BIOL1364-Introductory Genetics Book

Dr. P Umaharan - Introductory Genetics.
©2002-2003
AGRI1011 – Introduction to genetics
COURSE GOAL: At the end of the course the students are expected to understand the
cellular organization of genetic material and inheritance of characteristics in Eukaryotes.
Topics Learning Objectives
1. Chromosomal theory of Students should be able to define Mendel's

inheritance principles of inheritance and particulate
nature of inheritance – e.g. monohybrid /
dihybrid: define genotype and phenotype,
homozygous and heterozygous: dominance
and recessiveness.
Students should be able to conceptualize

cellular organization of genetic material on
chromosomes in diploids with clear
definitions of
 homologous pairs of chromosomes

 diploid genome / haploid complements
 autosomes and sex chromosomes
 locus
 gene and alleles
Students should be able to explain the

cellular mechanisms (nuclear division) that
(a) ensure relative constancy of genetic
material throughout the organism – mitosis
in somatic cells.
(b) ensure inheritance of genetic material

from one generation to the next.
Students should be able to explain how

Mendel's principles of inheritance work at
the level of the cell through meiosis.
Students should be able to illustrate how
meiosis leads to constancy in chromosome
number from generation to generation but
variation in quality through recombination.
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Dr. P Umaharan - Introductory Genetics. ©2002-2003
Students should be able to define

recombination and show clearly how and
when this takes place during meiosis –
random chromosome assortment, crossing
over.
Students should be able to appreciate that

the considerable variation seen in nature is
due to recombination and mutation and that
genetic variability is the raw material that
fuels evolution through the process of
natural selection.
Students should be able to see the parallality

between the behaviour of chromosomes
during meiosis and that of 'Mendel's
particles' which led to the chromosomal
theory of inheritance. Students should be
able to define this.
2. Predicting inheritance Using the concepts learned in topic 1,

students should be able to predict the
outcome of monohybrid, dihybrid and
trihybrid inheritance using Mendel's laws
and the law of product probability.
Students should appreciate that inheritance

of complex characteristics (monogenic,
digenic, oligogenic, polygenic) could be
resolved into a simple one using the law of
product probability and the branch method.
Students should be able to test the predicted

outcomes against empirical ones by using
the chi-squared test.
Students should be able to appreciate

through an empirical laboratory exercise that
inheritance of characteristics are studied by
building hypothetical models and testing
them.
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3. Genotype-phenotype relationship Students should be able to differentiate

….Genes are the unit of function between genotype and phenotype.

the relationship between genotype and
phenotype has a biochemical basis.
Students should be able to construct
biochemical explanations for dominance
relationships as an example.
Students should be able to define intra-

allelic interactions and appreciate that
phenotypic ratios are often modified by
intra-allelic interactions but not genotypic
ratios.
Students should be able to define interallelic

interactions and explain how genotype-
phenotype relationships can be affected by
inter-allelic interactions. Students should be
able to differentiate between
complementary, inhibitory and duplicate
forms of epistasis with examples. Students
should be able to define and provide genetic
and biochemical explanations for the
following epistatic ratios – 9:7, 9:4:3,
9:6:1, 13:3, 12:3:1, 15:1.
Students should be able to discuss

environmental influences both external and
internal on gene expression with examples.
the environmental stability of various traits
can be measured in terms of penetrance and
expressively and should be able to define
these terms with examples.
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4. Polygenic traits show a quantitative Students should be able to appreciate that

inheritance many economic traits are under polygenic
control and should be able to give examples.
Students should be able to differentiate

between quantitative and qualitative traits
and their inheritance. Students should be
able to appreciate that the quantitative
inheritance and factors controlling it can be
measured statistically.
Students should be able to define heritability

in the narrow sense and in the broad sense
and be able to understand the significance of
these measures.
5. Linked genes violate Mendel’s Students should be able to appreciate that

second principle of inheritance linked genes do not assort independently and
hence genotypic and phenotypic ratios are
altered from what is expected based on
Mendel’s laws.

linked genes can still recombine due to
crossing over and that the limits of
recombination can be between 1 – 50%.
Students should be able to define complete
linkage, incomplete linkage and no linkage.
Students should be able to predict outcomes

when genes are linked in the coupling or
repulsion phases or linkage. Students
should be able to calculate map distances
between any two genes and indicate the
linkage relationship based on either (a) F2
data or (b) test cross data.
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6. Gene mapping Students should be able to discuss the

construction and use of genetic maps.
Students should be able to list the

advantages of a three point linkage system
over that of a two point linkage mapping
system and be able to conduct linkage
analysis based on three point crosses.
Students should be able to define and
differentiate between coefficient of
coincidence and interference and be able to
list factors that affect interference.

linkage analysis in some fungi are easy
because the meiotic products are contained
in a sac called the ascus. Students should be
able to define ordered tetrad analysis and be
able to illustrate diagrammatically the
difference between a first division
segregation type and a second division
segregation type. Students should be able to
carry out linkage analysis and gene mapping
based on ordered tetrad analysis. Students
should be able to diagrammatically show
how the parental ditypes, non-parental
ditypes and tetratypes are produced in fungi
with unordered tetrads. Students should be
able to carry out unordered tetrad analysis
and gene mapping.
7. Sex determination and sex linkage Students should be able to discuss the
importance of sex determining mechanisms
in the evolution of higher organisms.
Students should be able to explain the

chromosome balance theory of sex
v
determination in Drosophila.
Students should be able to discuss sex

determining mechanisms in plants with
examples viz. Asparagus, Melandrium,
Corn, Pawpaw.
Students should be able to differentiate

between sex linked traits and holandric traits
and between autosomal inheritance and sex
linked inheritance.
8. Introduction to polyploidy in plants Students should be able to differentiate

between Euploidy and Aneuploidy;
autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy.
Students should be able to discuss the origin

of ploidy and its role in evolution.
9. Extrachromosomal inheritance Students should be able to differentiate

between nuclear inheritance and
extrachromosomal inheritance with
examples. Should be able to distinguish
differences in genome organization.
Students should be able to :
(a) Distinguish between maternal effects

and extra-chromosomal inheritance.
(b) Distinguish between diminishing
maternal effects and non-
diminishing effects.
Students should be able to explain nuclear-

