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Industrial Crops and Products 37 (2012) 542–546

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Industrial Crops and Products


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Biodegradable foam tray from cassava starch blended with natural fiber
and chitosan
Nattapon Kaisangsri, Orapin Kerdchoechuen ∗ , Natta Laohakunjit
School of Bioresources and Technology, King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi, 83 Mu 8, Teintalay Rd., Thakam, Bangkhuntein, Bangkok 10150, Thailand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This work developed biodegradable foam trays from cassava starch blended with the natural polymers of
Received 12 April 2011 fiber and chitosan. The kraft fiber at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% (w/w of starch) was mixed with cassava starch
Received in revised form 26 July 2011 solution. Chitosan solution at 0, 2, 4 and 6% (w/v) was added into starch/fiber batter with 1:1. Hot mold
Accepted 26 July 2011
baking was used to develop the cassava starch-based foam by using an oven machine with controlled
temperature at 250 ◦ C for 5 min. Results showed that foam produced from cassava starch with 30% kraft
fiber and 4% chitosan had properties similar to polystyrene foam. Color as L* , a* and b* value of starch
Keywords:
foam tray was slightly increased. Density, tensile strength and elongation of the starch-based foam were
Biopolymers
Cassava starch
0.14 g/cm3 , 944.40 kPa and 2.43%, respectively, but water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility
Biodegradable foam index (WSI) were greater than the polystyrene foam.
Kraft fiber © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Chitosan

1. Introduction properties of starch-based foam, the addition of fibers, such as


aspen, jute and flax, is common. Lawton et al. (2004) reported
Currently, petroleum-based plastic packaging is used exten- that aspen fiber by 15–30% added into corn starch foam improved
sively. Polystyrene foam is most common in single-use plastic the mechanical properties. The strength of corn starch foam trays
packaging due to its high strength, low density and low cost decreased when aspen fiber was more than 35%, probably by a
(Glenn and Orts, 2001). Packaging from petroleum-based products weak point in the foam tray due to discontinuity and lack of fibers.
may require several years to degrade. Therefore, consumers are Soykeabkaew et al. (2004) found that addition of 10% jute or flax
often interested in environmentally friendly packaging (Shogren fibers to the cassava starch-based foams significantly improved the
et al., 1998). Biodegradable packaging is an alternative for plas- flexural strength due to the cross-link reaction between starch and
tic packaging. Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer fibers.
that is synthesized from lactic acid (Auras et al., 2006). PLA can On the contrary, addition of some kraft fibers into starch foam
be produced from the fermentation of polysaccharides and sugar. results in high density, and some types of kraft fiber produce a
However, PLA is expensive with a complicated synthesis (Lee et al., dark color. The density of starch-based foam blended with cas-
2009). One option for the replacement of petroleum-based and syn- sava, wheat, jute, flex and softwood fiber was 0.1–0.3 g/cm3 (Glenn
thetic polymers is natural polymers such as native starch, fiber and et al., 2001; Soykeabkaew et al., 2004; Carr et al., 2006). The water
chitosan. The natural polymers are readily available, inexpensive resistance of baked starch-based foams was also improved by addi-
and biodegradable (Tharanathan, 2003). tion of hydrophobic materials such as monostearyl citrate, latex
Starch has been used to produce foam because of its low cost, and polycarpolactone (PCL). Shogren et al. (2002) reported that
low density, low toxicity and biodegradability (Stevens et al., 2010). water resistance of corn starch foam plates improved by adding
Starch-based foam can be produced by many techniques, includ- monostearyl citrate. Shey et al. (2005) found that latex could be
ing extrusion or hot mold baking (Xu et al., 2005). The creation added to the batter of baked starch foams to increase their flexibil-
of starch-based foam can be divided into two main steps: starch ity and moisture resistance. Addition of PCL in thermoplastic corn
gelatinization and evaporation of water from batter (Salgado et al., starch could improve water resistance but not mechanical proper-
2007). However, starch-based foam made from starch alone is brit- ties (Gáspár et al., 2005). Chitosan is another natural polymer that is
tle with poor water resistance. To improve strength and flexibility the second most naturally occurring polymer after fiber (Zhai et al.,
2004). Chitosan is biodegradable and non-toxic with some interest-
ing biological activities, including excellent strength and elongation
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 2470 7781; fax: +66 2470 7781. properties (Suyatma et al., 2004). Chitosan in combination with cel-
E-mail address: orapin.ker@kmutt.ac.th (O. Kerdchoechuen). lulose increases the mechanical strength of paperboard (Makino

