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A Review on Scour Modeling below Pipelines

Conference Paper · August 2009

DOI: 10.1061/41069(360)95

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 Pipelines 2009: Infrastructure's Hidden Assets © 2009 ASCE 1019

A Review on Scour Modeling below Pipelines

Can Chen1, S.M. ASCE and Jie Zhang2, M. ASCE, Ph.D., P.E.

1
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, New Mexico State University,
P.O. Box 30001, MSC-3CE, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001; can@nmsu.edu
2
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Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, New Mexico State University,

P.O. Box 30001, MSC-3CE, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001; jzhang@nmsu.edu

ABSTRACT: Local scour below pipelines commonly occurs due to the erosive
action of currents and waves. Such scour may cause pipeline suspension and
ultimately leads to pipeline failure. Over the last three decades, both physical and
numerical modeling of pipeline scouring in steady currents and waves has been
developed for better understanding of local scour. In this paper, a review on scour
modeling below pipelines is presented from both physical and numerical modeling
aspects. Advantages and limitations of both scour modeling methods will be provided.
Future development of scour modeling below pipelines will also be discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Pipelines are used for transporting fluids such as water, oil and gas. One important
aspect in the design of new pipelines and the maintenance of existing pipelines is the
assessment of local scour. If local scour occurs underneath pipelines, the pipelines
may either vibrate due to the hydrodynamic forces or induce additional static or
dynamic loads due to self-burial. Moreover, they might be destroyed partially or fully
and thus be unable to perform their functions. Therefore, the consequences of
pipeline failure would be severe both economically and environmentally. Typical
costs for pipeline stabilization are in the order of millions of US dollars per kilometer.
Due to the obvious significance, local scour below a pipeline has been the subject
of investigations over many decades. However, up to now the process of scour has
mainly been studied using physical modeling because of the complexity of the
problem, i.e., 3-D turbulent flow with sediment transport. In recent years, attempts
have also been made to attack the pipeline scouring problem from a numerical point
of view. Efforts have been devoted to developing numerical models for pipeline scour.
Numerical models can provide design engineers with an alternate way to evaluate and
understand the process of local scour around pipelines. The results of numerical
modeling can provide an improved understanding of the scouring processes and the
governing parameters controlling scour. However, numerical modeling still has some
limitations. It is therefore imperative that more efforts are needed in developing

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suitable numerical models. In this paper, scour modeling below pipelines will be
reviewed from three perspectives, i.e., two-dimensional physical scour modeling,
three-dimensional physical scour modeling, and numerical scour modeling.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL PHYSICAL MODELING

Onset of Scour in Currents

Assume a pipeline is laid on an erodible bed in currents, the sediment soil and the
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flow conditions are the same along the length of the pipe. Therefore, the pipe can be
analyzed in two-dimensional (2-D) space. Many researchers studied the onset
conditions of scour. For example, Mao (1988) attributed the scour onset to the
seepage flow underneath the pipeline, which is caused by a large jump of pressure or
the difference of relative pressure coefficient (Cp) between the upstream and
downstream sides. As shown in Figure 1, the scour-digging effect of vortices A and C
can also lead to scour development. Later, Chiew (1990) found that the action of
vortex C was completely overshadowed by vortex B, which is against Mao’s
deduction and he linked the onset of scour to the phenomenon of seepage only. The
relationship between ΔCp and the ratio of the flow depth to the pipe diameter (y0/D)
was also discussed by Chiew (1990). It can be seen in Figure 2 that y0/D is inversely
proportional to ΔCp, which means that high y0/D ratios would lead to low ΔCp and no
scour would happen. Recently, Dey and Singh (2008) found that there is no increase
in scour potential for y0/D > 5 in clear-water conditions.
The onset of scour is also related the embedment of pipeline in currents. Sumer et
al. (2001) proposed the following criterion for the onset of scour in steady currents:
⎡ U2 ⎤
⎢ gD(1 − n)( s − 1) ⎥ > f ( e / D ) (1)
⎣ ⎦ cr
where U is the local velocity near the bed, e is the self-burial depth of pipeline, D is
the pipeline diameter, g is the acceleration of gravity, n and s are the porosity and
specific gravity of soil, respectively. The function f (e/D) was determined from
experiments. If U exceeds the sediment threshold velocity Ucr, seepage would occur
and scour happens. As expected, experiment results showed that the larger burial
depths the higher the critical velocity for scour onset.