cytoplasmic gene interaction with a named
example.
10. Summary
vi
CHAPTER ONE
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE
______________________________________________________________________________
INHERITANCE: refers to the transmission of characteristics from one generation to the next
generation.
MENDEL'S PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE: Mendel theorized that the inheritance of

characteristics is particulate in nature, and concluded that each character is
determined by a pair of determinants which are referred to as the 'determinants of
inheritance' (which we now refer to as alleles).
Principle of segregation: The paired determinants that together code for a character
separate from one another and are distributed to different gametes at equal
frequencies.
Principle of independent assortment: Alleles (determinants) of different loci assort

independently of each other.
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE: With the discovery of the light microscope in

the early part of the 20th century scientists were able to observe chromosomes
within the nucleus of the cell. They observed that the behavior of the chromosomes
during meiosis was similar to the behaviour proposed by Mendel for the
'determinants of inheritance' - The chromosomes that were in pairs during the
prophase of meiosis-1, separated and went to opposite poles and therefore into
separate gametes (first principle). Further, each pair of chromosome separated
independent of the other pairs of chromosomes (second principle). The parallelity
between the behaviour of chromosomes and Mendel's 'determinants of inheritance'
led the scientists to believe that the chromosomes were the units of inheritance. This
is referred to as the chromosome theory of inheritance.
CHROMOSOMAL ORGANISATION: We now know that chromosomes are made up of

nucleoproteins (DNA and histone proteins) and are the carriers of the genetic
material, which of course is the DNA. Each chromosome consists of a single
double helical molecule of DNA.
Chromosomes can be distinguished from one another by their size, shape

(telocentric, acrocentric or mesocentric) and their banding patterns, when stained. A
1
basic chromosome set contains a unique set of chromosomes. The number of

chromosomes in the basic chromosome set (X) is referred to as the basic
chromosome number. Organisms that contain two sets of the basic chromosome set
are referred to as diploids (2X). Those that contain four such sets are called
tetraploids (4X) and so on.
In diploids one of the sets is derived from the paternal parent through the male
gamete and the other from the maternal parent through the female gamete. Hence
the gametes only contain a haploid (half) complement of the chromosomes in any
organism.
GENE LOCUS AND ALLELES: In diploid organisms, the like-chromosomes from the two
basic sets are referred to as homologous chromosomes. One of the chromosomes
from this homologous pair came from the maternal parent and the other from the
paternal parent. All the chromosomes in a diploid organism, hence, occur in
identical pairs, with the exception of the sex chromosomes. The chromosomes
other than the sex chromosomes are referred to as autosomal chromosomes.
The homologous chromosomes therefore contain the same genes in the same order.
The position of each gene on the chromosome is referred to as a locus (plural loci).
Hence, in each diploid organism there are two copies of each gene. The diverse
forms of a gene are referred to as alleles. e.g. you have a gene locus for height and
one of the homologous chromosomes may have the 'tall form' of the gene (tall allele)
while the other chromosome may have the 'dwarf form' of the gene (dwarf allele).
When the locus has the same two alleles it is referred to as homozygous. For
example two tall alleles or two dwarf alleles may be present on the locus. On the
other hand if the alleles at the gene locus are different the locus is said to be
heterozygous.
GENES: Genes are considered to be the functional unit, the unit that codes for a polypeptide.
Genes are hence DNA sequences capable of coding for functional polypeptides,
through the processes of transcription and translation.
GENOTYPE: Genotype refers to the allelic constitution of an individual. In other words, the
alleles that are present in an organism with respect to a character.
PHENOTYPE: Phenotype refers to the external manifestation of the genotype. The external
manifestations of a gene could be physical or chemical in nature.
GENOTYPE - PHENOTYPE RELATIONSHIP: How are genes that reside in the nucleus of a
cell capable of controlling the phenotype. The genes are transcribed to produce
messenger RNA (mRNA), which moves across the nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm and is translated into a polypeptide in the ribosome. The polypeptide
2
forms an enzyme, which can catalyze a biochemical reaction that converts a

precursor into a final product. This final product accounts for the phenotype. This
could perhaps be a pigment that gives the flower a red colour or a structural
component that may confer resistance against a disease.
The genotype-phenotype relationship can be affected by a number of factors, which

we refer to as modifying factors. We will look at them in detail in subsequent
classes.
GENETIC VARIATION: This refers to the variability in genotype, among individuals of an

organism. Genetic variation fuels the evolutionary process, which ensures that the
organisms are fit for the environment. Genetic variation is hence important for the
survival of any organism.
Genetic variation is generated in organisms by two processes, recombination and

mutation. Recombination is the process of reshuffling of existing genes in
organisms. Mutation, on the other hand, is a process by which new alleles are
created, which may assume new functions. Mutations are hence spontaneous
heritable changes that occur to the genetic code.
RECOMBINATION: Recombination or the reshuffling of genes occurs through meiosis during

the process of gametogenesis. There are two processes in meiosis that ensure
recombination occurs. These processes occur during the first division of meiosis.
a) random chromosome assortment

b) crossing over
Random chromosome assortment refers to the process by which homologous

chromosomes of a cell go to the opposite poles at random. In other words the
chromosomes from the male and female complements go to the opposite poles in no
particular frequency but in a random fashion. This process further results in half the
number of chromosome in the resulting daughter cells. Random chromosome
assortment hence shuffles the male and female complement of chromosomes in the
resulting gametes.
Crossing over is a process by which segments of the homologous