0926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.07.034
N. Kaisangsri et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 37 (2012) 542–546 543

and Hirata, 1997). Gällstedt and Hedenqvist (2006) found that density was calculated from the mass divided by the displaced vol-
pulp–fiber–chitosan sheets with high concentrations of chitosan ume as shown in Eq. (1).
solution had slightly better mechanical properties than sheets
mass of starch based foam
without chitosan. Zhai et al. (2004) found that the tensile strength Density = (1)
volume of starch based foam
of the starch films increased largely after incorporating 20% chi-
tosan into corn starch film. Finally, Bourtoom and Chinnan (2008) 2.3.3. Moisture content (MC)
reported that a biodegradable blend from rice starch–chitosan was Three specimens were cut into 20 × 20 mm sizes from three
lighter and more yellow than starch film. different pieces of starch-based foam and kept at 75% relative
Although biodegradable foam trays have been developed, with humidity and 25 ◦ C for 24 h. Foam moisture content was measured
many reports detailing a starch/chitosan blend, there are few by ASTM D 644-94 (1994). Samples were determined after drying in
reports of cassava starch-based foam blended with chitosan. This hot air oven at 105 ◦ C for 24 h. The percentage of moisture content
work reports biodegradable foam trays prepared from raw mate- of starch-based foam was then taken as the percentage of weight
rials of cassava starch, an economically important commodity of loss.
Thailand, and two types of natural polymer, chitosan and kraft fiber
for replacement of plastic or polystyrene foam. 2.3.4. Mechanical properties
The tensile strength and elongation at break were determined
by ASTM D 882-10 (1989) (texture analyzer, TA plus, LLOYD Instru-
2. Materials and preparation ments, UK), with a 500 N load cell. Three specimens (25 × 125 mm)
were cut from three different pieces of starch-based foam. Ini-
2.1. Materials tial grip separation and crosshead speed were set at 100 mm and
2 mm/s, respectively. Tensile strength was measured as the maxi-
Cassava starch was purchased at a local market in Bangkok, mum tensile stress attained by a sample during a tensile test and
Thailand and its moisture content was 12%. Kraft was provided by elongation was determined from tensile test as the elongation the
Thai Paper Company Ltd. Chitosan was obtained from T.C. Union test sample at the moment of rupture expressed as a percent of the
Global Public Company Ltd. (molecular weight 1.93 ± 0.02 million gage length (Glenn and Hsu, 1997). Tensile strength and elongation
dalton, degree of deacetylation 92%). Polystyrene foam, of J.T. Pack were calculated as the following Eqs. (2) and (3).
of Food Co., Thailand was purchased at a local market in Thailand.
F
Tensile strength = (2)
A
2.2. Batter preparation and baking process of cassava L − L0
Elongation = (3)
starch-based foam L0
F is the maximum tensile; A is the cross-section of the gage section;
Starch batter was prepared by adding 100 mL water to 80 g cas- L0 is the initial gage length; L is the final length.
sava starch (80%, w/v). Kraft fiber at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% (w/w
of starch) were mixed with kitchen aid mixer (Tomex, TM-941 PST, 2.3.5. Water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index
Classic Class Co., Ltd.) for 5 min. Different starch batter was obtained (WSI)
by varying chitosan concentration in the mixture between 0, 2, 4 WAI and WSI were measured by AACC method 56-20 (1983).
and 6% in 1% acetic acid. The ratio between starch–fiber batter and One gram of sample was dispersed in 30 mL distilled water in cen-
chitosan was maintained at 1:1. Baking machine (zu-1, Taiwan) was trifuge tube and placed in a water bath at 30 ◦ C for 30 min. The
used to bake the starch batter. The baking machine was preheated tube was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant was
and maintained at 250 ◦ C. The 60 g of starch batter mixed with dif- poured into an aluminum can and dried at 105 ◦ C for 24 h. WAI and
ferent fiber and chitosan concentrations was placed at the center WSI were calculated as the following Eqs. (4) and (5).
of a closed heating mold for 5 min. The physical and mechanical
properties of foam were measured and compared with polystyrene weight of tube with semi solid sample − weight of tube
WAI =
foam. weight of sample
(4)