Figure 1. The three-vortex system (Mao 1988)

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Figure 2. y0/D vs. ΔCp for pipelines with zero embedment depth (Chiew 1990)

Scour Development in Currents

After the onset of scour, the scour starts to propagate below and normal to the
length of the pipeline. Summer and Fredsøe (1990) indicated that the scour depth ds
can be related to other parameters through the following expression:
d s / D = f ( k s , R, θ ) (2)

where ds is equilibrium scour depth, ks is the relative roughness of pipeline, R is the

Reynolds number, and θ is the Shields parameter governing the sediment transport.
Summer and Fredsøe (1990) found that R only influences flow around smooth pipes
and is negligible when the pipeline is hydraulically rough. The effect of ks on the
scour depth was also studied by Hoffmans and Verheij (1997), who proposed an
empirical expression indicating that ds increases with ks. The effect of θ is proved to
be minor on the variation of ds/D in live-bed conditions, because the scour hole is fed
by the approaching sediments. Ignoring the weak relationship between θ, R and ds in
live-bed cases, Sumer and Fredsøe (1992) established the following simple equation
for predicting the maximum scour depth:
d s / D = 0.6 ± 0.1 (3)

Potential Flow Theory

The potential flow theory shows that as the gap size decreases, the velocity
through the gap increases as compared to the velocity over the top of the pipeline. In
addition, in clear-water conditions, most engineers today realized that θ can
adequately describe the condition of scour equilibrium. Based on the potential flow
theory and the Shields entrainment function, Chao and Hennessy (1972) developed an
analytical model for estimating the maximum scour depth ds below pipelines under
steady flow. They assumed that the scour takes place until the bed shear stress
induced by the flow velocity below the pipeline reaches the critical bed shear stress.

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Applying the potential flow theory, Chiew (1991a) used an iterative method estimate
the maximum scour depth. An empirical function was also proposed to relate y0/D to
the gap-total flow ratio to determine the amount of gap flow through the scour hole.
Chiew (1991b) further supported this method and indicated that the shear stress on
the bed sediment in the scour hole was very close to that predicted using the Shields
entrainment function despite of the slope angle.

Empirical Approach
Since the scour development underneath a pipeline is based on not only the
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pipeline parameters (D and ks) and environmental conditions (y0 and R) but also on
the seabed parameters, a full empirical approach in physical modeling remains
attractive. The work of Kjeldsen et al. (1973), as a milestone in empirical physical
scour modeling, investigated the local scour around submarine pipelines under
unidirectional currents. It was considered that the scour depth in live-bed conditions
depends only on the flow velocity and pipe diameter. The research group at the Delft
University of Technology later improved Kjeldsen’s model by considering the effect
of grain size to scour depth.
d s = 0.929 ⎡⎣U 0 / ( 2 g ) ⎤⎦
0.26
D 0.78 d50−0.04 (4)
where U0 is the undisturbed mean velocity and d50 is the mean seabed particle size.
However, both Eq. (4) and the Kjeldsen's model underestimated the maximum scour
depth (Bijker and Leeuwestein, 1984) and predicted a scour depth even at zero flow
velocity (Li and Cheng, 1999).
Ibrahim and Nalluri (1986) put forward Kjeldsen’s model and added the influence
of the flow depth in their analysis. Two empirical equations were proposed for
predicting the scour depth under both clear-water and live-bed conditions. However,
several distinct shortcomings were pointed out by Chiew (1991b), which include (1)
opposite parameters used in those equations which can make people puzzle; (2) the
grain size was not considered; and (3) the underestimation of the scour depth.

