Mathematics and

Dyslexia—An Overlooked
Connection
Gudrun Malmer
University of Go¨tebo¨rg, Sweden

This paper describes various kinds of learning disability. It is

suggested that the connection between mathematical
difficulties
and dyslexia has been largely overlooked by educators.
Students’ failure to understand how the number system
works
and the resultant failure to appreciate place values account
for
many of the mathematical difficulties experienced by
dyslexic
learners. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Keywords: dyscalculia; dyslexia; mathematics; place value; teaching strategy

INTRODUCTION

The number of students who, to varying degrees, have been

found to display learning difficulties has increased
dramatically in recent years. In particular, there is evidence
of weakness at reading, writing and
arithmetic—three core skills, which also influence and affect
the whole
personality.
During my long experience in the field of education, as
teacher in various
grades and levels, as administrator and as a director of the
education and
further education for teachers and special needs teachers, I
have become
especially interested in barriers to learning, ways of dealing
with them and,
where possible, methods of intervention and prevention.
In Sweden dyslexia has recently become one of the chief
focal points in
educational discussions of learning difficulties. Campaigns
sponsored by
medical, psychological, teaching and other interest groups
have generated
profound awareness of this problem in the community.
Special centres have
been established for children and adults to provide support
and help, as well
as to teach compensatory strategies.
During my years as a head teacher (1963–1973), it was not
uncommon for
children to receive help for reading and writing difficulties,
and it was at this
time that I became aware that many of the same children also
had difficulties
with the other communication subject, mathematics.
What, I began to ponder, if any, is the association between
mathematical
difficulties and dyslexia? This question has continued to
engage me even
after my retirement.
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DYSLEXIA 6: 223–230 (2000)
224 G. Malmer

For many educators the association has provided no major

cause for
concern. This is the principal reason why the issue continues
to be overlooked, despite the many students with reading
and:or writing difficulties
who also have difficulty with mathematics. The problem is
partially compounded by the fact that the same teacher does
not teach both these core
areas. It exists first and foremost at the secondary stage but
can also occur at
primary school.
Many of these issues are of so complex a nature that greater
theoretical
and practical co-operation is necessary among teachers,
psychologists and
medical doctors, including psychiatrists. Investigation and
diagnosis are not
sufficient; well-grounded individually adapted programmes
are necessary if
valid and reliable assessments and follow-ups are to be
achieved.
The knowledge within this area is still not sufficient. Above
all, there is a
great deal of confusion regarding a precise definition of the
term dyscalculia.
To most, the term is quite new. As a result it has been
misused in the
literature, often connoting mathematical difficulties in
general. This is both
unfortunate and misleading (see below for further
discussion).
The following overview will provide the reader with my
view of the
different causes of mathematical difficulties.
PRIMARY FACTORS
Cognitive Development

The subject of mathematics demands from the student both

the ability to
concentrate and the ability to think and reason abstractly.
This is why
weaker students often have difficulties, particularly if they
are not offered
opportunities to learn at a slower pace and to receive extra
support, two of
their greatest needs. It is a shame that all too many students
are already
prejudged as incompetent even during their first school
years. It is not
always appreciated that if there are cutbacks in special needs
resources, the
result is extremely high rehabilitation costs later on.
It would be rash to believe that any teacher—however
proficient they may
be as a teacher—could help all students to achieve
mathematical excellence.
On the other hand, it is perfectly reasonable to offer all
students the
opportunity to learn as much as they are inherently capable
of. In reaching
this latter goal it is the actual method of teaching that is
decisive (see the
section ‘Inappropriate Teaching Methods’).
Linguistic Competence

Children possessing well-developed linguistic skills have the

best chance of
learning effectively, whereas those with poorer linguistic
skills and deficient
vocabulary often meet with greater difficulties in integrating
the fundamental concepts of learning. Such children have no
possibility on their own of
compensating for shortcomings in learning situations.
Additionally, they
have no way on their own of searching for knowledge or of
structuring their
work. Consequently they become more and more dependent
upon the
teacher’s participation and supervision.
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Mathematics and Dyslexia 225