2.3. Sample characterization


weight of plate with supernatants dry solid − weight of aluminum can
2.3.1. Color WSI =
weight of sample
Cassava starch-based foam color was determined using a col-
×100 (5)
orimeter (HunterLab miniscan EZ, Hunter Associates Laboratory,
Inc., Virginia, USA). Colorimeter was measured on the surface cas-
sava starch-based foams and using the CIE L* , a* , b* [L* = 0 (black)
to 100 (white); a* = −60 (green) to +60 (red); and b* = −60 (blue) to 2.3.6. Statistical analysis
+60 (yellow)]. A factorial design was used to analyze the cassava starch-based
foam. Analysis of variance was used to compare mean differences
of the starch-based foam. Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (p < 0.05)
2.3.2. Density was used to detect differences among foam properties mean values.
Foam density was determined by the sand displacement method
followed by Cinelli et al. (2006). For each specimen, three dif- 3. Results and discussion
ferent starch-based foams were analyzed, and the measurements
were conducted in triplicate. The specimens (10 × 10 mm) were The results show that chitosan concentration and fiber content
weighed and placed in a 25 mL cylinder, and a known volume of significantly affected on the color of cassava starch-based foam
sand was added to the cylinder. The total volumes of foams and sand (Fig. 1). Lightness (L* ), redness (a* ) and yellowness (b* ) of cassava
were recorded after tapping the graduated cylinder for 1 min. Foam starch-based foam was 65–70 (Fig. 1A), 0.5–1.5 (Fig. 1B) and 10–20
544 N. Kaisangsri et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 37 (2012) 542–546

Table 1
Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on color, density and moisture content of cassava starch based foam.

Chitosan concentration (%) Fiber content (%) L* a* b* Density (g/cm3 ) Moisture content (%)
a b c
0 70.39 0.65 13.27 0.14a 9.55
2 69.35b 0.65b 14.67b 0.14a 9.53
4 69.01b 1.25a 16.97a 0.13b 9.71
6 67.33c 1.12a 17.30a 0.13b 9.91
** ** ** **
F-test ns
LSD 0.57 0.14 0.64 0.01 0.42
0 67.29d 0.66c 13.14d 0.12d 9.32
10 68.14c 0.73c 14.83c 0.12d 9.73
20 69.27b 0.93b 16.14b 0.13c 9.91
30 69.65b 1.08ab 16.34b 0.14b 9.66
40 70.58a 1.19a 17.29a 0.15a 9.76
** ** ** **
F-test ns
CV (%) 1.12 20.99 5.58 5.05 4.44
LSD 0.73 0.16 0.72 0.01 0.65
a, b, c, d
Different superscripts in the same column indicated that means were significantly different (p < 0.05).
**
Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

