1
Intentional Islanded Operation of Converter Fed Microgrids
Charles K. Sao, Student Member, IEEE, and Peter W. Lehn, Member, IEEE
Abstract— This paper develops a dynamic model of a converter fed is-
landed microgrid and proposes a control scheme to regulate its voltage and
frequency. The model, which is formulated in an instantaneously synchro-
nized reference frame, shows that the microgrid voltage depends on the real
power balance between the converter and the load while reactive power bal-
ance determines the frequency. These results are used to synthesize a mi-
crogrid voltage and frequency control scheme that allow converters with
standard inductor interface and dq frame current control to operate in in-
tentional islanding mode without using a frequency generator in the con-
troller.
Keywords— Instantaneous Synchronization, Instantaneous Frequency,
Voltage Source Converter, Microgrid, Intentional Islanding
I. INTRODUCTION
Many new distributed power sources, such as wind turbine
generators and fuel cells, do not generate 60 Hz ac voltage.
Thus, they require voltage source converters (VSCs) as part of
the circuitry to interface them with the power grid. A section of
the power grid with such power sources may be called a micro-
grid if it is capable of operating as an electrical island.
In grid connected operation, interface converters operate as
controlled current sources. Regulation of the point of common
coupling (PCC) voltage magnitude and frequency is left to the
grid. These converters operate at 60 Hz only because they are
synchronized to the PCC voltage vector, which rotates at 60 Hz
as dictated by the grid. In an islanded microgrid, there is no ex-
ternal grid to set the voltage and frequency, and these quantities
must be regulated by the converters.
Available literature on operation of converter fed power net-
works is mainly in the context of uninterruptible power supplies
(UPSs). In islanded operation, a UPS employs a voltage control
scheme that regulates the magnitude of its output voltage. Some
UPSs have inner current loops to protect the switches [1], [2],
[3] while others directly control the bridge terminal voltage to
regulate the output voltage [4], [5], [6], [7]. All the above UPS
control schemes employ a frequency generator in the controller,
such as a crystal oscillator, that assign an output frequency of 60
Hz.
Most existing papers on intentional islanding operation of
converter fed microgrids propose to operate the converters as
voltage sources. Like in a typical UPS, the converters regu-
late their output voltage magnitude while a frequency generator
sets the frequency at 60 Hz [8], [9], [10]. A more sophisticated
converter control scheme is presented in [11], where the angle
between the converter and network fluxes is set to regulate the
frequency of an islanded microgrid. However, the paper does
not relate the microgrid frequency to the angle between the two
fluxes. Moreover, no control mechanism exists to limit overcur-
rent in the converter.
This paper uses a reference frame, which is instantaneously
synchronized to the microgrid bus voltage, to develop a dynamic
model of an islanded microgrid. Contrary to a conventional
power system, the model shows that the microgrid voltage de-
pends on the real power balance between the converter and the
1-4244-0493-2/06/$20.00 ©2006 IEEE.
load while the frequency is determined by the reactive power
balance. Such steady state relations have been identified in the
literature on islanding detection [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17]
although none of these publications offers a dynamic model of
an islanded microgrid. Based on the developed dynamic model,
a microgrid voltage and frequency control scheme is synthe-
sized to allow converters with standard inductor interface and dq
frame current control to operate in intentional islanding mode.
Section II of the paper presents the system structure while
section III develops the dynamic equations of an islanded mi-
crogrid based on instantaneous synchronization. Section IV pro-
poses a supervisory control scheme to regulate the voltage and
frequency of the microgrid. It also includes the control design
procedure and circuit simulation results.
II. SYSTEM STRUCTURE AND CONVERTER MODEL
This section describes the configuration of a simplified mi-
crogrid, shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a collector bus, a con-
verter, a bus capacitor, CB , and a load. The capacitor ensures
that the voltage pulsations at the terminals of the converter do
not appear across the load. For simplicity, the load is assumed
to be balanced, and it is represented as a parallel combination
of resistance R and inductance L, as is the norm in islanding
detection literature [12], [14], [16], [17]. The line impedance
between the collector bus and the load is much smaller than the
load impedance and is neglected. The converter is connected
to the collector bus through an interface inductor, which is not
shown here.
It is assumed in this paper that:
1. The converter employs pulse width modulation.
2. The converter switches well above the fundamental fre-
quency of the ac supply and the resonant frequency of the mi-
crogrid.
3. The dc side of the converter is connected to a strong dc bus
with sufficiently high voltage.
4. The converter is regulated by a high bandwidth current con-
troller.
5. The system is balanced.
Given these assumptions, a fundamental frequency model of
the converter is justified, where the converter is modeled as an
averaged current source. Note that the high frequency converter
current dynamics have been neglected in order to focus exclu-
sively on the dynamics and control of the islanded microgrid.
III. ISLANDING BEHAVIOR OF THE POWER
NETWORK
The section derives a linearized model of the islanded net-
work in Fig. 1. Modelling the converter as a current source, the
large signal dynamics of the network are given by:
dvBabc vBabc iLabc i1abc
= − − + (1)
dt RCB CB CB
 2