chromosomes are switched during the four-strand stage. This results in new
combination of genes in the homologous chromosomes. Hence crossing over is a
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phenomenon which shuffles the genes between the homologous chromosomes. This
also occurs during prophase-I of meiosis.
MONOHYBRID, DIHYBRID AND TRIHYBRID INHERITANCE
Monohybrid inheritance deals with the inheritance of one character at a time. By extension, a
monohybrid cross refers to a cross, which involves two varieties that differ in a particular character.
Dihybrid and trihybrid inheritance deal with the inheritance of two and three characters,
respectively. Dihybrid and trihybrid crosses therefore refer to crosses in which the parental varieties
differ in two or three characteristics, respectively.
Predicting inheritance:
'Mendel's principles' and the 'law of product probability' provide the basis for predicting the
outcomes of these crosses. The gametes are formed based on Mendel's principles. The implication
of the first principle is that the alleles of a locus which reside together in the diploid parent separate
and go to gametes (haploid) at equal frequency. A process of random fertilization between the
gametes determine the possible outcomes (genotypes and their frequency) (phenotypes and their
frequencies). Sine male and female gametogenesis are independent processes, we can apply the law
of product probability to determine the outcome of the crosses.
The law of product probability states that the probability of simultaneous occurrence of two
independent events is given by the product of their individual probabilities.
When we are looking at two or more characters at a time, we need to use Mendel's second principle
as well as the first principle to determine the outcomes. Mendel's second principle states that each
gene segregates independent of each other (random assortment of genes). If you have a genotype
AaBb for instance Gene Aa will produce gametes with 'A' or 'a' alleles at equal frequency (1/2).
Gene Bb will produce gametes 'B' and 'b' at equal frequencies (1/2) independent of gene A. Again
applying the law of product probability we can determine the frequency of the various gametes AB,
Ab, aB, ab. Since male and female gametogeneses are independent we can again apply the law of
product probability to determine the outcome of the random fertilization event, using a punnett
square. This will tell us what genotypes are produced and at what frequencies.
A similar analysis can be extended to trihybrid or more complex crosses as well. The branch
method provides a convenient means of predicting the outcome of crosses.
Genetic variability and phenotypic variability

With monohybrid inheritance we obtained three genotypes in the F2 generation, with dihybrid
inheritance we get nine genotypes in the F2 and with trihybrid inheritance we get twenty seven
genotypes in the F2 generation. This shows that the greater the differences are in terms of genes
between the parents, the greater is the genetic variability in the F2 generation. (3n)
4
There are two things that you would have noticed with respect to the phenotypic variability. One is
that the phenotypic variability is much lower than the genotypic variability, diminished by the
dominance relationships between alleles. And secondly that the phenotypic variability also increases
as the parents used in the crosses differ by more and more genes.
The following table provides some general formulas to determine the genotypic and phenotypic
variability when the parents differ by 'n' genes.
Table-1: The relationship between number of genes ‘n’ and the number of expected
phenotypes and genotypes in the F2 generation.
# genes gametes Perfect pop. # phenotypes # genotypes #heterozygote

1 2 4 2 3 1
2 4 16 4 9 5
3 8 64 8 27 19
n 2n 4n 2n 3n 3n-2n
MONOGENIC, DIGENIC, OLIGOGENIC AND POLYGENIC TRAITS
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Up until now we were looking at characteristics that were governed by a single gene, such as flower
colour in peas. These are referred to as monogenic traits. There are some characteristics that are
govened by two genes (digenic traits), or few genes (oligogenic traits) or many genes, sometimes
hundreds of genes (polygenic traits).
The inheritance of monogenic traits would be similar to the monohybrid inheritance, since it also
involves a single gene difference between the parents. Similarly, inheritance of digenic and trigenic
traits would follow those for dihybrid and trihybrid inheritance.
Consequently characters that are governed by many genes would show much more variation than
characters governed by a single gene. Again the same table can be used to predict the genotypic
variability. For instance grain yield in cereals is governed by many genes. This is why different
varieties of rice for instance have different levels of yield. The aim of the breeder is to accumulate
all the genes that govern high yield into one variety.
CELL CYCLE
1. INTERPHASE: Phase between the end of one division and start of the next
cell division. This is divided into three substages.
(a) G1: Growth Stage of Interphase

- Most variable in length (30-50% of interphase-absent).
- Nucleus and cytoplasm enlarge toward mature size.
- Preprogrammed operations in preparation for DNA replication.
- synthesis of enzyme systems necessary for replication of DNA – DNA
polymerase.
- Active synthesis of RNA
- Synthesis of proteins necessary to trigger nuclear division.
(b) S: Synthesis stage

- 35-45% of interphase cycle.
- Replication of DNA.
- Synthesis of histones.
(c ) G2: Second Growth Stage

- 10-20% of interphase cycle.
- New DNA is rapidly complexed with chromosomal proteins.
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- Synthesis of RNA and protein continues.
2. CELL DIVISION Karyokinesis Mitosis

(Nuclear division) Meiosis
Cytokinesis
2.1 Mitosis: Continuity of chromosomes is maintained by ensuring that

each daughter cell receives a full complement of the chromosomes.
Chromosomal material is distributed in equal quantity to two
daughter cells in a strictly precise manner.
(i) Prophase (longest phase)

- Coiling/ condensation of chromosomes (shorten and thicken).
- Chromosomes appear split into two sister chromatids which are held
together by a centromere.
- Disappearance of nucleolus.
- Break down and disappearance of nuclear membrane.
- Mitotic apparatus (spindle) begins to form continuous fibres/
chromosomal fibre/ interzonal fibres.
(ii) Metaphase
- Spindle fibres are fully formed.
- Chromosomes move and arrange themselves on an equitorial plane.
Note: during metaphase chromosomes are shortest and thickest and hence
a polar view furnishes good material for chromosome counts and
morphological study.
(iii) Anaphase: (Shortest phase)

- Centromeres split into 2 kinetochores and by active repulsion of sister
chromatids, sister chromatids of a single chromosome are drawn to
opposite poles.
Note: This ensures that each daughter cell has a complete complement of
chromosomes of the parent cell.
(iv) Telophase
- The polar group of daughter chromosomes, undergoes a reversion to the
more extended and thin interphase state.
- Mitotic apparatus disappears.
- Nuclear membrane is re-established.
- Nucleoli are reformed.
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- Cell plate is formed by coalescence of vescicles.
2.2 Meiosis: Is simply the process by which the chromosomes

are separated into sex cells and their numbers reduced from
the diploid to the haploid condition.
Meiocyte
- megasporocyte
- microsporocyte
(i) First meiotic prophase:
1. Leptotene
- Chromosomes appear as long, slender threads with chromomeres along
their length.
- In some plants they undergo ‘synizesis’ – clumped together on one side of
the nucleus.
2. Zygotene
- Homologous chromosomes appear to attract each other and enter into a
very close zipper-like pairing (synapsis).
The physical mechanism that holds homologous chromosomes together is
the synaptonemal complex.
3. Pachytene
- Progressive shortening and coiling of chromosomes. The synapsed
homologues are seen to be composed of two chromatids each. This group
of four chromatids is known as a bivalent or a tetrad.
- Exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids – ‘crossing
over’/ recombination. Synaptenemal complex is involved in the breakage
and repair of DNA molecules.
4. Diplotene
- Separation of homologs except at points of cross over. These crossed
areas appear as X-shaped attachments between chromosomes and are
known as ‘chiasmata’.
5. Diakinesis
- Coiling and contraction of chromosomes continue.
- Spindle forms.
- Bivalents migrate close to the nuclear membrane and become evenly
distributed.
- Nuclear membrane dissolves.
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(ii) First Metaphase