These factors need to be considered when people press for

more, and
greater, student responsibility in learning situations. For if
such demands are
pressed in too one-sided, in a way we may face even greater
segregation in
our schools: the linguistically competent will become more
proficient and
adept, whereas the linguistically weak will become more
deficient and inept.
Neuropsychiatric Problems

Recently a number of newly identified neuropsychiatric

problems have been
gaining a great deal of attention. Problems such as DAMP
(earlier known as
minimal brain dysfunction (MBD)), attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and Asberger’s and Tourette’s syndromes have
become increasingly recognised in situations where there are
learning difficulties. Earlier,
students were regarded simply as troublesome or trouble-
makers. Now,
with the onset of neuropsychiatric diagnoses, a different light
has been shed
on concentration difficulties and on lack of attention.
Schools are now
required to make great efforts to combat the hyperactive
behaviour that
regularly occurs when these neuropsychiatric problems are
present. The
resulting situation is difficult for all those involved—
teachers, classmates,
the students themselves and their parents. There is no doubt
that children
with this type of handicap need extra support in all academic
subjects.
Moreover, since mathematics ranks high on the list of
neglected subjects,
there is all the more reason to provide mathematically weak
students with
extra time and resources.
Dyscalculia

The term dyscalculia (the numerical equivalent of what dyslexia is

to words)
is beginning to be used more frequently, although without
agreement as to
its definition. Because of this, estimates of its frequency
vary: some have
cited figures as high as 10–15% in primary school, although
most experts
would claim that the figure is appreciably lower than this.
Obviously a
greater international agreement on the definition of
dyscalculia is called for.
I myself have chosen to limit the use of the word to specific
mathematical
difficulties, i.e. to cases where the student’s low level of
achievement is
limited to mathematics and where the student achieves
average or above
average success in other subjects. The incidence of such
cases is probably no
more than a few percent. However, in the cases with whom I
have come into
contact, I have found that emotional factors play a very
important part. Early
failures, anxiety and worry often give rise to traumatic
blocks, difficult to
come to terms with. When such things occur they should
prompt us to a
heightened awareness and understanding of the students’
problems.
From the overview provided below, we see that a large
proportion of
students with dyslexic difficulties also have difficulty with
mathematics.
However, this difficulty should not be viewed as a primary
factor but rather
as a consequence of their dyslexia. It is from this group in
my research that
I have found students with very good mathematico-logical
skills, but whom
others have labelled as primarily having mathematical
difficulties. It is
essential that this difference is noted because each
educational programme
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)
226 G. Malmer

must be adapted to individual needs based on the causes of

the difficulties. Within this area it is essential that teachers’
knowledge should be
increased.
SECONDARY FACTORS
Dyslexic Difficulties

In terms of their symptoms, these students are far from being

a homogeneous group. The term ‘dyslexia’ was initially
intended to be used only for
specific reading and writing difficulties. Currently, however,
it is used
erroneously to refer to almost all reading and writing
difficulties. This can
obviously lead to confusion. Personally, I prefer to say
‘reading and:or
writing difficulties’, since I do not believe that the two
always go together:
some students have reading difficulties without writing
difficulties while for
others the reverse is the case.
It is particularly important to help and support dyslexic
children in such
a way that they are not also subjected unnecessarily to failure
in mathematics. They may even see opportunities for creative
and unusual ways of
problem solving, thereby promoting a sense of having
achieved something
worth while.
Writing Difficulties

If a child is unable to work comfortably with symbols the

consequences may
be far-reaching. Students may confuse similar symbols, such
as ‘b’ and ‘d’,
‘d’ and ‘p’, the digits ‘3’ and ‘5’ and the digits ‘6’ and ‘9’.
They also may not
easily remember the order of symbols and may therefore
invert them.
Direction, too, can cause difficulties when mathematical
problems shift from
left–right to right–left order. This occurs frequently in those
parts of mathematics where algorithms have to be
followed—an area which in my view
has been grossly neglected and its importance
underestimated.
The errors that students make in written mathematics
confirm that many
of these—perhaps 60–70%—are due just to the commonly
used conventional algorithmic methods of problem solving.
Students are taught early on
to transform addition or subtraction problems from a
horizontal positioning
(34+62 or 54-31) to a vertical one:
34
+62
54
-31

