TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

Chapter – 3

Electric and Electronics for Telecommunication

3.1 Introduction to Electronics in Telecommunication.

 Electronics began with pioneer work in two closely related fields:

 Electricity

 Magnetism

 The electromagnetic (E/M) spectrum, which includes all oscillating signals from 30 Hz at
the low-frequency end to several hundred GHz at the high-frequency end, plays a major
role in telecommunications.

 The radio waves provide a wireless path for information transmission, while wavelengths
in the near-infrared region are used in fiber-optic communications.

Block Diagram of Electronic Communication System

 Electronic communication uses electrical energy to transmit the information to be

communicated.
 The source of the information can be either a person or a machine.
 The transmitter converts the information from its original form to some kind of signal.
 The receiver converts the electrical signal back to its original form so that it can be
understood by a person or a machine.

3.1.1 Telecommunication System Parameters.

1
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

 The primary system parameters that determine network design and architecture are: Type
of Information and Bandwidth.

Type of Information
 Each type of information - data, voice, and video - has specific transmission system
requirements.
Bandwidth
 Bandwidth (BW) is the range of frequencies that can be transmitted with minimal
distortion.
 There is a general rule that relates BW and information capacity.
I = ktBW
Where I = amount of information that can be transmitted
k = a constant that depends on the type of modulation
t = transmission time in seconds
BW = channel bandwidth.

Broadband versus Baseband

There are two types of transmission systems such as Broadband and Baseband.
 Broadband,
 Involves the simultaneous transmission of multiple channels over a single line.
 The channel allocation is based on different multiplexing schemes.
 Baseband
 Indicates digital transmission of a single channel at a time.
 It is the mostly used transmission & refers to the original frequency range of a signal
before it is modulated into a higher and more efficient frequency range.
 It offers advantages such as low cost and ease of installation & maintenance.

3.1.2 Synchronous VS Asynchronous.

 The framing for asynchronous communication is based on a single character at a time,
while that for synchronous communication is based on a much bigger block of data.

2
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

 Synchronous signals require a coherent clock signal called a data clock between the
transmitter and receiver for correct data interpretation.

 Asynchronous transmission incorporates the use of framing bits-start and stop bits-to
signal the beginning and end of each data character because the data clock signals at the
transmitter and receiver are not synchronized, although they must operate at the same
frequency.

 Asynchronous is more cost-effective but inefficient compared with synchronous

transmission.

3.1.3 Efficiency of Transmission.

 Efficiency of transmission is the ratio of the actual message bits to the total number of
bits, including message and control bits.

 In any transmission, the synchronization, error detection, or any other bits that are not
messages are collectively referred to as overheads.

 The higher the overheads, the lower the efficiency of transmission.

3.2 Introduction to Electrics in Telecommunication.

3
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

Telecommunication deals with conveying information with electrical signals. To understand

more advanced telecommunication concepts, we need a firm knowledge of frequency and
related parameters such as band and bandwidth, wavelength, period, and phase.

3.2.1 Frequency.

It is defined as the number of complete cycles of sinusoidal variation per unit time. The
time unit will be measured in seconds. The mathematical expression that can be plot is:

Where x is expressed in radians, a “sine wave” is developed,

The above figure shows the Sine Wave. Here frequency is the number of times per second
that a wave cycle (one peak and one trough) repeats at given amplitude. In the figure,
A is the amplitude
, and

The figure given below shows two sine waves; the left side illustrates a lower frequency
and the right side shows a higher frequency. The amplitude, measured in this case as

4
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

voltage, is the excursion, up or down, at any singular point. Amplitude expresses the
intensity at that point. If we spoke of amplitude without qualifying it at some point, it
would be the maximum excursion in the negative or positive direction (up or down). Here
in this figure it is 6 volts. If it is in the “down” direction, it would be −6 volts, and in the
“up” direction it would be +6 volts.