- Chromosomes reach their most condensed state.
- Terminalization of chiasmata.
- Arrangement of the monoploid number of synapsed chromosome pairs on
the equitorial plane.
- An important point is the randomness of arrangement of the paired
homologs – for a given pair it is just as likely that the paternal member of
the paired homologs be directed toward the ‘north pole’ as for the maternal
member to be oriented.
(iii) First Anaphase

- As homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles each centromere
drags along both chromatids – dyad.
‘reduction division’
Note: Random distribution of parental chromosomes as well as crossing

over between them, leads to the most important source of difference (or)
variability among gametes of sexually reproducing organisms.
(iv) First Telophase and Interphase

- Cell division may occur immediately or be delayed.
- Nuclear membrane is formed followed by a short interphase, in some.
- In others, telophase and interphase are omitted and dyads immediately
enter the second division.
(v) Prophase II
- Short period.
- Nuclear membrane is disrupted.
(vi) Metaphase II
- Spindles are oriented at right angles to the first division spindle
- The dyads (monoploid number) arrange themselves on the equitorial
plane.
(vii) Anaphase II
- Centromeres split and sister chromatids separate poleward as daughter
chromosomes.
(viii) Telophase II
- Chromosomes return to long reticulate conformation.
- Nuclear membranes are reconstituted.
- Nucleoli reappear.
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Note: The similarity of behaviour of chromosomes to that of Mendel’s ‘factors’ led to

the ‘Chromosomal theory of genetics’.
CHAPTER TWO
CHANGES IN THE MENDELIAN RATIOS
______________________________________________________________________________
In addition to the Mendelian F2 ratios of 3:1 in monohybrid crosses, 9:3:3:1 in dihybrid crosses
and 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1 in trihybrid crosses, novel proportions are sometimes obtained. These
exceptions do not detract from Mendel’s principles but only extend and develop them.
1. INTRA-ALLELIC INTERACTIONS
1.1 Dominance Relationships
Overdominance
Aa
--------------------------------------------------------------
aa AA
Aa Aa Complete dominance
Incomplete dominance
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Complete dominance: Heterozygote, although genetically different has the same

phenotype as the dominant homozygote (Aa = AA), and the presence of the recessive allele is
functionally hidden. Dominance is hence a physiological effect.
Incomplete dominance: Heterozygote, exhibits a phenotypic value intermediate between

the homozygote F2 ratios in monohybrid crosses give a 1:2:1 phenotypic ratio instead of a 3:1
ratio obtained under complete dominance.
e.g.1. Flowering time in peas: aa – Early Aa – Intermediate AA – Late

(0.0) (3.7) (5.2)
2. Flower colour in 4 o’clock plants: RR – Red; Rr – Pink; rr – White
3. Radish: long x round oval

l1 l1 - long; l1 l2 - oval; l2 l2 – round.
Over dominance: Occasionally, for some gene differences, the heterozygote may exceed the
phenotypic value of both homozygous parents. Such heterozygotes are known as overdominant.
e.g. Drosophila: White eyed gene (w) in heterozygous (w+w) condition causes a marked
increase in the amount of florescent pigments over both homozygotes (w + w+ - wild type; ww –
white).
F2 Phenotypic Ratio – 1:2:1.
Co-dominance: If the two alleles in a gene are each associated with different substances,
co-dominance occurs when both substances appear together in the heterozygote.
e.g. 1. Coat colour in Red – RR; White – WW; Roan – RW

short horn cattle
F2 Phenotypic Ratio is 1:2:1.
Superficially, this would seem to be a case of incomplete dominance, but close

examination of roan animals indicate that the coat is composed of a mixture of red and
white hairs, rather than hairs of intermediate colour.
2. Red blood cell types in humans:

MM – produces antibodies specific to antigen M.
NN - produces antibodies specific to antigen N.
MN – produces antibodies for both M and N.
1.2 LETHALITY
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- Some allelic combinations are lethal (ie) organisms carrying these allelic combinations die,
thus altering the expected mendelian ratios.
- Age at which death occurs depends on the type of lethal gene.
1.2.1 Recessive Lethals:
Refers to all homozygous allelic combinations that are lethal, either in thedominant or
recessive forms
e.g. 1. Lethality in homozygous dominant state:
Snap dragon plant – YY-yellow leaf (lethal)
(incomplete dom.) aurea homozygotes – no chlorophyll
Yy - pale (survive)
aurea heterozygotes – less chlorophyll
yy - normal green
F2 phenotypic ratio: 2:1
2. Lethal in homozygous recessive state:

- Corn: GG, Gg – green leaves;
gg – yellowish white leaves (die)
F2 phenotypic ratio: all green
F2 genotypic ratio: 2:1
- Sickle cell anaemia HbA HbA - normal RBC

(co-dominance) HbS HbS - sickle cell anaemia
(lethal)
HbA HbS - sickle cell trait
(carriers)
1.2.2 Dominant lethals:
Lethal effect occurs only on heterozygous allelic combinations.