(Fig. 1C), respectively. The addition of chitosan into the cassava Density of cassava starch-based foam was influenced with
starch-based foam resulted in decreased L* values but increased the interaction of fiber and chitosan concentration (p ≤ 0.01).
a* and b* values (Table 1). Cassava starch-based foam mixed with Fig. 2 shows that density of cassava starch-based foam slightly
high concentrations of chitosan was yellow color because chitosan increased with increasing fiber content but decreased with increas-
imparts a yellow color. Bourtoom and Chinnan (2008) have shown ing chitosan concentration. Density of starch-based foam was
that rice starch–chitosan increases in lighter color and yellow- around 0.11–0.15 g/cm3 . Foam produced from cassava starch
ness of starch film. The addition of fiber into cassava starch-based and kraft fiber 40% has the highest density (0.15 g/cm3 ), and
foam showed a slight increase of L* , a* and b* values because of cassava-based foam with no kraft fiber has the lowest density
the original color of the kraft. Stevens et al. (2010) have reported (0.12 g/cm3 ) (Table 1), which was higher than polystyrene foam
that starch–lignin foam was darker than starch foam due to lignin (0.05–0.09 g/cm3 ) (Shogren et al., 1998; Glenn and Orts, 2001).
imparting a brown color. Because the mass of kraft fibers in the foam filling caused increased
foam density, the high fiber content was resistant to swelling and
expansion (Glenn et al., 2001; Carr et al., 2006). Although density
A 75 0% chitosan of potato starch-based foam mixed with corn fibers and polyvinyl
2% chitosan alcohol was at 0.13–0.23 g/cm3 (Cinelli et al., 2006), density of
4% chitosan
70 6% chitosan starch-based foam made from cassava starch, cellulose and sun-
flower protein isolate was greater about 0.45–0.58 g/cm3 (Salgado
(L*)

65 et al., 2007).
The moisture content of cassava starch-based foam mixed with
60 either higher fiber content or chitosan concentration was not sta-
0 10 20 30 40 tistically different (p ≥ 0.05) (Table 1). Moisture content of cassava
starch foam mixed with various concentrations of chitosan and
Fiber content (%)
fiber were about 8.90–10.20% (Fig. 3), which were greater than
B moisture content of polystyrene foam (1.11%) (data not shown).
2.5 0% chitosan
Moisture of starch-based foam was higher than polystyrene foam,
2% chitosan
2
4% chitosan because cassava starch foam is naturally hydrophilic and derives
1.5 6% chitosan from pure hygroscopic starch (Glenn and Hsu, 1997; Soykeabkaew
(a*)

et al., 2004). This finding is in agreement with Soykeabkaew et al.


1 (2004) who reported that moisture content of tapioca starch-based
0.5 foam with jute and flax at 75% RH was 16%.
Tensile strength of the cassava starch-based foam increased
0
significantly (p ≤ 0.01) with increasing fiber content and chitosan
0 10 20 30 40
concentrations (Fig. 4). This may be due to the kraft fiber and
Fiber content (%)

25 0.2
C 0% chitosan 0% chitosan
2% chitosan 2% chitosan
Density (g/cm3)

20 4% chitosan
0.15 4% chitosan
6% chitosan
(b*)

15 6% chitosan

0.1
10

5 0.05
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Fiber content (%) Fiber content (%)

Fig. 1. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on (A) lightness (L* ), (B) Fig. 2. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on density of cassava starch
redness (a* ) and (C) yellowness (b* ) of cassava starch based foam. based foam.
N. Kaisangsri et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 37 (2012) 542–546 545

Table 2
Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on tensile strength, elongation, water absorption index and water solubility index of cassava starch based foam.