Wavelength is conventionally measured in meters and is represented by the symbol λ. It is

defined as the distance between successive peaks or troughs of a sinusoidal wave. Both
sound and radio waves travel with a certain velocity of propagation. Radio waves travel at
186,000 mi/sec in a vacuum, or 3 * 108 m/sec. If we multiply frequency in Hz times the
wavelength in meters, we get a constant, the velocity of propagation. In a vacuum (or in
free space) as:

Note that metric prefixes are often used to express frequency, for example:
kHZ = Hz × 1000.
MHz = Hz × 1,000,000.
GHz = Hz × 1,000,000,000.
Accordingly as an example we can derive for 38.71 GHz. Such as:
= 38.71 × 1,000,000,000

5
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

= 38.710,000,000 Hz.

Phase: It is defined as a relative measurement that describes the temporal relationship

between two signals that have the same frequency.

3.2.2 Electrical Signals.

Transmission is defined as the electrical transfer of a signal, message, or other form of
intelligence from one location to another. Traditionally, transmission has been one of the
two major disciplines of telecommunication. Switching is the other principal area of
expertise. Switching establishes a connection from user X to some distant user Y. We can
say that transmission is responsible for the transport of the signal from user X to user Y. In
the old days of telephony these disciplines were separate, with strong demarcation
(differentiation) between one and the other. In this modern world the demarcation line is
fast disappearing.

3.2.3 Modulation.
At the transmitting side of a telecommunication link a radio carrier is generated. This
carrier is characterized by a frequency. This single radio frequency carries no useful
information for the user. Useful information may include voice, data, or image (typically
facsimile or television). Modulation is the process of impinging (imposing) that useful
information on the carrier and demodulation is the recovery of that information from the
carrier at the distant end near the destination user. Modulation can be defined as a process
whereby certain characteristics of a wave, often called the carrier, are varied or selected in
accordance with a modulation function.

6
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

There are three generic forms (techniques) of modulation:

 Amplitude modulation (AM);
 Frequency modulation (FM); and
 Phase modulation (PM).

All 3 modulation techniques employ a carrier signal. A carrier signal is a single frequency
that is used to carry the intelligence (data). For digital, the intelligence is either a 1 or 0.
When we modulate the carrier we are changing its characteristics to correspond to either
a 1 or 0.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation modifies the amplitude of the carrier to represent 1s or 0s. The
frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude changes to follow
variations in the information. In the below example, 1 is represented by the presence of
the carrier for a predefined period of 3 cycles of carrier. Absence--or no carrier--indicates
a 0.

Amplitude Modulation.

Frequency Modulation
Frequency Modulation modifies the frequency of the carrier to represent the 1s or 0s. In
the below example, 0 is represented by the original carrier frequency, and 1 by a much
higher frequency (the cycles are spaced closer together). In FM transmission, the
frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage level

7
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

(amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal
remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of
the carrier changes correspondingly.

Frequency Modulation.

Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation modifies the phase of the carrier to represent a 1 or 0. The carrier
phase is switched at every occurrence of a 1 bit but remains unaffected for 0 bit. The
phase of the signal is measured relative to the phase of the preceding bit. The bits are
timed to coincide with a specific number of carrier cycles (3 in below example = 1 bit). In
PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of
the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes,
the phase of the carrier changes correspondingly.

8
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

Phase Modulation.

3.2.4 Binary Digital Signals.

Arbitrarily, in digital systems there are two values as a 1 and a 0. This is indeed a binary
system, just two possible values. Look at real life, for example: a light is on or it is off, two
values: on and off. A car engine is running or not running, and so on. In our case of
interest, we denominate one value a 1 and the other, a 0. We could have a condition where
current flows and we’ll call that condition a 1; no current flowing we’ll call a 0. Of course,
we are defining a binary system with a number base of 2. Our day-to-day numbers are
based on a decimal number system where the number base is 10. The basic key in binary
digital transmission is the bit, which is the smallest unit of information in the binary
system of notation. It is the abbreviation of the term binary digit. It is a unit of information
represented by either a “1” or a “0.”