Froude Number Approach

Maza (1987) proposed a graphical solution for estimating scour depth that is
related to the initial gap-pipe diameter ratio and the flow Froude number (F). Maza’s
solution showed that ds increases with increasing Froude numbers. Moncada-M. and
Aguirre-Pe (1999) further extended the approach for estimating both the scour depth
and the scour length.
Recently, Dey and Singh (2008) conducted research on clear-water scour below
pipelines under steady flow. A large number of scour profiles of different runs were
recorded. From the examination of the non-dimensional equilibrium scour, a simple
cubic polynomial equation describing the equilibrium scour depth was also derived.

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Scour in Waves
The major difference between the scour in waves and in currents is that in waves
the strong lee-wake erosion occurs on both sides of pipeline. This would lead to a
more gentle scour slope. Thus the flow region below the pipe would be less protected
against the outer flow, and increase the scour depth (Sumer and Fredsøe, 1991).
Based on a small number of laboratory experiments, Sumer and Fredsøe (1990) gave
the following criterion for estimating the onset of scour in waves:
ec / D = 0.1× ln (KC ) (5)
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where ec is the critical pipeline embedment and KC is the Keulegan-Carpenter

number.
In addition, Sumer et al. (2001) pointed out that the criterion given in Eq. (1) can
also be adopted to determine the onset of scour in waves provided that U is replaced
by Um, where Um is the maximum value of the orbital velocity of water particle at the
bed and the Keulegan-Carpenter number be considered as well.
Sumer and Fredsøe (1990) studied the scour beneath a bottom-resting pipeline
under wave action and indicated that wave-induced scour depth was strongly related
to the KC number and the pipe diameter, while only weakly influenced by Shields
parameter and the pipe roughness. The following expression was established.
d s / D = 0.1 KC (6)
Klomb and Tonda (1995) later modified Eq. (6) by adding the effect of embedment
depth of the pipeline:
d s / D = 0.1 KC (1 − 1.4e / D ) + e / D (7)

As can be seen from Eq. (7), the scour depth increases with the embedment. However,
Eq. (7) can only be used for that case of e/D < 0.5.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL SCOUR MODELING

2-D physical scour models can only describe the scour process below and normal
to the pipeline. However, scour also propagates along the length of the pipeline after
the onset of scour. Therefore, a 3-D scour pattern should be considered. As time
elapses, when the scour hole is sufficiently long, the pipeline would starts to sag in
the scour hole (Figure 3). The time scale for this spread is discussed by Gravesen and
Fredsøe (1983). After the pipeline reaches the bottom of the scour hole, it will more
or less block the flow and leads to the following self-buried process. Hansen et al.
(1991) found that the embedment of the pipe is very important for the rate of free
span development. A semi-empirical model for steady current in predicting the
longitudinal scour rate of the free span was also proposed:

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1 dV
c= (8)
(−e) D dt
where c is the longitudinal erosion rate, dV/dt is the volumetric rate of sediment
transport.
However, Klomp (1995) indicated no data is available for the critical conditions of
free span development and the effect of waves on the longitudinal scour rate has not
been studied. Grass et al. (1994) developed a model relating the rate of free span
development under waves to the volumetric rate of sediment transport and the vertical
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rate of scour. However, it is only at the beginning stage and has only been applied to
small scale modeling. Furthermore, Klomp (1995) related the longitudinal scour rate
to the KC number and the pipeline embedment in wave cases. He concluded that the
longitudinal scour rate increases with the KC number and decreases with increasing
embedment. In addition, Sumer and Fredsøe (1988) found that a spiral type of vortex
which forms in front of the pipe near the span shoulder of the scour hole may also be
responsible for the longitudinal scour development. This phenomenon was supported
by the proposed numerical models on laminar flow situation (Chen and Cheng, 2001)
and further extended to the turbulent flow case by Chen and Cheng (2002).

Figure 3. Scour hole under pipelines in 3D view (Sumer et al. 2001)

NUMERICAL SCOUR MODELING

Numerical modeling of scouring process can mainly be divided into two categories:
the potential-flow theory model and the turbulent flow model.

