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Basic knowledge of the Performance characteristics pertaining to the aircraft is a must for the Pilots, for
safe operation of a flight. Take off, Landing planning, Flight planning, Fuel planning, Payload calculation,
loading of the aircraft, emergency handling etc, all require the pilot to be aware of the performance limits
of the aircraft. This Chapter aims to give the student an over view of General A/C Performance aspects,
before we go into the “Performance Study” of the specific aircraft in the syllabus for UK CAA examination.
Performance is the capability of aircraft at various stages of its flight. The capability may be in terms of
Weight, Altitude, Speeds, Distances, Gradient / Rate of Climb, Obstacle clearance, Maneuverability or
Range, etc. The take-off weight and the landing weight as per the Performance capability in the existing
Meteorological conditions and the Regulations governing the flight can be maximized with a thorough
knowledge of the Performance of the aircraft. (See Annexure 1, Fig 1)
1. Mandatory Performance
It is the minimum laid down performance to be met by an aircraft for grant of Certificate of Airworthiness
by the appropriate authority. The basic principle governing the minimum standards laid down is that “a
conventional Transport Aircraft (Category ‘A’) shall not have to force-land in case of an engine failure at
any stage of its flight”. Refer Chapter 2 for the definitions of other groups. The Mandatory Performance is
specified in the “Aeroplane Flight Manual”, which forms part of the Certificate of Airworthiness.
2. Operational Performance
It is the performance specified by the manufacturer for the day-to-day operations of the fleet. This is more
conservative than the Mandatory Performance and is described in the
“Flight Crew Operations Manual”. The operational performance data is used for planning purposes.
3. Demonstrated Performance
Demonstrated Performance is the performance recorded during demonstration flights by the
manufacturer for Certificate of Airworthiness.
5. Gross Performance
Gross Performance is the average performance expected to be achieved by a fleet of aircraft type.
6. Net Performance
Net Performance is the performance obtained by reducing the gross performance in a specified manner
to allow for the factors that cannot be accounted for, such as:
(a) Variation in Operating techniques/maintenance practices.
(b) Degradation of aircraft performance due to ageing of the fleet.
(c) Deviation of environmental conditions from those assumed.
7. The following terms describe areas of defined dimensions under the control of appropriate
authority declared as suitable for take-off / landing purposes.
(a) Runway
Runway is a defined area on a land aerodrome prepared for landing and take-off of aircraft.
(b) Stopway
Stopway is a defined rectangular area at the end of take-off run in which an aircraft can be
stopped in the event of an abandoned take-off.
Width of a stop way is same as that of the runway.
May not have the same bearing and wearing qualities of Runway
Co-efficient of friction should not be substantially lower than the Runway
Intended for infrequent use
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(c) Clearway
Clearway is a defined rectangular area on ground or water over which an aeroplane may make a
portion of its initial climb to a specified screen height.
Clearway starts at the end of RWY.
Its length is not more than half the RWY length.
Its width is not less than 75 m (250 feet) either side of the extended centerline of RWY.
Obstacles/ground should not project above a plane sloping up from the end of RWY at 1.25
% within the clearway.
Clearway may include part of Stopway. (See Annexure 1 , Figs 2 and 3)
8. Threshold
Threshold is the beginning of that portion of runway usable for landing. The threshold must be at or after
the line where the ‘ obstacle clearance plane’, intersects the runway. For this reason threshold may be
displaced from the beginning of the runway.
The centerline of the plane follows the take-off paths for take-off and it follows the approach path for
landing.
DECLARED DISTANCES
10. TORA
Take-off Run Available is the length of runway declared as available and suitable for ground run of
aeroplane taking-off. It should have the same load bearing strength along its whole length and width.
11. TODA
Take-off Distance Available is the length of take-off run available plus the length of clearway, if any.
TODA is shorter of
The distance from brake release point to the nearest obstacle capable of affecting the safety of
aircraft
OR
The distance not greater than 1.5 times the length of TORA.
13. LDA
Landing Distance Available is the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of aeroplane
landing.
LDA = RUNWAY LENGTH (Threshold to end of Runway)
The ability to control the aircraft is most critical when one power unit becomes suddenly inoperative. The
asymmetric thrust produced has to be countered by the rudder force, which depends on rudder deflection
and the speed. The asymmetric force depends on the thrust of the live engine, which depends on
Temperature and Pressure Attitude for a given power setting. Two such min control speeds defined are
(a) Vmcg
(b) Vmca (Also referred to as Vmc)
When one engine is inoperative, unless Vmcg is attained, take-off should not be continued and unless a
speed higher than Vmca (by a specified safety margin) is attained the aircraft should not be lifted off
ground.
Both Vmcg and Vmca are considered at the following settings:-
(a) Thrust = Max T/O Thrust
(a) Wt = Max certificated T/O Wt.