For instance, if we have a 2-bit code, there are four possibilities: 00, 01, 10, and 11. A 3-bit
code provides eight different binary sequences, each 3 bits long. In this case we have 000,
001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111. We could assign letters of the alphabet to each
sequence. There are only eight distinct possibilities so only eight letters can be
accommodated. If we turn to a 4-bit code, 16 distinct binary sequences can be developed,
each 4 bits long. A 5-bit code will develop 32 distinct sequences, and so on. As a result, we
can state that for a binary code of length n, we will have 2n different possibilities.

9
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

3.3 Introduction to Transporting Electrical Signals.

To transport electrical signals, a transmission medium is required. There are four types of
transmission media:
 Wire pair;
 Coaxial cable;
 Fiber optic cable; and
 Radio.

3.3.1 Wire Pair.

A wire pair consists of two wires. The wires commonly use a copper conductor, although
aluminum conductors have been employed. A basic impairment of wire pair is loss. Loss is
synonymous (identical) with attenuation. Loss or attenuation is usually expressed in
decibels (dB). Loss causes the signal power to be dissipated as a signal passes along a wire
pair. Power is expressed in watts. For this application, the use of milliwatts may is used. If
we denominate loss with the notation LdB, then:

Where P1 is the power of the signal where it enters the wire pair, and P2 is the power level
of the signal at the distant end of the wire pair. This is the traditional formula defining the
decibel in the power domain.
Example:
Suppose a 10-mW (milliwatt) 1000-Hz signal is launched into a wire pair. At the distant
end of the wire pair the signal is measured at 0.2 mW. What is the loss in dB on the line for
this signal? Solution:

10
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

3.3.2 Coaxial Cable Transmission.

Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in center and is made of solid
conductor. Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. Over the sheath the second wire is
wrapped around and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by
plastic cover.

Because of its structure coaxial cables are capable of carrying high frequency signals than
that of twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise
and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.

There are three categories of Coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin
Ethernet) and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet). RG stands for Radio Government.

The advantage of Coaxial Cable is that it can go upto 500MHz and repeaters every 1-2
KM, but the drawback is that it is a shared broadcasting medium and not suitable for full
duplex transmission.

The nominal impedance is 75 ohms, and special cable is available with 50-ohm impedance.
Impedance can be defined as the combined effect of a circuit’s resistance, inductance, and
capacitance taken as a single property, and is expressed in ohms (Ω ) for any given sine
wave frequency.

3.3.3 Fiber Optic Cable.

Fiber Optic is a type of cable that works on the properties of light. The core of fiber optic
cable is made of high quality glass or plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels
through it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and converts it to electric
data form. Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes; one is
single mode fiber and second is multimode fiber. Single mode fiber can carries single ray
of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.

Fiber optic cable is the favored transmission medium for very wideband terrestrial links,
including undersea applications. It is also used for cable television “super trunks.” The
bandwidth of a fiber optic strand can be measured in terahertz (THz).

11
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

The maximum length of fiber optic links range from 20 miles (32 km) to several hundred
miles (km) before requiring a repeater. This length can be extended by the use of
amplifiers and/ or repeaters, where each amplifier can impart 20 to 40 dB gain. A fiber
optic repeater detects, demodulates, and then remodulates a light transmitter. In the process
of doing this, the digital signal is regenerated. A regenerator takes a corrupted and distorted
digital signal and forms a brand new, nearly perfect digital signal. A simple model of fiber
optic link is given below.

3.3.4 Radio Transmission.

Radio transmission is based on radiated emission. The essential elements of any radio
system are:

 A transmitter for generating and modulating a “high-frequency” carrier wave with

an information baseband.

 A transmitting antenna that will radiate the maximum amount of signal energy of
the modulated carrier in the desired direction.

 A receiving antenna that will intercept the maximum amount of the radiated
energy after its transmission through space.

12
 TELECOM TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER THREE

 A receiver to select the desired carrier wave amplifies the signal, detect it, or
separate the signal from the carrier.

Although the basic principles are the same in all cases, there are many different designs
of radio systems. These differences depend upon the types of signals to
be transmitted.

13