-1). This is the direct method.

■ There is again a formal procedure which this time uses

L

∫
k = BT EIBdx (EI: bending stiffness)
0
where B: curvature-displacement matrix for the element.

d 2v
That is, 2
= Bd
dx

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 Plane Beam Element: Transverse displacement function
■Transverse displacement v(x) is cubic in x for uniform prismatic
beams loaded only at its ends (elementary beam theory).

■ So, the following function is used for a beam element:

v=v(x)=β1+ β2x+ β3x2+ β4x3

which is approximate for a beam element loaded along its

length instead of just at its ends. (Use of a linear displacement
function would lead to slope discontinuity at a common node of
two beam elements.)

■ βi can be expressed in terms of nodal displacements vj and

θj using boundary conditions:
v=v1 and θ=θ1 at x=0 ; v=v2 and θ=θ2 at x=L where θ=dv/dx

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 Plane Beam Element: Shape functions
■ Transverse displacement can then be written in terms of shape
functions Ni and nodal dof:  v1 
θ 
 
v = [N1 N2 N3 N 4 ] 1  = Nd
 v2 
θ 2 
3x2 2 x3 3x2 x3
N1 = 1 − 2 + 3 N2 = x − + 2
L L L L
■See Fig. 2.3-1 for other shape functions
■Curvature of the beam element is

d 2v d 2 (Nd)  d 2N 
2
= =  2 d = Bd
dx dx 2  dx 

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 Plane Beam Element: Stiffness matrix
■ Curvature-displacement matrix is given by

 6 12 x 4 6x 6 12 x 2 6x 
B = − 2 + 3 − + 2 2
− 3 − + 2
 L L L L L L L L 

■ Substitution of B into the stiffness matrix expression yields

 6 3 6 3
 L2 − 2
L L L
 
 3
2 − 1
2EI  L  (SYMMETRIC)
k=
L  6 3
 − 
 L2 L
 
 2
  13
 Plane Beam Element: Diagonal entries of a stiffness matrix
■ The element stiffness matrix relates the end forces and
moments to the nodal d.o.f. in the following manner:

L x
 F1   v1 
M1 θ1
 M1  θ1 
M2 θ2  F  = k v 
 2  2
F1 F2 v1 v2 M 2  θ 2 

■ For example, M1 = k21v1 + k22θ1 + k23v2 + k24θ 2

where, for instance, k23 = − 6 EI L2

■ If all d.o.f but θ1 were zero, M1=k22 θ1. Hence, k22>0 !!!

■ Similarly, all diagonal entries of a stiffness matrix are positive

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 Plane Beam Element: Flexural stress
■Normal stress on a cross-section located at x caused by a
bending deformation is given by
My
σ = σ ( x) =
I
where y is the distance from the neutral axis of the cross-
section (σ is the value of the stress at y). M is the internal
resultant bending moment at that cross-section and is
related to the curvature:
d 2v
M = M ( x) = EI 2
= EIBd ; B = B( x)
dx

NOTE: From B, the internal moment distribution M is linear in x.

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 General Plane Beam Element
■ A finite element can resist a certain force or a moment if it has
the corresponding dof at its nodes. The two-dof bar element
cannot resist moment or transverse shear force while the plane
beam element we’ve just seen cannot resist axial force.

■General plane beam element (2D frame element) has three dof
at each node and can resist axial force, transverse shear and
bending in one plane.
L u1 u2
P1 M1 M2 P2 θ1 θ2

F1 F2 v1 v2

■The 6x6 stiffness matrix is a combination of those of the bar

element and the simple beam element (Eq. 2.3-9 in textbook)
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 3D Beam Element
■A 3D beam (space beam) element can resist forces and
moments in all directions. It thus has 6 dof at each end (3
displacements and 3 rotations)
■ The stiffness matrix is derived in reference to axes directed
along the beam element and along other suitable dimensions of
the element (local axes x,y,z). That is what we did for the bar and
plane elements also.
■ A given structure to be modelled would have beams in arbitrary
orientations. Stiffness matrix of each element is defined in its own
local axes.
■A common axis system is needed for the structure. Global axes
or structure axes X,Y,Z !!! (read pp. 24-25)
■Element stiffness matrices are transformed from local to global
coordinates. (Local dof at a node are transformed to global dof.)
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 Element Stiffness Matrix: Singularity

■The element stiffness matrices we derived for a bar and a plane

beam are singular as such because all dof are free there.