Chitosan concentration (%) Fiber content (%) Tensile strength (kPa) Elongation (%) Water absorption index Water solubility index (%)

0 699.76b 1.49c 10.24c 12.93a


2 689.21b 1.90b 10.13c 7.39b
4 742.20a 2.29a 10.82b 6.23c
6 584.99c 2.34a 12.57a 6.60c
** ** ** **
F-test
LSD 41.25 0.22 0.25 0.55
0 302.12e 1.68b 15.22a 11.18a
10 447.39d 2.05a 12.55b 8.55b
20 633.58c 2.11a 10.49c 8.49b
30 841.52b 2.14a 8.35d 7.18c
40 1170.60a 2.07a 8.07e 6.05d
** ** ** **
F-test
CV (%) 8.23 15.07 3.15 8.93
LSD 46.12 0.25 0.28 0.61
a, b, c, d, e
Different superscripts in the same column indicated that means were significantly different (p < 0.05).
**
Significant at p ≤ 0.01.

12 0% chitosan 3 0% chitosan

Elongation (%)
Moisture content (%)

2% chitosan 2% chitosan
4% chitosan 4% chitosan
10 2
6% chitosan 6% chitosan

8 1

6 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Fiber content (%) Fiber content (%)

Fig. 3. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on moisture content of Fig. 5. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on elongation of cassava
cassava starch based foam. starch based foam.

chitosan molecular interactions with cassava starch promoting foam elongation (2.47%). Elongation of cassava starch-based foam
foam tensile strength (Shogren et al., 2002; Zhai et al., 2004). mixed 4%, 2% and 0% chitosan concentration was 2.29, 1.90 and 1.49,
This finding is in agreement with Shogren et al. (2002) who respectively (Table 2). The addition of chitosan to cassava starch-
reported the addition of 5–10% aspen fiber clearly provided higher based foam changed tensile strength and elongation, probably due
tensile strength of corn starch foam. Cassava starch-based foam to coagulation of chitosan with fiber and starch. The starch, chitosan
mixed with 40% fiber had the highest tensile strength (1170 kPa) and fiber blend exhibited good foam forming properties, which
(Table 2), which was close to polystyrene foam (915–1100 kPa) was attributed to the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between
(Glenn et al., 2001). When chitosan was blended into cassava amino groups and hydroxyl groups (Xu et al., 2005; Bourtoom and
starch-based foam mixed with fiber, tensile strength of the foam Chinnan, 2008).
was increased. Increasing chitosan concentration greater than 4%, Water absorption index of starch-based foam was influenced
the tensile strength of cassava starch-based foam did not improve, by the interaction of chitosan and fiber concentration (p ≤ 0.01)
this might be due to amino groups of chitosan were protonated (Fig. 6), although their index increased with increasing chi-
to NH3 + in acetic acid solvent, whereas ordered crystalline struc- tosan concentration, the index decreased with increasing of
tures of the starch molecules were destroyed with gelatinization fiber contents (Table 2). This tendency could be explained by a
and foam forming (Xu et al., 2005). Elongation of cassava starch- higher hydrophilicity (amino group) of cassava starch-based foam
based foam increased with increasing chitosan concentrations and when increasing the chitosan concentration. Cassava starch-based
slightly increased with increasing fiber contents (Fig. 5). Cassava foam mixed with 6% chitosan had the highest water absorption
starch-based foam mixed with 6% chitosan provided the highest index because of amino groups (Shahidi et al., 1999; Nadarajah,
elongation at 2.34% (Table 2), which was similar to polystyrene 2005). Butler et al. (1996) reported that the chitosan films

1500 0% chitosan 20 0% chitosan


Water absorption index
Tensile strength (kPa)

2% chitosan 2% chitosan
1200
4% chitosan 4% chitosan
15
900 6% chitosan 6% chitosan

600
10
300

0 5
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Fiber content (%) Fiber content (%)

Fig. 4. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on tensile strength of Fig. 6. Effect of chitosan concentration and fiber content on water absorption index
cassava starch based foam. of cassava starch based foam.
546 N. Kaisangsri et al. / Industrial Crops and Products 37 (2012) 542–546

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The authors wish to thank the National Research University erties of biodegradable films made from chitosan and poly (lactic acid) blends.
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