(b) Configuration = T/O Configuration.
Limits of Vmca. Vmca may not exceed 1.20 times Vs, where Vs is the stalling speed for the configuration
stated above (Vmca <= 1.2 Vs).
17. During the take-off when one engine becomes inoperative, depending on, at what stage it takes
place, two possible sequences arise.
(a) Continuation of Take-off
From standing start the aircraft accelerates on both engines till Velocity Engine failure. (Vef)
Thereafter, it accelerates on single engine.
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Take–off Speeds: - The Calibrated Air Speeds V1, Vr and V2 are called the “Take-off Speed”, which are
described in succeeding paragraphs.
19. Limits of V2
(a) Min V2 is higher of (i) and (ii) below.
i. 1.2 x Vs, where Vs is the Stalling Speed with U/C up and Flaps in T/O
Configuration.
ii. 1.1 x Vmca.
(b) Max V2, though not specified is governed by tyre speed limit and the single engine
acceleration capability from lift off to 35’ height.
For example, in our specimen aircraft, If an engine failure occurs after V1 and before V2, the pilot should
normally continue the take-off, achieve and maintain V2 up to flap retraction height. In case engine failure
occurs at a speed in excess of V2 before flap retraction height, then the speed attained at engine failure
is to be maintained till flap retraction height.
22. Limits of Vr
(a) Vr shall not be less than
1.05 x Vmca
1.10 x Vs
A speed at which when the aircraft is rotated at maximum rate would result in a Vlof not
less than
i. 1.05 x Vmu for single engine and
ii. 1.10 x Vmu for two engine take-off
(b) Vr may not exceed V2. However, under conditions of high temperature at high P.A., the
Air Speed indicator may over-read due to change in pressure error. This is allowed for by
tabulating higher speed as Vr. In such cases Vr may be found to be 1 Kt or so higher
than V2.
27. Limits of V1
(a) V1 cannot be less than Vmcg (V1 => Vmcg )
(b) V1 cannot exceed Vr (V1 <= Vr)
(c) V1 cannot be selected more than Vmbe (V1 <= Vmbe)
(b) 115% of the distance from standing start to the point aircraft attains 35’ height and speed
V2 all engines on take off thrust.
(* Some regulatory authorities e.g. BCAR consider ‘⅓rd way’ point instead of midway
point)
31. EMDR (Emergency Distance Required) or ASDR (Acceleration Stop Distance Required)
EMDR or ASDR is the distance required from standing start to complete stop, during a reject takes off
assuming
(a) Aircraft accelerates on all engines till the point of engine failure at T/O thrust and
thereafter with Critical engine inoperative and the remaining engines on T/O thrust.
(b) Engine failure is recognized and action initiated at V1 or before, to abandon T/O.
(c) Then the aircraft retards with all available means of retardation but without the use of
reverse thrust.
(d) Landing Gear remains extended.
REGULATIONS
Based on the standards and Recommended practice adopted by the ICAO (refer Annexure 6 &
8), the member states formulate regulations governing International Commercial Transport
Operations. FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations) in USA, JAR (Joint Airworthiness
Requirements) and BCAR (British Airworthiness Requirements) in UK are examples of such
regulations. In India, DGCA is entrusted the authority to grant Certificate of Airworthiness (C of
A) to Transport Aircraft. Since almost all the Commercial Transport aircraft are manufactured
abroad and the “Aeroplane Flight Manuals” are prepared according to the regulation of the
country where they are manufactured, DGCA in principle endorses the Certificate of
Airworthiness granted in the country of origin.
Net T/O Flight Path is the path along which gradient of climb is 0.8% for two engine and 0.9 %
for three engine aircraft less than gross gradient of climb along take-off Flight Path. The Net T/O
Flight Path must clear all obstructions by 35 ft. vertically and 200 ft / 300 ft horizontally within /
outside aerodrome.
TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE
36. Maximum take-off Weight
39. Configuration
For higher flap configuration, the stalling speed is less. Consequently V2 and Vr also reduce. Thus
distance required to accelerate to these lower speeds reduces, (though the increase in drag reduces
acceleration but to a lesser extent). The stopping distance also reduces due to increase in drag. Net
result is that FLW is higher for higher flap configuration.
However when airborne, due to increased drag with higher flap, the climb limit (WAT) weight reduces.
41. Wind
A headwind component reduces the ground speed for any CAS. Hence, both acceleration distance and
stopping distance reduce. Thus FLW increases with increase in Head Wind Component.
46. V2 / Vs Ratio
The CLW increases with V2 / Vs ratio as shown, (due to increase in L/D ratio) till best L/D is achieved.