vB Load Outputs of the system to be regulated are given by:

i1 iL
|vBd | = vBd (12)
CB R L i1q − iLq
VSC 1 ωB = (13)
CB vBd

A. Steady State Solution

The steady state solutions of the nonlinear state space model
Fig. 1. A converter fed power network in islanded mode.
are given by:
diLabc vBabc
= (2) vBd0 = Ri1d0 (14)
dt L
iLd0 = 0 (15)
The above equations can be rewritten in terms of the d and q

i1q0 i1q0 2 CB (Ri1d0 )2
axis components of the voltage and current space vectors in a iLq0 = ± ( ) + (16)
2 2 L
certain reference frame B. If B rotates with angular frequency
ωB , the resulting equations are: The steady state outputs are:
dvBd vBd iLd i1d vBd0 = Ri1d0 (17)
= − + ωB vBq − + (3)

dt RCB CB CB
i1q0 i1q0 1
dvBq vBq iLq i1q ωB0 = ∓ ( )2 + (18)
= − + ωB vBd − + (4) 2RCB i1d0 2CB Ri1d0 LCB
dt RCB CB CB
diLd vBd The solutions of (16) and (18) show that, in steady state, iLq
= ωB iLq + (5)
dt L is positive and ωB is negative OR iLq is negative and ωB is
diLq vBq positive. The first solution corresponds to the case in which
= −ωB iLd + (6)
dt L phase sequence reversal occurs to the system upon islanding.
Therefore, the only feasible steady state operating point of the
where system is:
vBd and vBq are the d and q axis components of vB ;
iLd and iLq are the d and q axis components of iL ; vBd0 = Ri1d0 (19)
i1d and i1q are the d and q axis components of i1 . iLd0 = 0 (20)


Instantaneously synchronizing reference frame B to the ca- i1q0 i1q0 2 CB (Ri1d0 )2
iLq0 = − ( ) + (21)
pacitor voltage implies that B rotates at the same angular fre- 2 2 L




quency as bus voltage vector vB , as defined in the Appendix. i1q0 i1q0 1
ωB0 = + ( )2 + (22)
The term “instantaneous frequency” must be used when refer- 2CB Ri1d 2CB Ri1d0 LCB
ring to the microgrid frequency as defined by:
Equation (19) shows that i1d0 is the sole input that influences
∆ dθB the steady state bus voltage amplitude vBd0 . In contrast, ωB0 is a
ωB = (7) function of both inputs. However, for a given vBd0 , the product
dt
Ri1d0 in (22) is constant. Thus, the only variable that can be
where θB is the angle of the capacitor voltage vector (with manipulated to influence the steady state frequency is i1q0 .
respect to a stationary reference frame).
Synchronizing reference frame B to the bus voltage vector B. Linearized System Model
makes vBq and its derivative equal to zero. This result may be
substituted in (4) to derive an expression for ωB , which is: To facilitate the synthesis of voltage and frequency control
schemes for the islanded system using classical control tools,
i1q − iLq (9) to (13) are linearized about the operating point vBd0 , iLd0 ,
ωB = (8) iLq0 and ωB0 . The linearized system model can be written in
CB vBd
standard state space form in terms of the state vector x, input
∆ vector u and output vector y as:
Setting vBq = 0 in (3) and (4) and substituting (8) in (5) and
(6) results in the nonlinear state space model of the system:

dvBd vBd iLd i1d ẋ = Ax + Bu; y = Cx + Du (23)

= − − + (9)
dt RCB CB CB
diLd i1q − iLq vBd where
= iLq + (10)  T  T
dt CB vBd L
x = vBd iLd iLq u= i1d i1q
diLq i1q − iLq  T
= − iLd (11) y = vBd ωB . (24)
dt CB vBd
 3