E.g. Epiloia in humans: abnormal skin growth, tumors and mental

defects cause death in the heterozygous state.
EE: 2Ee : ee
die
1.2.3 Balanced lethal systems:
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Occurs when, in a self perpetuating heterozygous stock, only heterozygous

individuals survive. Both homozygotes die.
E.g. Drosophila: (a.) 2 lethal genes (beaded, lethal) are

present on the same chromosome, closely
linked.
(b) each of these recessive lethals always
remain on separate chromosomes –
repulsion linkage.
Beaded + x Beaded +
+ 1 + 1
+ 1 : Beaded + : Beaded +
+ 1 + 1 Beaded +
(die) survive (die)
1 2 1
2. MULTIPLE ALLELES/ MULTIPLE ALLELISM
Alleles:
Alleles can be defined as genes that are members of the same gene pair, each allele affecting a
particular character somewhat differently than the other. This condition arises from the presence
of homologous pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism, each of the homologous
chromosomes carrying one allele of a particular gene pair. A locus is occupied by two alleles in
a diploid.
Multiple alleles:
Actually there can exist more than two possible kinds of alleles with respect to a gene pair. The
grouping of all different possible alleles that may be present in a gene pair is defined as a system
of multiple alleles.
e.g. 1. Coat colour in rabbits

___________________________________
Phenotype Genotype
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Agouti c+c+, c+cch, c+ch, c+ c c+ > cch > ch > c

Chinchilla cchcch, cchch, cchc
Himalayan chch, chc
Albino cc
Note: Greater the number of multiple alleles with respect to a character, greater is the
genetic variability.
Number of alleles in series Number of genotypes
2 3
3 6
4 10
5 15
n
n /2 (n+1)
eg. 2. Blood groups in humans

A, B, AB and O Blood group Antigen on Antibody in
erythrocytes serum
IA = I B > 1 A A anti-B
B B anti-A
AB A and B neither
(IA1 > IA2 > IA3 > IA4) O neither anti-A and anti-B
3. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON GENE EXPRESSION:
How does the environment affect gene expression?
Phenotype is a result of interaction between the genotype and the environment. Lets examine
how a gene that resides within the nucleus influences the phenotype. A gene that resides within
the nucleus is first transcribed into mRNA. The mRNA is then transferred to the ribozome
within the cytoplasm, where it is translated into a specific protein. The proteins may then be
folded into enzymes, which in turn catalyse biochemical pathways, resulting in metabolic
products that are responsible for a particular phenotype. The process by which information that
resides within the nucleus travels from DNA to RNA to Protein is referred to as the ‘Central
Dogma’
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The environment influences gene expression usually at the transcriptional step and sometimes at
the translational step. This former is referred to as transcriptional control of gene expression.
We will learn more about this later.
GENE PHENOTYPE
specific environment
for gene expression. External – Temperature
- Light
- Nutrition
- Maternal environment
Internal - Age
- Sex
- Substrate
3.1 Measures of environmental effect on gene expression
Gene Penetrance
Proportion of genotypes that show the expected phenotype based on its genotype. For
instance, lets say that there are 100 individuals with the ‘TT’ genotype. The expected
phenotype is that all of the individuals should be tall. However, if only 87 individuals are
indeed tall, while the other 13 are short, then gene penetrance would be
No. that show the expected phenotype based on the genotype TT (87)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total number of individuals with the TT genotype (100)
Gene Expressivity
Degree to which a particular effect is expressed by individuals.
e.g. A dominant mutation lobe eye (LL) in Drosophila, when heterozygous,

shows itself in only 75 percent of the heterozygous flies. So ‘lobe’ gene, under
these circumstances, has 75 percent penetrance.
Expression of lobe gene varies among individuals, from complete absence of eyes
to near normal size. This shows variation in expressivity.
3.2 Examples of Environmental Influence:
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3.2.1 External:
(a) Temperature:
Prim Roses Normal red 86oF White

flower flower
Barley Albinos Normal green

low temperature
Rabbits Himalayan White fur

gene cold temperature (not expressed)
during fur devp.
(b) Light:
Corn Gene for Albino

chlorophyll devp. dark (not expressed)
(c) Nutrition:
Rabbit Yellow fat presence of recessive gene ‘y’ in

homozygous condition.
presence of green vegetables

containing xanthophyll in the diet.
(d) Maternal environment:

Blood group incompatibility and lethality.
3.2.2 Internal:
(a) Age: Some genes express themselves only when the organism is
aged.
(b) Sex: Although both genes possess certain genes, they are
expressed only in one sex. These are called Sex Limited Traits.
e.g. Certain breeds of sheep have horns only in males, although
both sexes possess the gene for it.
16
Some traits are seen in both sexes but are more common in one
sex. These traits are called Sex Controlled Traits.
e.g. Hare lip is more common among males than females while
forked spine is more common among females than males.
(c) Substrate: Certain enzymes produced by genes act on substrates to

give a phenotypic effect. If the substrate is limited the expression
of the gene may vary.
Note: We will later learn that environmental influence on gene expression is much greater for
polygenic traits compared to monogenic or oligogenic traits (also referred to as major gene
traits). We saw that ‘gene penetrance’ and ‘gene expressivity’ are measures of environmental
influence on traits. These measures can only be used to measure environmental influence on
major gene traits. We will later learn that the environmental influence on polygenic traits can be
measured using a measure referred to as ‘heritability (broad sense)’
MODIFIED MENDELIAN RATIOS (CONT’D)
4. INTER ALLELIC INTERACTIONS
Genes do not merely act as separate elements producing distinct individual

effects, but they could interact with each other to give completely novel phenotypes, or
mask certain phenotypes (epistasis). Interallelic interactions are interactions between
alleles of different gene(s), that result in modified mendelian ratios, or produce novel
phenotypes.
In a dihybrid heterozygous cross AaBb x AaBb, where there is complete

dominance, one expects that four genotypic classes will result in the F2 generation with a
frequency of 9:3:3:1 (9 A-B-; 3 A-bb; 3 aaB-; 1aabb). Further, a 1:1:1:1 ratio (1 A-B-;
1 A-bb; 1 aaB-; 1 aabb) is expected in a test cross. Epistasis can be recognised by the
reduction in the expected phenotypic classes in both the F2 and test cross generations.
Under epistasis two or more of the classes become indistinguishable and form a single
class.
BIOCHEMICAL BASIS FOR GENE INTERACTIONS:
The phenotype is a result of products of biosynthetic pathways brought to expression in a

given environment. Biochemical reactions within living systems are mediated by specific
17
enzymes. A specific gene codes for a specific enzyme, which is synthesised and catalyses a
specific step or reaction. Genes control the expression of characters, through regulation of
enzyme production. Basic to the understanding of gene control is the knowledge of how much
enzyme a gene makes.
In a complete dominant situation