Potential-Flow Models
Regarding the potential-flow models, the pioneering research was conducted by
Hensen et al. (1986). However, the work they have done can only provide an estimate
of the possible scour hole depth because too many assumptions were made in the
derivation of their model. Later, Li and Cheng (1999) developed a relatively simple
2-D numerical model based on potential-flow theory. The model employed a

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finite-difference method to solve the Laplace equation in terms of velocity potential

in curvilinear coordinate system. The scour profile was obtained by an iterative
procedure until the equilibrium seabed shear stress equals the critical shear stress of
the sediment. The advantage of this model is that the estimation of the scour hole
depth would not introduce any empirical sediment formula. However, it failed to give
the correct prediction on the downstream portion of the scour since the potential flow
theory itself cannot simulate the vortex shedding process and therefore cannot handle
the lee-wake erosion. The same phenomenon was also reported by Hansen et al.
(1986) in their potential-flow model. In order to resolve the problem, Li and Cheng
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(2001) extended and validated the scour model by adding the effect of vortex
shedding on the bed shear stress. However, both the new model and the old one
developed by Li and Cheng (1999) cannot describe the time development of the scour
hole due to the equilibrium assumption employed (Cheng and Li, 2003). Thus further
investigations on the potential flow model are necessary to express the time
development in the scour process.

Turbulence Flow Models

Early turbulence models concern the 2-D simulation of the flow. Leeuwenstein
and Wind (1984) simulated the scour near a pipeline based upon the k-ω turbulence
and a transport equation for sediment concentration. However, the latter only includes
the bed-load transport and neglects the suspended-load contribution in the
morphological change of sediment. van Beek and Wind (1990) extended the model
by adding the suspended-load transport in simulation. The computation of the
suspended-load transport is based on the computer program ODYSSEE. van Beek
and Wind (1990) indicated that although good agreement was demonstrated with
measured scour holes, the rate of erosion was much faster compared with the results
obtained by Kjeldsen (1973). Later, Brørs (1999) further developed the transport
equation for suspended sediment using a Taylor-Galerkin finite-element method.
Results of the simulated scour hole process were compared with profiles measured by
Mao (1986) in the clear-water scour case. An overall agreement is seen although no
vortex shedding was predicted. A 2-D numerical model for simulating local scour
depth with the consideration of pipeline sagging was proposed by Cheng and Li
(2003). The fluid flow is calculated by solving the spatially filtered Navier-Stokes
equations with the standard Smagorinsky’s subgrid scale model, which has been
shown to be able to reproduce the lee wake feature and by fluctuating bed shear stress
downstream of the pipelines. It was found that the formed scour depth is a function of
the pipeline sagging speed. With the increase of sagging speed, the scour rate would
become generally smaller. Recently, Liang and Cheng (2005) developed a vertical
2-D numerical model for local scour beneath pipeline exposed to waves, which are
modeled as sinusoidal oscillatory flows. The result of the simulated flow model was
compared with the results obtained by Sumer et al. (1991). It indicates that this wave

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model can give a reasonable good prediction of wave and vortex structures but it
could not precisely predict the lift force coefficient due to the limitation of the
Reynolds-averaged flow model.
As for the 3-D turbulence flow models, Ushijima et al. (1992) proposed a method
for estimating local scour due to the cooling water jets discharges above a sediment-
covered bed. Later Ushijima (1996) extended this model by applying an arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian technique. The 3D calculation is made on a curvilinear,
body-fitted grid, with turbulence due to the k-ω model. Omitting the transient term,
Zhang et al. (2005) proposed a 3-D flow model, which calculates the flow field by
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solving the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations with the widely used k-ω
model for the turbulence closure. Although such models were constructed in a 3-D
space, they also included much empiricism from 1-D and 2-D models. As a result, the
use of the conventional formulae might lead to questionable simulation. Thus, more
effort should be put in establishing a fully 3-D model.

CONCLUSION

This paper reviews the models for estimating scour formation below pipelines as well
as some critical parameters that influence the scour process. It is found that the
physical models are simple and easy to use but are often inadequate for the study of
complex currents and waves as well as pipeline support conditions. The feasibility of
numerical models, on the other hand, is strongly dependent on computing times.
Owing to the prohibitively long computing time required for even simple numerical
models, combined with the lack of reliability for engineering use, it is probable that
this method will remain as a research tool for the foreseeable future.

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