S.

6 Physics ---- Data treatment and error

Degree of accuracy of a measurement --- using significant figures
e.g. the length of wire l = 6 m (1 significant figure) ⇒ 5.5 m ≤ l < 6.5 m
l = 6.0 m (2 significant figures) ⇒ 5.95 m ≤ l < 6.05 m
l = 6.00 m (3 significant figures) ⇒ 5.995 m ≤ l < 6.005 m
Scientific notation a × 10n 1 ≤ a < 10 and n is non-zero integer
e.g. 6 × 101 m (1 significant figure)
6.0 × 101 m (2 significant figures)
6.00 × 10 m
1
(3 significant figures)
1.02 × 103 kg (3 significant figures)
1.020 × 10 kg (4 significant figures)
3

8.003 × 10-6 s (4 significant figures)

8.0030 × 10 s (5 significant figures)
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Mistake and error

e.g. In an electricity experiment, the student is instructed to protect the galvanometer by connecting a
resistor in parallel with it. But, (s)he carelessly connected the resistor in series.

Error nature
A. Random error
B. Systematic error

Sources of errors are classified as:

1. Personal errors
2. Instrumental errors
3. Environmental errors
4. Computational errors
5. errors due to natural fluctuation of the physical quantity
6. errors in auxiliary data
7. errors due to theoretical assumptions

1. arise from the limits of resolution of the human senses, personal judgement and human reaction time
(average of 0.2 s)
2. arise mainly from the limits of revolution of the instrument, due to the graduated scale, the fineness of
adjustment or the sensitivity of the instrument.
e.g. Micrometer screw gauge is graduated in 0.01mm, it can only be up to 0.005mm accuracy ---
reading error. Sometimes, it is the zero error, but this can be corrected.

3. arise from changes in external conditions.

e.g. fluctuation of the mains voltage, air movement, vibrations of the bench --- random
e.g. the viscosity of a liquid changes with temperature; the steady change of room temperature ---
systematic

4. arise from approximation taken in calculations.

e.g. use of calculators, rounding off --- random
e.g. neglect higher powers in a mathematical series --- systematic

5. due to inhomogeneity of the material, e.g. non-uniform density or refractivity, irregularities of shape
(non-uniform diameter of a wire, irregular particle sizes.), fluctuation with time (atmospheric pressure
and radioactive count rate).
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6. e.g. standards (e.m.f. of a standard cell, physical constants (g))
Take g = 10 ms-2 --- computational error due to rounding off.
Take g = 10 ms-2 --- g varies from place to place on Earth.

7. due to assumption made in formulae ---- systematic

l
e.g. T = 2 π occurs if θ is small.
g

Estimation of errors
e.g. micrometer screw gauge has a zero error = +0.02 mm
e.g. 21.37 mm , actual thickness = 21.37 – 0.02 = 21.35 mm
(I) e.g. Uncertainty reading l = 6.30 ± 0.05 cm means 6.25< l <6.30 i.e. l can be 6.26, 6.27, 6.28, 6.29,
6.30, 6.31,6.32, 6.33, 6.34
The observer can record it as 6.27 ± 0.05 cm, 6.28 ± 0.05 cm, 6.29 ± 0.05 cm,
0.05cm is called as the reading error or the maximum possible error; it is half of the smallest
division on the scale.
The measurement should be recorded as (x ± Ex) ⇒ x - Ex <Ex< x + Ex
Ex should be corrected to 1 or at most 2 significant figures

e.g. (7.25 ± 0.05) × 10-3 m

(1.48 ± 0.15) × 10-3 kg
9.7 ± 0.2 s

(II) Because of the fluctuation of the supply voltage, the current fluctuates between 1.40 A to 1.80 A
then the reading = 1.60 ± 0.20 A
including the reading error, it should be 1.60 ± 0.25 A

(III) In measuring the diameter of a wire using a micrometer screw gauge, because of the non-uniformity
in diameter, the following are the data (measuring along perpendicular directions at 3 different
positions:
1.26, 1.24, 1.25, 1.22, 1.22, 1.24 mm
Sum _ of _ them
The mean diameter = = 1.238 mm (4 significant figures)
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Error (the mean deviation) :

1.26 − 1.238 = 0.022; 1.24 − 1.238 = 0.002; 1.25 − 1.238 = 0.012; 1.22 − 1.238 = 0.018; 1.22 − 1.238

= 0.018; 1.24 − 1.238 = 0.002

Sum _ of _ them
Mean deviation = = 0.012 mm
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∴ the mean diameter = 1.238 ± 0.017 mm (including the reading error of 0.005 mm)
or = 1.24 ± 0.02 mm

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