- AA and Aa make X amount of enzyme
- Aa does not produce the enzyme (or) produces defective enzymes and serves as a
metabolic block
In an incomplete dominant situation

- AA produces X amount of enzyme
- Aa produces X/2 amount of enzyme
- aa does not produce the enzyme
Note: Genetic interaction occurs when two or more genes specify enzymes which
catalyse steps in a common pathway.
e.g. 3 gene interaction:
Precursor A B C (end product)
e1 e2 e3 Phenotypic effect
gene 1 gene 2 gene 3
4.1 EPISTASIS
4.1.1 Duplicate Recessive Epistasis (9:7)
Lets assume that two independent genes (A,B) with complete dominance
govern flower colour.
(a) Definition: either of the two gene pairs in their homozygous

recessive state is epistatic on the effect of the other gene.
(b) Genetic explanation: when gene A is in its recessive form (aa) it

suppresses the effects of gene B (whether B of bb). Similarly gene
18
B in its recessive form (bb) suppresses the effects of gene A

(whether A- or aa).
F2 Classes:
9 A-B- - No epistasis (purple)
3 A-bb - bb is epistatic over A-
3 aaB- 7 yellow - aa is epistatic over B-
1 aabb - no effect
Phenotypic ratio is 9:7
(c) Biochemical Pathway:
Precursor X N O P (final product)
a b
purple
Either gene A (or) gene B in their recessive state would serve as metabolic
blocks preventing the final end product. Since genes A, and B
complement each other in producing the end product this interaction is
also known as Complementary interaction.
(d) e.g. some varieties of clover test high for hydrocyanic acid
(HCN), while others test negatively for this substance.
HCN (High) X HCN (Low)
F1 HCN (High)
F2 HCN (High) : HCN (Low)

9 : 7
Gene A Gene B
Enzyme  Enzyme 
Precursor Cyanogenic HCN
glucoside
19
F2 Class
1 9 + + +
2 3 0 + 0
3 3 0 0 +
4 1 0 0 0
9
/10 A-B- = enzymes  and  present HCN
3
/16 aaB- = no glucoside (no  enzyme)
3
/16 A-bb = no enzyme
1
/16 aabb = no glucoside (no enzyme)
no enzyme
4.1.2 RECESSIVE EPISTASIS (9:3:4)
Lets assume that 2 independent genes (A,B) with complete dominance

govern flower colour.
(a) Definition: If the recessive genotype at one locus, aa,

suppresses the expression of alleles at the B locus, the A locus is
said to exhibit recessive epistasis over the B locus. Only if the
dominant allele is present at the A locus can the alleles of the
hypostatic B locus be expressed.
(b) Genetic explanation:
F2 classes:
9 A-B- 9 red - Both genes in dominant form gives red
colour
3 A-bb 3 yellow - no epistasis imparts a gene’s colour – yellow
3 aaB- 4 white - aa is epistatic over gene B – masks
1 aabb - aa epistatic, bb non coding anyway.
Phenotypic ratio = 9:3:4
(c) Biochemical pathway:
X L M N (final product)
Precursor a b
20
white yellow red
Gene A in its recessive form blocks conversion of L to M which results in

white coloured flowers, regardless of whether gene B is in the dominant
(B-) or recessive state.
Gene B in its recessive form (bb), when gene A is dominant, results in

yellow flowers because further conversion of M to N is blocked.
When both gene A and Gene B are in the dominant form, necessary
enzymes for conversion of L to M and M to N are produced. Red colour
results.
(d) e.g.: Mouse coat colour

9 Agouti : A-B-
3 Black : A-bb
4 Albino : aaB-; aabb
4.1.3 Dominant Epistasis (12:3:1)
Lets assume that flower colour is governed by 2 genes with complete

dominance.
(a) Definition: one of the two genes, in its dominant form is

epistatic over the other gene, thus masking the effects of the other
gene.
(b) Genetic explanation: when the dominant allele at one locus (A-)
produces a certain phenotype regardless of the allelic condition of
the other locus (B- or bb), then the A- locus is said to be
dominantly epistatic over the B locus. Only when the genotype of
the individual is homozygous recessive at the epistatic locus (aa)
can the alleles of the hypostatic locus be expressed.
F2 class: 9 A-B- 12 white Phenotypic Ratio 12:3:1

3 A-bb
3 aaB- 3 red
1 aabb 1 yellow
(c) Biochemical Pathway
X L M N
Precursor white yellow b red
21
X Y inhibitor
a
In this case dominant allele A allows the inhibitor substance Y to be made, which
blocks conversation of L to M. Therefore, locus A in the dominant form masks
the difference normally seen between genotypes B- and bb. However, when gene
A is in its recessive form (aa), depending on whether gene B is in its dominant
form (B-) or recessive form (bb), red or yellow colour would be produced.
(d) e.g. white squash X green squash
white squash
white : yellow : green

12 : 3 : 1
4.1.4 Dominant and recessive interaction (13:3)
(a) Definition: complete dominance at both gene pairs, but one

gene in its dominant form is epistatic over the second and the
second gene, when homozygous recessive is epistatic on the effects
of the first gene.
F2 classes 9 A-B- A- epistatic on B-

3 A-bb A- and bb epistatic 13 white
1 aabb bb epistatic on aa
3 aaB- B-expresses itself } 3 red
F2 phenotypic ratio = 13:3

Test cross ratio = 3:1
(c) Biochemical Pathway:
Precursor
X1 L M N
white white b red
22
X2 Y
Precursor a Inhibitor
When gene A is in dominant form (A), an inhibitor is synthesised that

prevents the forward reaction (L M N). Hence pigment N,
responsible for red colour, is not synthesised regardless of whether gene B
is in the dominant (B-) or recessive (bb) state. When ‘a’ is in the recessive
form the inhibitor is not synthesised and hence the forward step from L
M takes place. However, continuation of the forward
reaction and colour formation requires gene B in the dominant state.
Note: Since dominant epistasis and dominant and recessive interaction requires
the involvement of an inhibitory gene (A), these are also referred to as
inhibitory interactions.
(d) e.g. white leghorn X white silkie