Students with any form of learning disability often possess

an extremely
limited working memory. As a result, they cannot organise
and maintain
over time all the rules and peculiarities that comprise vertical
mathematics.
The first learned left-to-right direction is suddenly replaced
with the opposite right-to-left one. Further problems occur
when the student is carrying
digits in addition, reducing numbers in subtraction, using
decimal point
placements in multiplication, etc. A transition to an effective
and systematic
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)
Mathematics and Dyslexia 227

mental mathematical calculation in combination with a

calculator would, at
this level, bring about substantial gains and increase the
ability to think
mathematically. Students would then receive constant
practice in the all-important and essential comprehension of
numbers and arithmetical operations. The alternative is a
meaningless movement involving the crossing-out
of digits and numerals. If the first method were adopted it
would help in
preparing students for the types of mathematical operations
that are used
outside the school; there is ample justification for it.
Reading Difficulties

For many students the reading of instructions and details of

the text is the
most serious stumbling block. For the dyslexic, in particular,
the deciphering
of words demands so much energy that the chances of any
understanding of
the actual text are greatly reduced, and such understanding
may at best be
faulty. The wording in mathematical texts is often so
concisely compressed
that every word becomes meaningful in solving the problem.
Many students with reading difficulties can, on the other
hand, be very
good at solving problems. An example will be given later;
and for the
present it is necessary only to say that many students can
solve mathematical problems after the problem has been
expressed in another form.
In many cases working with a classmate who has good
reading skills can
be beneficial. Many assignments, too, are particularly
suitable for work in
pairs. This form of co-operation provides the students with
opportunities to
discuss together and reason things out—important elements
in the learning
of mathematics. In test situations it may be wise for students
to have the text
audibly available on CD or cassette.
Inappropriate Teaching Methods

In some cases, regrettably, one must admit that students acquire

mathematical difficulties, which truly should have been
avoided. Several of the following factors lie behind this:
– the level of abstraction is too advanced;
– the formal demands are too great;
– the learning tempo is too accelerated.
During my later years I have been working with adults who
consider
themselves totally hopeless at mathematics but who, for
different reasons,
feel that they must try to deal with their problems. It is both
surprising and
disheartening to conclude that their failures are to a very
large extent due to
the lack of something very fundamental: they do not
understand how the
number system works. If numbers are presented orally they
may write them
incorrectly; for instance 408 can be written as 4008 and 1025
as 100025.
Should the teacher say ‘25 thousandths’, students may have
no idea what to
do. However, they may at times try to write out the word
‘thousandths’
rather than writing 0.025. These students show great
difficulties in numerical
ordering; they judge the size of a number by its total digits
rather than by
the place value that the digits possess. This difficulty is most
apparent when
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)
228 G. Malmer

they work with decimals and fractions: they believe, for

example, that 0.12 is
greater than 0.3.
In offering help for this type of difficulty, I have found that
‘doing’
provides the best support. For example, if the student places
the digits in a
table, understanding is visually aided (see Figure 1). The
actual manual
work, with the movement of digits to a higher or lower place
value, provides
reinforcement through experience. In Figure 1 the number
13.725 can be
made 100 times larger: the digit in the units column is simply
moved to the
hundreds column and 100×13.725=1372.5.
A simple lack of understanding is the most common
characteristic of this
group. They have tried to learn to decipher rules and
patterns, with the
result that they have never dared to trust their own thinking.
The following
of formal rules has to a great extent dominated and even
inhibited the
development of content awareness, understanding and
creativity.
The initial blow often occurs earlier than people have
believed—but many
students can camouflage a lack of understanding for a
surprisingly long
time, due in part to the teacher’s failure to assess their true
comprehension.
Moreover, students learn patterns and routines without really
knowing the
underlying context. When mathematics later becomes more
complex, the
house of cards can no longer stand up. The only solution is
prevention: the
fundamentals and basic concepts need to be given greater
attention; otherwise the rehabilitative work will become all
the more demanding in terms of
both physical and mental resources.
All agree in principle that students should be treated
differently from one
another because of the uniqueness of their background and
capabilities.
Educationalists can take these differences seriously by
invoking a variety of
forms and ways of working as well as by choosing correct
priorities. The
other part of education has to do with physical surroundings,
teacher
involvement, basic education and further education for the
teachers, parent
involvement and the accessibility of teaching materials.
Less Arithmetic—More Thinking!