TABLE I
R
i1d Σ1 v Bd C ONVERTER R ATING AND THE L INEARIZATION P OINT
+- 1 + sRCB
i Ld Parameters and Variables Values P.U.
RMS of Base Voltage VBase = 115 VLL
2 RMS of Base Current IBase = 25 A
L v Bd
Load Resistance R = 3.98 Ω 1.5 p.u.
+ 1 i Ld Load Inductance L = 17 mH 2.41 p.u.
i1q K3 Σ2 Collector Bus Capacitance CB = 300 µF 0.3 p.u.
+ s
v Bd
+ Collector Bus Voltage vBd0 = 115 VLL 1 p.u.
i Lq K 2 d axis Component of iL iLd0 = 0 A 0 p.u.
K1 K4
s q axis Component of iL iLq0 = -14.62 A -0.58 p.u.
i1q - - System Bus Frequency ωB = 60 Hz 1 p.u.
Σ3 K5 Σ4 ωB d axis Component of i1 i1d0 = 23.6 A 0.94 p.u.
+ + q axis Component of i1 i1q0 = -4 A -0.16 p.u.
Fig. 2. Small signal block diagram representation of the linearized system
model.
Fig. 4 shows the responses of vBd and ωB to a 1 A step
change in i1q as predicted by the linearized system model and
The matrices A, B, C and D are found to be:
time domain circuit simulation. There is a close match between
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
− RC1 B − C1B 0 CB 0 the two sets of plots, indicating that the linearized system model
A = ⎣ − L2 0 K1 ⎦ B = ⎣ 0 K3 ⎦ and its underlying nonlinear equations are accurate.
0 K2 0 0 0
  IV. THE PROPOSED CONTROL SCHEME
1 0 0 0 0
C = D= (25)
−K4 0 −K5 0 K5 It is stated in section III.A. that the system voltage is primarily
influenced by the active current i1d whereas the reactive current
where i1q influences the system frequency. The graphs of Fig. 3 and
i1q0 − 2iLq0 iLq0 − i1q0 4 confirm these points. This section proposes a control scheme
K1 = K2 = that employs i1d and i1q as control inputs to regulate the vBd
CvBd0 CvBd0
and ωB respectively.
iLq0 i1q0 − iLq0
K3 = K4 = 2 Fig. 2 shows that the dynamics of the system voltage and
CvBd0 CvBd0
frequency are coupled. Thus, the following systematic approach
1 is used in developing the control scheme to ensure closed loop
K5 = .
CvBd0 stability in the presence of both voltage and frequency control
Fig. 2 shows the linearized system in block diagram form. loop compensators:
1. Derive the transfer function that relates i1d to vBd as per Fig.
C. Model Validation 5.
The linearized system model of (23) is validated by compar- 2. Choose the parameters of a PI compensator for the voltage
ing its step response to that of the power system of Fig. 1, which control loop.
is simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC, a time domain circuit simula- 3. Augment the system model of (23) with the compensator
tion tool for power systems. equation.
A fundamental frequency current source model is used to rep- 4. Use the augmented system model shown in Fig. 8 to derive
resent the converter in simulation. It consists of three control- the transfer function that relates i1q to ωB .
lable ideal current sources that generate the current i1abc . These 5. Choose the parameters of a second PI compensator for the
currents are assigned as per the Appendix. The PWM pattern frequency control loop, along with a virtual damping resistor,
generator, converter switches and interface inductors are not in- Rv .
cluded in the simulation.
Table I lists the system parameters and the initial values of the A. Voltage Control
system variables that define the linearization point. The initial The linearized system model of Fig. 2 may be used as the
values of i1d and i1q are also given in the table. starting point for the derivation of the plant transfer function re-
To obtain the step response of the circuit, it is first operated lating i1d to vBd . Setting i1q = 0 and rearranging the blocks
at the linearization point given in Table I. A step change of results in the plant model shown in Fig. 5, which may be sim-
1 A is then applied to input i1d . The responses of vBd and ωB plified to derive the following transfer function:
to the i1d step is plotted against time in Fig. 3. Also plotted
on the same graph are the corresponding step responses of the
linearized system. The close match between the two sets of plots vBd (s) s2 /CB − K1 K2 /CB
= 3 2
indicates that the linearized system model is accurate, as are the i1d (s) s + s /RCB + (2/LCB − K1 K2 )s − K1 K2 /RCB
underlying nonlinear equations in reference frame B. (26)
 4

Step Response of the System Bus Voltage Magnitude Response of the Voltage Control Loop Plant
121 30

120 20
Bus Voltage (V)

10

Magnitude (dB)
119
Circuit Simulation
118 0
Linearized System Model
-10 Plant With Rv
117
Plant Before Adding Rv
116
-20