IICC iicc
F1 IiCc white
F2 9 I-C- white (because of colour inhibitor I)

3 iiC- coloured
3 I-cc white (because of both I- and cc)
1 iicc white (because of cc)
Genetic explanation: two genes determine colour - one inhibitory gene

which in its dominant form prevents colour formation regardless of
whether the other colour producing gene is dominant (C-) or recessive
(cc). The other colour producing gene C produces coloured offsprings in
the dominant state, when the inhibitory gene is recessive.
4.1.5 DUPLICATE DOMINANT EPISTASIS (15:1)
(a) Definition: complete dominance at both gene pairs, but either gene
when dominant, is epistatic to the other.
A- is epistatic to B- and bb
B- is epistatic to A- and aa
23
F2 classes 9 A-B-
3 A-bb 15
3 aaB-
1 aabb 1
(c) Biochemical pathway:

a
X L
precursor
N (final product)
X M b red
Precursor
This occurs when 2 separate biochemical pathways lead to the

same final product, and when each pathway is controlled by a
different gene.
The final product that gives a red colour is obtained when gene A
is in the dominant form or when gene B is in the dominant form or
when both genes A and B are in their dominant forms.
(d) e.g. Poultry- feathered shank X clean shank

FFSS ffss
F1 FfSs – feathered shank
F2 9 F-S- Feathered
3 F-ss 15
3 ffS-
1 ffss Clean
1
4.1.6 DUPLICATE INTERACTION (9:6:1)
(a) Definition: complete dominance at both gene pairs; each gene

in its dominant form produces the same phenotypic effect.
Interaction between both dominants give a new phenotype.

24
F2 classes 9 A-B-= 2x pigment – red - 9

3 A-bb = x pigment - pink 6
3 aaB- = x pigment - pink
1 aabb = 0 pigment - white – 1
(c) Biochemical pathway
X1 L a
precursor x pigment
N 2x pigment
x pigment
X2 M b
Precursor
(d) e.g. Fruit shape: Sphere X Sphere

AAbb aaBB
F1 Disc
AaBb
F2 Disc : Sphere : Long

9 6 1
A-B- A-bb aabb
aaB-
4.2 NON-EPISTATIC INTERACTIONS: two genes affecting the same

character.
(a) Definition: Interaction between two genes could occur without

epistasis when end products of different pathways interact
to produce a novel phenotype.
(b) e.g. Shape of comb in poultry
Pea comb X Rose comb

RrPP RRpp
F1 walnut comb
25
RrPp
F2 R-P- R-pp rrP- rrpp

9 3 3 1
walnut rose pea single
New phenotype (walnut) results from the interaction products of

dominant genes, R- and P-.
(d) Biochemical pathway:
 L pea comb
X N walnut comb
precursor
single 
M rose comb
Note: Modifiers
- Incorporate all genes that modify other genes, some of whose forms of
action are not always known.
- Broadly defined, modifiers are genes that change the phenotypic effects of
other genes in a quantitative fashion.
- Modifiers could act in various ways
(a) dilution (or) enhancement of colour genes
(b) inhibitor genes that prevent colour formation
(c) suppressor genes e.g. suppression of Hairy wing gene expression in
Drosophila
(d) change dominance relationships.
- Modifiers may be dominant or recessive
- Modifiers may have large or small quantitative phenotypic effects.
Note: Pleiotropism
Many of the biochemical pathways in the living organism are interconnected

and often interdependent. By products of one reaction chain may be used
26
in other metabolic schemes. Hence a gene might have a major effect and many
secondary effects. Sometimes the many changes that are associated with a gene is
called a syndrome. All the manifold phenotypic expression of a single gene are
spoken of as pleiotropic effects.
e.g. Sickle cell anaemia abnormal haemoglobin
- sickle shape of RBC
- tendency to clump together and clog
- heat, kidney, spleen and brain damage
- anaemia
CHAPTER THREE
POLYGENIC TRAITS AND POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
POLYGENIC TRAITS
Polygenic traits are traits that are governed by a large number of genes. Each gene therefore has a
small influence on the character, hence the genes of a polygenic trait are sometimes referred to as
minor genes. Polygenic traits, also referred to as minor gene traits, are largely influenced by additive
genetic effects with little or no non-additive genetic influences (dominance and epistasis). Hence
the distributions of polygenic traits are symmetric. Since polygenic traits are influenced to a large
extent by the environment. The phenotypic classes merge to produce a normal distribution. Hence
in polygenic traits one cannot discern discrete classes but rather the phenotypic values can assume
any number between two extremes. Hence the polygenic traits are also referred to as quantitative
traits. With quantitative traits variation is continuous, rather than discrete (genotypic classes do not
fall into phenotypic classes) variation and hence traits are generally measured rather than counted.
ADDITIVE GENETIC EFFECTS
When a character is not affected by intra allelic interactions or inter allelic interactions, it is said to
be under additive genetic influence. Hence the genetic effects of alleles are additive.
27
In other words, each allele has a phenotypic value and the phenotypic value of an individual is the
direct summation of the individual's allelic effects.
For example lets assume that two genes 'A' and 'B' influence plant height and that Allele 'A'
contibutes 6 cm to the plant, Allele 'a' =3; B=10 and b=1; Then a genotype AaBb will have a value
of 6 + 3 + 10 + 1 = 20 cm
Similarly, the phenotypic values can be calculated for the F2 genotypes of a digenic cross.
Genotype AABB aabb AAbb aaBB AaBB Aabb AABb aaBb AaBb
Phenotypic value 32 8 14 28 26 11 23 17 20
Phenotypic Ratio 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4
Note: 1. No. of genotypes = no. of phenotypes. Hence there is no ambiguity. There a direct
relationship between genotype and phenotype.
2. The distribution is not distorted or skewed, but shows a more or less symmetric
distribution.
Inheritance of polygenic traits:
In the case of major gene traits, we can study the inheritance of a character by observing the
segregation ratios in the F2 and back cross generations. For instance if we obtain a 9:7 ratio in the
F2 and a 3:1 ratio in the test cross generation, we can say that the character is governed by two
genes, there is complete dominance, there is duplicate recessive epistasis etc.
In the case of polygenic traits phenotypic classes or their frequencies cannot be determined. This is
because there are infinite numbers of genotypes between two extremes and hence the frequency
distribution is continuous and follows a normal distribution. Hence we cannot use the conventional
approach of studying inheritance.
A continuous distribution can be described by statistical measures such as the mean and the
variance. Hence inheritance of characters are studied by partitioning the variance into its
components. By examining the variations of the parents, F1, F2 and the back cross generations, a
geneticist can partition the variability with respect to a character into V G and VE. Phenotypic
variability (VPh) with respect any character can be hence described by the following equation.
VPh = VG + VE
The component VG can be further partitioned into VA, VD and VEp.

