ASSIGNMENT

OF
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

“MOLECULAR STRUCTURE”

Name of Apprentice : Afifah Yumna Novinta

Student’s Number : 13303244028
Study Program : International Chemistry Education

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY EDUCATION
FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY
2015

3. 1
 Preface

Molecule consist of an amount of atoms that merge by covalend bond,

and that atoms. A number of an atoms join through a covalent bond, and atom
range from the number very few (of a single atom, such as noble gas) until the
amount that very much (as on polymers, a protein or even DNA). The form of
molecules, which means in an atomic manner lapped in the in space, affecting
many the physical and chemical properties that molecule. Most molecule
have the form of based to five different geometric shape.
The molecules in bind, referring to some rules and forms of a chemical
bond. When molecule want to bind must be in accordance with the rules or
terms of elements in forming a molecule. Because not every an element form
molecules.
The term “chemical bond”, which means a bond between two atoms or
more, come out because of the related atoms that are linked to form a
compound. The idea of forming this chemical bond was mostly geared to form
a more stable electronic configuration.
Compared to the other electronic configuration of atoms of noble gas
elements, the main group of elements (or representatives s and p) is only
different in terms of the amount of valence electrons. Therefore, the formed
compound of these elements is closely related to the role of valence electrons;
however for elements of groups d and f, they will be discussed separately.
In the extreme, there are two methods to meet the formation of
electronic configuration of noble gas, firstly by valence electron transfer and
secondly by joint possession of the paired electrons “sharing” of the valence
electrons of the composed atoms. The first method produces positive ions –
cations to atoms that release electrons, and negative ions - anion to atoms
that receive an electron. Likewise, the chemical bonding that occurs between
both constitutes ionic bonds in the form of electrostatic forces. The second
method produces covalent bond of paired electron, which belong to the joint
atoms concerned. In many examples, the existence of these two types of
bonds can explicitly be identified; but in some cases of “transition” between
both, neither 100% pure ionic bond nor 100% pure covalent can be
ascertained.

3. 2
 Content

Ionic Bond

Various Types of Electronic Configuration of Ionic Species

In a simple way, an ionic bond can be defined as a bond of two ions,

cation and anion, which are resulted from Coulomb electrostatic forces.
However, say, for [Fe(H2O)6]2+ complex compound, central ion Fe 2+ with H2O
as molecular orbital, is largely bonded by electrostatic forces between central
ion and electrical dipole remained negative, produced by molecular orbital.
Since ionic bond occurs through electron transfer, elements of alkali and
earthen alkali groups with ns(1-2) characteristics are predicted to have a strong
tendency to form ionic bond with halogen elements and oxygen with ns2 np(4-
5)
characteristics. In reality, various types of ions with certain electronic
configurations are found as delineated below:
Species Without Valence Electron
Hydrogen ion (H+), perhaps can be viewed as the only example of
species without valence electron, although its existence is stabilized in
solvated form by solvent that is as hydronium ion (H3O+) in water.
Species with Two Valence Electrons
Species that are quite stable with two valence electrons are hydride ion,
+
H , Li+, and Be2+. These ions adopt the electronic configuration of He noble
gas.
Species with Eight Valence Electrons
The formation of species that is stable with eight valence electrons such
as, Na+, Mg2+, F-, and O2- can be illustrated by the following diagram:

3. 3
 -e + -
+e
11Na  11 Na 9F  9F

1
[10Ne] 3s 2
[2He] 2s 2p
5

10 Ne

-2 e 2+ +2e
12Mg 
 12 Mg 2-

 8O
8O
2 2 4
[10Ne] 3s [2He] 2s 2p
So, NaF, Na2O, MgF2, and MgO are examples of ionic species by adopting
the configuration of valence electron of the nearest noble gas, Ne.
Species with Eighteen Valence Electrons
In fact, it shows that many compounds of group d also have ionic
properties; thus, the stability of their electronic configuration, particularly
the number of valence electrons, do not conform to octet law, but reaching
eighteen. These species are mostly found in groups 11, 12 and even in group
13, starting from period 4, namely:
Group 11 Group 12 Group 13
+ 2+
29 Cu  
 