-30
115
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (sec) -40
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Step Response of the System Bus Frequency Frequency (rad/s)
62
Circuit Simulation Phase Response of the Voltage Control Loop Plant
61.5 Linearized System Model 100
61
Frequency (Hz)

Plant With Rv

Phase Angle (degree)

60.5 50
Plant Before Adding Rv
60

59.5 0

59
-50
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (sec)
-100
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Fig. 3. Response of bus voltage and frequency to a step change in i1d , demon- Frequency (rad/s)

strating the dependence of voltage amplitude on i1d .

vBd (s)
118
Step Response of the System Bus Voltage
Fig. 6. Open loop bode plot of the voltage control loop - plant model is i1d (s)
Circuit Simulation
vBd (s)
117
Linearized System Model
before adding Rv and uv (s)
after adding Rv .
Bus Voltage (V)

116

seen by the compensator is:

115

vBd (s) s2 /CB − K1 K2 /CB

= 3
114
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (sec)
uv (s) s + s2 /Re CB + (2/LCB − K1 K2 )s − K1 K2 /Re CB
66
Step Response of the System Bus Frequency
(27)
where Re = (R ∗ Rv )/(R + Rv ).
Circuit Simulation
65 Linearized System Model

Since coefficients 1/Re CB and K1 K2 /Re CB in the trans-

Frequency (Hz)

64

fer function of (27) are always greater than 1/Rv CB and

63

62

61 K1 K2 /Rv CB , the system is well damped regardless of the load

60 resistance.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (sec) Having ensured that the plant is well damped, a PI compen-
sator may be used to regulate the system voltage to track the
Fig. 4. Response of bus voltage and frequency to a Step change in i1q , demon- ∗
strating the dependence of frequency on i1q . voltage reference vBd . The control input is:
Kiv ∗
uv (s) = (Kpv +
)(vBd (s) − vBd (s)) (28)
s
Controller Plant
where Kpv and Kiv are proportional and integral gains re-
* uv i1d R v Bd
v Bd Σ0 PI Σ Σ1 spectively. The closed loop transfer function of the voltage con-
+- +- +- 1 + sRCB trol loop is:
1 2
i Ld s Σ2 + L
1
Rv K 2 K1 + vBd (s) (Kpv s + Kiv )(s2 /CB − K1 K2 /CB )
∗ = (29)
s vBd (s) D(s)

where
1 Kpv 3 2 Kiv 2
Fig. 5. Block diagrams to facilitate the derivation of i1d to vBd transfer func- D(s) = s4 + ( + )s + ( − K1 K2 + )s
tion. Re CB CB LCB CB
K1 K2 K1 K2 Kpv K1 K2 Kiv
It can be shown using Routh-Hurwitz criterion that the open −( + )s −
Re CB CB CB
loop transfer function would be unstable if the coefficient K1 K2
were positive. While K1 K2 may be proven to be negative re- As an example, a voltage control loop is designed for the
gardless of the values of i1q and ilq , the damping of the open power system in Fig.1. The plant parameters and the lineariza-
loop system depends upon the load. As the load decreases, co- tion point are listed in Table I. Rv is 7.94Ω(3pu). The bode
(s) (s)
efficients 1/RCB and K1 K2 /RCB approach zero, moving the plots of viBd
1d (s)
and vuBd
v (s)
, which are shown in Fig. 6, may be
system poles towards the imaginary axis. To keep the open loop used for designing the PI compensator.
system sufficiently damped regardless of the load resistance, a The proportional and integral gains of the compensator are
virtual resistance Rv is added in parallel with CB . This is real- chosen as 0.068 and 85 respectively and the step response of the
ized by making i1d a function of vBd as well as the compensator voltage control loop for three load configurations as generated
output uv as shown in Fig. 5. The modified transfer function as by PSCAD/EMTDC is shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that:
 5

Unit Step Response of the System Bus Voltage Unit Step Response of the System Bus Frequency
118 61.2

117.5 61

117 60.8
Frequency Reference
System Bus Voltage (V)

Response with Nominal RL Load

Frequency (Hz)
116.5 60.6 Response with R Load
Bus Voltage Reference
Response with L Load
Response with Nominal RL Load
116 Response with R Load 60.4
Response with L Load

115.5 60.2

115 60

114.5 59.8
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (sec) Time (sec)

Fig. 7. Unit step Response of the voltage control loop. Fig. 9. Unit step response of the frequency control loop.

i1d K pvs + K iv them in (30) results in:

Σ0 v*Bd
s ωB (s) K4 K3 s2 /CB
+ - =− +
Re i1q (s) D(s)
Σ1 v Bd D(s) − K2 K3 s2 + ( KRC
2 K3
+
K2 K3 Kpv
)s − K2 K3 Kiv /CB
1 + sR eC B B CB
- i Ld CB vBd0 D(s)
(31)
2 ωB (s)
L v Bd The denominator of is identical to that of the closed
i1q (s)
+ 1 i Ld loop transfer function of (29), which is stable and well damped.
i 1q K3 Σ2 This implies that the frequency control loop has a stable plant
+ s
v Bd
and a PI compensator may be used to regulate the system fre-
+ i Lq K 2 quency to track ωB ∗
.
K1 K4 As an example, a frequency control loop is designed for the
s power system in Fig.1. The plant parameters and the lineariza-
i1q - - tion point are listed in Table I. The proportional and integral
Σ3 K5 Σ4 ωB gains of the compensator are chosen as 0.014 and 17 respec-
+ + tively and the step responses of the frequency control loop for
Fig. 8. Linearized system model with the voltage control loop added. three load configurations, as generated by PSCAD/EMTDC, are
shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that:
1. For the nominal R-L load, the step response has a rise time 1. For the nominal R-L load, which corresponds to the operat-
of 11 ms and is well damped with negligible overshoot and a ing point for which the controllers were tuned, the step response
settling time of 25 ms. has a rise time of 14 ms and is well damped with a 1% overshoot
2. For a pure resistive load of 3.98 Ω, the step response has a and a settling time of 28 ms.
rise time of 25 ms and settles down immediately at that point. 2. For a pure resistive load of 3.98 Ω, the step response has a
3. For a pure inductive load of 17 mH, the step response has a rise time of 14 ms and settles down immediately at that point.
rise time of 6.5 ms and a 35% overshoot, but it is well damped 3. For a pure inductive load of 17 mH, the step response has a
with a settling time of 50 ms. rise time of 15.5 ms and is well damped with a 3% overshoot
and a settling time of 45 ms.
The results demonstrate that a controller designed in the pro-
B. Frequency Control Scheme
posed manner will provide good performance regardless of the
As both the voltage and frequency of the microgrid are reg- actual power factor of the load.
ulated, the system model of Fig. 8, which includes the voltage
(s) V. CONCLUSION
controller, is used for the derivation of ωi1qB (s) .
ωB (s) A dynamic model of an islanded microgrid is formulated in a
Fig. 8 shows that transfer function i1q (s) is given by:
reference frame that is instantaneously synchronized to the col-
lector bus voltage. Consequently, the reference frame frequency
ωB (s) vBd (s) 1 iLq (s) is defined as the derivative of the instantaneous collector bus
= −K4 + (1 − ) (30) voltage vector angle. The developed model shows that the real
i1q (s) i1q (s) CB vBd0 i1q (s)
power balance between the converter and the load determines
the microgrid voltage while the frequency depends on the reac-
iLq (s) vBd (s)
Deriving transfer functions i1q (s) and i1q (s) and substituting tive power balance. This is in stark contrast to a conventional
 6

power system where the mechanical dynamics of the generator β

imposes a relation between power and frequency. Due to the ab-
sence of rotational inertia in the microgrid’s power source, such v Rotating
a power-frequency relation does not exists; instead, the PCC ca- i1 v
pacitor dynamics impose a relation between reactive power and i1q vB
frequency. i1d
Based on the developed model, a supervisory control scheme
is synthesized for a converter with conventional dq-frame cur- θB
α
rent control. A PI regulator sets the d-axis current reference to
regulate the bus voltage magnitude, while a second PI regulator
Fig. 10. Computing the Rotating Current Vector.
sets the q-axis current reference to regulate the bus frequency.
Frequency of the PCC voltage is therefore a regulated output
of the system, unlike in UPS applications where an oscillator [17] G. Smith, P. Onions, and D. Infield, “Predicting islanding operation of
grid connected pv inverters,” IEE Proceedings-Electric Power Applica-
merely sets the converter frequency and the frequency of the tions, vol. 147, no. 1, pp. 1–6, January 2000.
PCC voltage is assumed to converge to that of the converter in [18] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems. New York, NY: Wiley,
steady state. 1950, vol. 1.
Simulation results demonstrate validity of the model and ro- Appendix
bustness of the proposed control scheme to changes in system
loading and power factor. The capacitor voltage vector is defined as:

∆
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