Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering

Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Chapter 8

Rheology and Rheometry

Rheology is the science that study the flow behavior of fluids. Rheometry is the
process or processes to measure the various rheological parameters of a fluid.
Both are important to the study of drilling fluids.

8.1 Rheological Classification of Fluids

All fluids encountered in drilling and production operations can be character-

ized as either Newtonian fluids or non–Newtonian fluids. Newtonian fluids, like
water, gases, and thin oils (high API gravity) show a direct proportional relation-
ship between the shear stress τ and the shear rate γ̇, assuming pressure and
temperature are kept constant. They are mathematically defined by:
τ = µ γ̇ , (8.1)
where τ is shear stress, γ̇ is shear rate. The proportionality coefficient µ is the
(dynamic) viscosity of the fluid. A dimensional analysis shows that dynamic
viscosity has the dimension [F L−2 T ] or [M L−1 T −1 ]. Typical units are Nm2s =
P a s, P (poise in regard to Poiseuille), cP (centipoise), and lbf
f t2
s
. Conversion
factors are:
g
1P=1 ,
cm s
Ns
1 2 = 10 P = 1000 cP ,
m
1 lbf s
1 cP = .
47880.259 ft2
A plot of τ versus γ̇ produces a straight line that passes through the origin
and has a slop µ. Viscosity usually changes with pressure and temperature.
(See Figure 8.1).
Most fluids encountered at drilling operations like drilling mud, cement slur-
ries, heavy oil, and gelled fracturing fluids do not show this direct relation-
ship between shear stress and shear rate. They are characterized as non–
Newtonian fluids. To describe the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids, various

CHAPTER 8 Page 8–1

Rheology and Rheometry
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Figure 8.1: Typical graph of Newtonian fluids.

models like the Bingham plastic and the Power Law fluid models (two parame-
ter models), the Herschel–Bulkley and the Robertson–Stiff fluid models, which
are time–independent models. There exist time–dependent fluid models, which
present change of viscosity and other parameters based in time and shear
history. Time–dependent fluids model are sub-classified as thixotropic(time–
thinning) and rheopetic (time-thickening).
It shall be understood that all the models mentioned above are based on
different assumptions that are hardly valid for all drilling operations, thus they
are valid to a certain extend only. Most commonly drilling fluids are treated
behaving either aa a Bingham plastic or a power–law fluid. These two models
can describe relatively well most of the common drilling fluid for all ordinary
drilling operations.

8.1.0.1 Bingham–Plastic Fluid Model:

The Bingham plastic fluid model is a linear model (although not proportional),
and is expressed mathematically as follows.


 τ = τy + µp γ̇ γ̇ > 0
τ = −τy + µp γ̇ γ̇ < 0 (8.2)
γ̇ = 0 −τ y ≤ τ ≤ τy


The constant τy is called the yield point usually denoted “YP” and µy is called
plastic viscosity, usually denoted “PV”. The typical graph of a Bingham plastic
fluid is shown in Figure 8.2.

CHAPTER 8 Page 8–2

Rheology and Rheometry
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Figure 8.2: Typical graph of Bingham-plastic fluids.

8.1.0.2 Power–Law Fluid Model:

The power law fluid model is non–linear and do not present a yield stress, and
can be expressed as follows.

τ = K (γ̇)n

γ̇ ≥ 0
n (8.3)
τ = −K (−γ̇) γ̇ < 0

The constant K is called the consistency index and n is called behavior in-
dex.The typical graph of a power–law fluid is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Typical graphs of power–law fluids.