29 Cu 30 Zn  
 
30 Zn 31 Ga  
 
31 Ga3+
47 Ag  
 
47 Ag+ 48 Cd  
 
48 Cd2+ 49 In  
 
49 In3+
79 Au  
 
79 Au+ 80 Hg  
 
80 Hg2+ 81 Tl  
 
81 Tl3+

Those three groups of elements can consecutively form cations M +, M2+,

and M3+, which are fairly stable by releasing valence electrons ....... ns(1-2) np(0-1)
and leaving outer electronic configurations of as many 18 electrons........ (n-
1)s2 (n-1)p6 (n-1)d10. It needs to be noted that the configuration of these outer
18 electrons can only be made by releasing electrons, and never be
accomplished through capturing electron; and these species can, therefore,
only be met in the form of cation.
Species with “Eighteen + Two” Valence Electrons
These species generally consist of heavy elements. Element 81Tl is
known as cation Tl3+, namely 18 valence electron system that is fairly stable.
Cation Tl+ with electronic configuration [36Kr] 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d10 6s2,
however, turnout to be found, too, and even is more stable than cation Tl 3+.
The stability of this configuration system is often associated with the real
existence of all the fully contained orbitals, which is specifically known as the
electronic configuration system “18 + 2” or is termed species with inert
paired electrons. Elements Ga, In, and Tl (group 13), Ge, Sn, and Pb (group
14), and As, Sb, and Bi (group 15) can all form consecutive ions M +, M2+, and
M3+, which are specifically identical with inert paired electron, (4-6)s2.

3. 4
 The role of inert paired electrons to ion stability within a group turns
out to be increasingly strong in line with the increase in the number of atoms.
For instance, Tl+, is consecutively more stable than In+ and Ga+; Sn4+ more
stable than Sn2+, on the contrary, Pb2+ is more stable than Pb4+. In group 15,
Sb3+ and Bi3+ are fairly stable and so Sb5+ is; but Bi5+ is less stable.
Species with Various Valence Electrons

These types of ions consist of transitional elements of groups d and f

that have unfull electronic configurations d and f. They mostly have outer
electronic configurations 8-18, namely ns2 np6 nd(0-10) and n = 3, 4, 5.
Moreover, elements of transitional groups are known to be able to form
cation at various levels of oxidation.
Elements of group f, lanthanide and actinide, respectively have
electronic configuration... 4f (1-14) 5s2 5p6 5d (0-1) 6s2, and ... 5f(1-14) 6s2 6p6 6d(0-1)
7s2. By releasing outer valence electron, namely (n-1)d(0-1) ns2, these elements
may produce cation M3+ that is fairly stable by leaving configuration of 8
valence electrons, but with a number of various unfull inner electrons, (n-
2)f(1-14). The stability of transitional ions and inner transition is mostly related
to the complex compound formation.
Tendency to Ion Formation

In terms of the order of stability of those six ions, the electronic

configuration of noble gas is deemed the most stable, followed by
configuration of valence 18 electron; ions with configuration structure of
transitional elements and inner transition are not stable. The more stable
configuration of an ion, the less its tendency to form a complex ion will be.

The immediate question to come up is what factors support the

formation of an ion? In general, it can be predicted that level of easiness in ion
formation depends on three main factors, namely:
(1) stability of electronic configuration of the concerned ion - the more
stable configuration is formed, the more easily an element forms its ion.
(2) charged ion- the smaller ion charged, the more easily an ion is formed,
and
(3) ion size – the bigger size of a cation and the smaller size of an anion,
both will be easier to be formed.

Why so? Basically, the more electrons are released from an atom or ion,
the bigger energy is needed since the left electrons are more strongly bonded
by the species’ effective nucleus charge that grows bigger, too. However, to