If students are to acquire a reliable comprehension of

numbers it is possible
for them to train their ability to do mental arithmetic and, in
conjunction
with this, to use technical aids, such as calculators and
computers.
If this were done it would enable teachers to dispense with
time-demanding numerical calculations involving
algorithms, which now waste an unreasonable amount of
time. Instead, the focus of mathematics should be shifted
from counting to thinking. More time could be devoted to the
student’s
logico-mathematical ability. It is not sufficient just to
practise various
Figure 1. Visually aiding multiplication by one hundred.
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)
Mathematics and Dyslexia 229

mechanical skills if the ability to understand the situations

where they apply
is lacking. The differences between skills and knowledge, as
well as between
procedures and concepts, need to be emphasised.
As mentioned earlier, many students with dyslexic problems,
although
they have difficulties with algorithms, can still be very good
at solving
problems. An example from my own teaching experience
illustrates this. A
9-year-old boy was considered very weak at mathematics. I
took over the
classroom teaching in mathematics for this group and
discovered quickly
that he was particularly stimulated if he was asked to solve
problems. On
one occasion the class was given the following problem:
‘Can you answer this problem?’ A, ke asked Eva. ‘In a zoo I saw both ostriches and
giraffes. I saw six heads and twenty legs. How many giraffes did I see?’

The boy mentioned above was the only one in the class who
solved the
problem. His solution is illustrated in Figure 2.
First he drew six X to represent the animals’ heads. Then he
drew two I,
since each animal has at least two legs. In this way, 12 legs
belonged to six
heads, leaving eight ‘extra’ legs. Since these had to be dealt
out in pairs (four
animals each had four pairs of legs) it became obvious that
there must have
been four giraffes and two ostriches.
It was a wonderful experience to see how this boy developed,
thanks to
the chance he got to show that he could think, that he could
solve a problem
which practically no one in the class had the insight to solve.
As a result his
self-confidence grew and powers were liberated so that he
could tackle other
difficulties that had arisen from his dyslexia. His teachers
had not noted his
problem. Likewise there are many more students who share
these same
problems and who suffer similar consequences. This is
something that needs
to be taken into account, at the very least, during basic
teacher training—not
to mention during further education!
Mathematics and Dyslexia—Look at the Connection!

Today there are several technical aids for those with dyslexia
and there has
been a growing understanding of their problems. However,
there is no
corresponding recognition for individuals with mathematical
difficulties
(dyscalculia). The consequences can be very damaging. Most
importantly,
children’s self-esteem is at stake and, as a result, this greatly
affects the
choice of education and occupation as well as the ability to
meet everyday
planning questions. Mathematics is a greater part of everyday
living than is
generally recognised. School arithmetic is only a part—but a
very important
part—of the preconditions for the ‘mathematics of life’.
Figure 2. Solving the ostrich–giraffe word problem.
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)
230 G. Malmer

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper was translated from the original Swedish by John
E. Stanich.
Further Reading
Badian, N.A. (1983) Dyscalculia and nonverbal disorders of learning. In H.R. Myklebust
(Ed), Progress in Learning Disabilities, Vol. 5, pp. 235–264. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Chinn, S.J. and Ashcroft, J.R. (1993) Mathematics for Dyslexics. London: Whurr.
Malmer, G. (1999) Bra Matematik fo¨r Alla. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur.
Miles, T.R. and Miles, E. (Eds) (1992) Dyslexia and Mathematics. London: Routledge.
Shalen, R. and Gross-Tsur, V. (1993) Developmental dyscalculia and medical assessment.
Journal of Learning Disabilities 26, 134–137.
Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Dyslexia 6: 223–230 (2000)