When the plot is done on a log–log scale it results in a straight line. Here
the slope determines the flow behavior index n and the intercept with the verti-
cal the value of the consistency index (log K). The flow behavior index, which
ranges from 0 to 1.0, declares the degree of non–Newtonian behavior, where
n = 1.0 indicates a Newtonian fluid. Mathematically n can be greater than 1.0,
but drilling fluids do not present this characteristic. Another characteristic (er-
roneously shown in the graph) is that the power–law presents an infinite slope
at γ̇ = 0. This, and other experimental results lead to the proposal of other fluid
models. The consistency index K on the other hand gives the thickness fluid,

CHAPTER 8 Page 8–3

Rheology and Rheometry
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

where larger K represent thicker (more viscous) fluids. It should be under-

stood, however, that K has not the dimension of viscosity. Consistency index
K is usually expressed in equivalent viscosity units.

8.2 Rheometry

To determine the rheological properties of a particular fluid a rotational vis-

cometer or rheometer is commonly used. Rheometers may have two, six, or
continuous (variable) speeds. The typical rotational rheometer (see Figure 7.3
has an arrangement of two concentric cylinders in which the outer cylinder ro-
tates and the inner cylinder actuate a torsion spring with a dial, as depicted in
Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4: Arrangement of a rotational viscometer.

The rotation of the rotor (external cylinder) shears the fluid between the rotor
and the bob (internal cylinder), which transmits torque from the rotor to the bob.
The torque causes a deflection of the dial (proportional to the torque), against
the resistance of the torsion spring. The wide use of rheometers in the field
leaded to the design of special dimensions that made easy the measurement
of fluid parameters.

CHAPTER 8 Page 8–4

Rheology and Rheometry
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

8.2.1 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids

The dimensions of the rotor and bob, and the coefficient of the torsion spring
are determined such that the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid in centipoise (cP) is
obtained directly by reading the deflection of the dial in degrees, when the rotor
rotates at 300 rpm.

8.2.2 Parameters of Bingham–Plastic Model Fluids

Two measurements at different rotation speeds are required. The parameters

are obtained with the following formulas (please note the units):
300
µp = (θN 2 − θN 1 ) [cP]
N2 − N1

N1
τy = θ N 1 − µp [lbf/100 ft2 ]
300
Note that any two rotation speeds can be selected, but 300 rpm and 600 rpm
lead to the simplification of the calculation, in addition to cover a range of shear
rates that typically occurs in drilling operations. The simplified expressions for
N1 = 300 rpm and N2 = 600 rpm are:
µp = θ600 − θ300 [cP]
(8.4)
2
τy = θ300 − µp [lbf/100 ft ]

The general formulas are useful to determine the parameters in other ranges
of interest (too small or too large).

8.2.3 Parameters of Power–Law Model Fluids

The parameters are obtained with the following general formulas:

log (θN 2 /θN 1 )
n= [1]
log (N2 /N1 )

510 θN
K= [eq.cP]
(1.703 N )n
Again, any two rotation speeds can be selected. For 300 rpm and 600 rpm the
expressions reduce to:
log (θ600 /θ300 )
n= [1]
log 2
(8.5)
510 θ300
K= [eq.cP]
511n

CHAPTER 8 Page 8–5

Rheology and Rheometry
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Example 31: A fluid rheometry test results in dial readings of θ300 = 13 and
θ600 = 22. Calculate the parameters using power–law and Bingham–plastic
models Solution:
(a) Power–law
log (22/13)
n= = 0.759
log 2
510 × 13
K= = 58.3 eq.cP
5110.759
(b) Bingham
µp = 22 − 13 = 9 cP

τy = 13 − 9 = 4 lbf/100 ft2

8.2.4 Gel Strength

Gel strength is the shear stress measured at low shear rate after a mud has
set quiescently for a period of time (10 seconds and 10 minutes in the standard
API procedure, although measurements after 30 minutes or 16 hours may also
be made).
To measure the gel strength a rheometer with low rotary speed (3 rpm) is
needed. The sample is sheared at 600 rpm for a period (1 to 5 minutes) and
set to rest for the determined time (10 seconds or 10 minutes). Then the shear
is applied at 3 rpm and the maximum deflection of the dial is read. The value
indicates the gel strength at 10s or 10m in lbf/100ft2 .

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Rheology and Rheometry