3. 5
atoms having bigger size, their outer electrons are not too strongly bonded by
nucleus charge so that they can form ions with bigger charge than the smaller
atoms do. For instance, for group 14, atoms C and Si are both difficult to form
M4+; but, for Sn and Pb, are both easy to form ion M4+. On the contrary, in
forming anion, the small atoms are relatively stronger bonding the electrons;
for halogen group, atom F is easier to form ion F than atom Cl, and so Br and I
are.
Physical Properties of Ionic Species
The description above talks about electron release and bonding to form
positive and negative ions within the molecular compounds. When the
condition is not possible to form certain ions, linked electrons will, therefore,
occur and covalent bond is formed. Transition from ionic to covalent
properties depends on a number of factors. The criterion to decide the two
types of properties can be based on the physical properties of the concerned
species. Ionic compound generally has a boiling point and melting point
relatively high, and it could be a good electrical conductor within its amalgam
and solvent. The relatively higher boiling point is caused by the relatively big
energy needed to break Coulomb forces among the ions, while the electrical
conductive properties are caused by movement of ions within their
amalgamation and solvent.
Example of two extreme species is the ionic
compounds of NaCl and covalent compound of CCl 4. A -
+
According to the theory of polarization developed by
Fajan, if two ions are each other closely placed, the cloud
electrons of an anion will be affected by cationic pull; and B + -
at the same time, both anionic nucleus and cationic Gambar 3.1 Bentuk
nucleus will repel each other. Such a condition will result (A) ion normal, dan
in anionic deformation or polarization as illustrated in (B) terpoplarisasi
Figure 3.1 in the right:
In general, cation size is much smaller than that of anion; so, its
polarization properties are also much smaller than that of anion. The
important thing to be understood is that polarization may cause, especially,
valence electrons to be less affected by either one ion or atom only, thus, it is
distributed under the influence of both related ions or atoms. The bigger level
of simultaneous influence of these two atoms, the smaller level of ionic
properties and the bigger level of covalent properties of the concerned
species will be. This effect can be formulated as follows:
(1) Amount of charge. Increase in ionic charge causes the increase in the
polarity properties of the opposed ions so that it will decrease ionic
properties and increase the covalent properties of the concerned
species, as shown by data on the chloride compound below.

3. 6
 Cation Melting Point of Equivalent Conductivity of
Chloride Anhydride Melting Chloride
o
( C)
Na+ 800 133
Mg2+ 715 29
Al3+ Sublimate at 180 1,5 x 10
-5

The examples above show that ionic properties decrease from NaCl to
MgCl2, and AlCl3 no longer has ionic properties but covalent.
(2) Ion size. The smaller size of a cation size, the more concentrated positive
charge will be so that its polarization influences to anions is more
effective; as a result, the ionic properties of the concerned species
become lower, as demonstrated by data on the chloride compounds
below.
Cation Melting Point of Equivalent Conductivity
Chloride (oC) of Melting Chloride
Be2+ 404 0,086
Mg2+ 715 29
Ca2+ 774 52
Sr2+ 870 56
Ba2+ 955 65

The examples above very clearly show the existing relationship

between increase in cation size and increase in ionic properties. On the
contrary, the bigger size of an anion, the more easily the electron clouds
are polarized by cation; as a consequence, the ionic properties will
become weaker; on the other hand, the covalent properties of the
concerned species will become stronger, as shown by data on halide in
the table below:
Species Anion Size (AÅ ) Melting Point
(oC)
Na F 1,36 990
NaCl 1,81 801
NaBr 1,95 755
NaI 2,16 651

So, those data suggest that the strongest ionic properties are shown by
sodium fluoride and the weakest ionic properties are shown by sodium
iodide.

3. 7
 Conclusion

The forming of chemical bond was mostly geared to form a more stable
electronic configuration. The electronic configuration of atoms of noble gas
elements has been considered as a stability measurement of a species due to
its relativity to other elements; noble gases are more difficult to merge with
another element, although some noble gas compounds were recently found.
The natural stability of noble gas group is reflected on the highest value of
ionization energy, the highest in period, and its lowest electron affinity, the
lowest in period.
In general, cation size is much smaller than that of anion; so, its
polarization properties are also much smaller than that of anion. The
important thing to be understood is that polarization may cause, especially,
valence electrons to be less affected by either one ion or atom only, thus, it is
distributed under the influence of both related ions or atoms. The bigger level
of simultaneous influence of these two atoms, the smaller level of ionic
properties and the bigger level of covalent properties of the concerned
species will be.
There are two methods to meet the formation of electronic
configuration of noble gas, firstly by valence electron transfer and secondly
by joint possession of the paired electrons “sharing” of the valence electrons
of the composed atoms. The first method produces positive ions – cations to
atoms that release electrons, and negative ions - anion to atoms that receive
an electron.

3. 8