50. The FLW and CLW ensure adequacy of field length and second segment climb gradient.
However, with the same climb gradient the net T/O flight path may not clear the obstacles on T/O path by
35 feet. In such a case, reducing TODR and / or increasing climb gradient capability can only clear the
obstacle. Increasing V1 and / or decreasing T/O weight can achieve this. Thus we arrive at an obstacle
limit weight.
Though the climb gradient by definition is not affected by wind, the flight path angle increases with
headwind, resulting in better obstacle clearance. Thus, with headwind, the obstacle limit weight
increases.
When obstacle limit weight is less than FLW, improved climb on the lines explained in Para 65 may
improve Max Tow.
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51. Generally, so long as V2/Vs ratio is kept at 1.2, it is ensured that Vlof does not exceed tyre speed
Limit. But whenever V2/Vs ratio is increased for improved climb etc, the Vlof corresponding to the
resulting V2, may exceed the tyre speed limit and hence the improvement will have to be limited by tyre
speed. Thus TOW may be restricted by tyre speed limits, especially in low flap configuration coupled with
down hill slope and/or tailwind conditions as it depends on the ground speed of the aircraft,.
The tyre Speed Limit is higher for a given CAS when density is less. Hence, the tyre speed limit is
reached at a lower Vlof when either P.A. or OAT is more. Thus, the tyre speed limit weight reduces with
increase in either PA or OAT.
The braking action is related to Aircraft Weight and ground speed of aircraft. Hence the brake energy limit
is reached at a lower CAS, when OAT, PA, tailwind component are more. Thus Vmbe, reduces with
increase in these. Similarly a downhill slope calls for a lower value of Vmbe, since the component of
acceleration due to gravity has to be compensated by additional braking action for a given ground speed.
A higher flap configuration provides increased drag, which helps braking action and thus increases Vmbe.
The route should be such that at every point on the route there must be an airport within one hour’s flying
time at normal cruise speed with one engine inoperative for two engine aircraft and within 1 ½ hour for 3
engine aircraft, unless authorized otherwise. When flights are authorized with diversion time to an airfield
more than one hour, the flight comes under Extended Range Operations.
If the weather conditions at the take off airport are below the Landing minima, there should be an
alternate airport located within one hour’s flying time in still air at normal cruise speed with one engine
inoperative specified in the dispatch and the weather conditions at the specified alternate meet the
minima requirements.
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No aircraft, unless authorized, may operate at more than 250 kt IAS below 10,000 feet.
LANDING PERFORMANCE
57. Landing Regulations
LDR (Landing Distance required) :- LDR is 1.67 times the distance required to land from 50 ft above
the threshold at Vref and come to a stop on a dry level surface (following a steady descent on approach
to 50 ft above threshold, at a descent gradient of not more than 5% at a speed not less than Vref
For dispatch, the expected landing weight of aircraft at destination / alternate should meet the following
requirements.
LDR should be within the LDA.
Climb gradient requirements in APP and Landing configuration as described in the next
paragraph.
The maximum landing weight at an airfield has to meet the following requirements.
(a) During the landing, from a height of 50’ above threshold at a speed of 1.3 Vso (Vref), it
should be possible to land and bring the airplane to a complete stop within 60% of the
LDA.
(b) If required to go round after touch down (Balked landing) with the T/O Thrust available on
both the engines (after 8 seconds of advancement of throttle levers to T/O position), and
aircraft remaining in Landing configuration with landing gear extended, it should be
possible to achieve a climb gradient of 3.2% without speed exceeding 1.3 Vso.
(c) If required to go round during the approach for landing, with one engine inoperative and
the other at T/O thrust and the aircraft in approach configuration corresponding to the
landing configuration (i.e. the Vs in approach configuration selected with U/C up should
not exceed 110% Vs in landing configuration with U/C up), it should be possible to
achieve a gradient of climb of 2.1% for two-engine ac and 2.4% for three-engine ac
without speed exceeding 1.5 Vso (the stalling speed in corresponding landing
configuration, but with U/C up).
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE - GENERAL Page 12 of 14
For flight dispatch purpose, the LDR for dry runway to be increased by 15% in case the destination RWY
is expected to be wet. Hence, in such a case, the max landing weight should be so restricted as to ensure
that 1.15 times LDR for dry runway does not exceed LDA.
Brake energy limit is taken care of by specifying max tailwind component limits during certification. The
factors affecting CLW are same as in the case of take-off. FLW depends on LDA, P.A., Temperature, R/W
condition and configuration. An increase in pressure altitude, ambient temperature will increase the
landing distance required and decrease the WAT limited landing weight. An increase in configuration will
reduce the landing distance required as well as WAT limit weight.
Weights
Landing Weight
The weight of the aeroplane at the time of landing, taking into account the weights of fuel
and oil expected to be used on the flight to the aerodrome at which the landing is to be
effected.