■A bar with that stiffness matrix, for example, can have the rigid-
body motion u1=u2=c. In this motion, the bar moves along its own
axis with no strain induced.

■This rigid-body motion is prevented if u1 or u2 is prescribed as

zero or a nonzero value in which case the corresponding dof
drops out of the stiffness matrix and the matrix becomes
nonsingular.

■Similarly, a plane beam can translate or rotate freely unless

supported properly (which means proper dof are restrained).

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 Global Stiffness Matrix
■A structure to be modelled is divided into a number of finite
elements such as bar and beam elements and other types.

■These elements either represent the same structural member (a

beam, for instance, being modelled by three beam elements) or
are connected to elements representing different structural
members.

■ In either case, the interface between adjacent finite elements is

provided by the nodes and elements sharing the same node have
the same dof, that is, the same displacements and rotations at
that node.

■All element stiffness matrices, after being transformed to

global coordinates, are assembled together to form the global
stiffness matrix. (In the process, entries of element stiffness
matrices corresponding to the same nodal dof are added directly.)
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 Global Stiffness Matrix: Singularity
■ A global stiffness matrix relates the nodal dof and the external
forces and moments applied to the nodes:
KD = R

where D is the vector of all the nodal dof for the whole
structure.
■ If the external loads are not just applied at the nodes of the

actual structure, the distributed loads are first converted to

equivalent nodal loads. Commercial codes usually do this for the
user for simple distributed loads.

■K is singular if the structure is unsupported or inadequately

supported. To prevent singularity, supports must be sufficient to
prevent all possible rigid-body motions. (Read Section 2.4)

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 Loads

■If the external loads are distributed on the actual structure and
not just applied at the nodes, these are first converted to
equivalent nodal loads. Commercial codes usually do this for the
user for simple distributed loads such as uniform or linearly
varying loads.

■ Example to distributed contact loads: pressure on a wing

surface, internal pressure in a tank, friction between two surfaces,
line load along a beam.

■ Another form of distributed load is body forces: gravity, inertia

(arising from acceleration), magnetic forces, thermal loads. These
act at every material point in the body and not just on the surface
of the body.

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 Equivalent Nodal Loads For a Bar Element
■ Shown below are a bar element and a bar structure with
uniformly distributed axial force of intensity q (N/m, lb/ft). q may be
a contact force or a body force. Below them are given the
equivalent nodal loads.

■ The total force qL on an element is evenly divided between the

two nodes. These nodal forces are statically equivalent to the
actual loading.

■ Adjacent elements contribute to nodal forces on the structure.

Element Structure
q q
1• •2
L LT

1 q 2 qL qL qL/2
• • • • • •
qL/2
L qL/2 3@L=LT
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Consistent loads

■ Element equilibrium kd=r

■ Work done by element loads W=dTr
■ Should be equal to work of distributed loads
W = ∫ qudx = ∫ ( N 1u1 + N 2 u 2 ) dx
L L
■

■
Therefore
For example, with q=x2
r1 = qNdx
0
1 ∫ r2 = ∫ qN2dx
0
L L
r1 = ∫ (1 − x / L) x2 dx = L /12 r2 = ∫ ( x / L) x2 dx = L / 4
0 0
■ when loads are concentrated by intuition, they are called
lumped loads

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 Accuracy of Computed Displacements and Stresses
■ A FE program computes nodal dof first, then uses them to
compute strains and/or stresses.

■The computed nodal dof are mostly not exact. When statically
equivalent nodal loads are used for bar and beam elements, the
computed nodal dof are exact. But the displacements between the
nodes may still be inexact even though usually highly accurate.

■The strains (and stresses), obtained by differentiating

displacements, are less accurate than displacements.
(Differentiation amplifies inaccuracy!!!)

■ Stresses are usually most accurately computed at the element

center. Averaging nodal stresses increases accuracy. But stress
computed at a boundary, which is usually the highest and,
therefore, is of most interest, is usually less accurate.

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