28
Hence,
VPh = VA + VD + VEp + VE
Heritability estimates.
The inheritance of polygenic traits is described through heritability estimates. There are two such
estimates that are calculated.
Heritability in the broad sense (h2bs)

Heritability (broad sense) measures the transmissibility of a character from one generation to the
next. It is calculated by measuring that part of the total variation in the phenotype that is due to the
genotype.
h2(bs) = VG / VPh
Indirectly this measure gives one an indication of the strength of nature (influenced by the
genotype) vs nurture (influenced by phenotype). For instance yield in plants has a relatively low
broad sense heritability, say 0.3, which indicates the influence of the environment (0.7) can be much
more than that of the genotype.
Heritability in the narrow sense (h2ns)
Heritability in the narrow sense measures the strength of the genotype-phenotype relationship. It is
that part of the total phenotypic variation due to additive genetic effects alone.
h2(ns) = VA / VPh
Heritability (ns) indirectly tells the geneticist the relative magnitude of modifying effects. When the
heritability (ns) is high it tells the breeder that the influences of the modifying factors such as the
environment, dominance and epistasis are low. Hence there is a strong association between the
genotype and phenotype. Hence if the breeder selects a plant based on its superior phenotype there
is a good chance that he is selecting plants with good genes and hence the progeny is likely to
contain the superior phenotype. When, on the other hand, h2(ns) is low, selection is ambiguous in that
the best phenotype may not contain the best genes.
Heritability estimates in polygenic traits hence provide valuable cues with regards to the inheritance
of the character. This allows the breeder to manipulate the character.
Qualitative traits Quantitative traits

monogenic or oligogenic control polygenic control
29
discrete phenotypic classes and hence discrete continuous frequency distribution

frequency distribution
epistatic and dominance genetic effects may be genetic effects are predominantly additive in
high nature
Environmental influence on the trait is Environmental influences on the character are
relatively low. Environmental effects are high. Environmental contribution can be
measured by penetrance and expressivity indirectly estimated through h2(bs)
Each gene has a large effect on the character Eaxh gene has a small influence on the
and hence called major gene traits. character, hence called minor gene traits.
Inheritance is studied by observing segregation Inheritance is studied by partitioning
ratios. phenotypic variance into its components and by
calculation heritability estimates.
Summary:
Polygenic traits or quantitative traits are affected by a large number of genes each with a small
additive genetic effect.
The inheritance of polygenic traits is studied by partitioning the total phenotypic variability into its
components and calculating heritability estimates.
Heritability in the broad sense indirectly gives one an indication of the relative magnitude of the
environmental influence on a character.
Heritability in the narrow sense measures the strength of association between genotype and
phenotype. Indirectly it tells something about the magnitude of modifying effects.
Modifying effects include environmental influences, dominance effects and epistatic influences.
Modifying factors influence genotype-phenotype relationships through biochemical pathways.
Phenotype-genotype relationships are important in breeding. Since the breeder cannot see the
genotype of an individual he/she relies on the phenotype to give him/her an indication of its
genotype. If the heritability in the narrow sense is high, what you see is what you will get.
30
PHENOTYPE-GENOTYPE RELATIONSHIP
Genetic Variability:
We saw in the earlier lecture that the genetic variability with respect to a character is dependent on
the number of genes governing the character and the number of alleles that exist in the population.
Greater the number of genes governing a character and greater the number of alleles in the
population, greater the likelihood of genetic variation. Hence polygenic traits and traits which show
multiple allelism are likely to lead to greater genetic variability. We will later learn that the linkage
between the genes can also affect genetic variability.
Modifying factors and Phenotypic variability
We saw that the phenotypic variability, which is the external manifestation of the existing genotypic
variability, can be influenced by a number of factors. The factors that influence the relationship
between genotype and phenotype are referred to as modifying factors. They are called modifying
factors because they modify the relationship between genotype and phenotype. Modifying factors
therefore determine how much of the genetic variability that exists in nature would be actually
expressed as phenotypic variability.
Modifying factors can be classified into three types
1. Environmental influence: The environment influences whether a gene would express itself
or not and if it does express itself to what degree it expresses. Polygenic traits (minor gene
traits) are influenced to a greater extent by the environment than monogenic and oligogenic
traits (Major gene traits). The environment can modify gene expression mediated through
regulatory sequences that are found associated with the gene. The environmental influences
on a major gene traits can be measured by two indices (a) gene penetrance and (b) gene
expressivity. The heritability (broad sense) indirectly provides an estimate of the
environmental influences on a polygenic trait. Environmental influences could include
external factors such as temperature, light, nutrition, maternal environment etc or internal
factors such as age, sex and substrate levels.
2. Intra-allelic interactions: Intra allelic interactions are interaction between alleles of a

single gene locus and can take the form of dominance relationships between the alleles or
lethal relationships between the alleles. Such relationships can affect the genotype-
phenotype relationship. For example in a digenic cross, in the presence of dominance, the
F2 genotypic ratio of 1:1:2:2:4:2:2:1:1 containing nine genotypes is translated into 4
phenotypes which occur at 9:3:3:1 ratio. Similarly lethal relationship between alleles can
modify a 1:2:1 genotypic ratio into a phenotypic ratio of 1:2, or 1:1 or all, depending on the
type of lethality.
31
3. Inter-allelic interactions: Inter allelic interactions are interactions between alleles of

different loci. Interallelic interactions can further modify an F2 ratio (digenic) into a 9:7
phenotypic ratio, or a 9:4:1 or a 13:3 ratio or others depending on the type of epistasis.
In summary modifying factors can
a) Reduce the number of phenotypes thereby reducing phenotypic variability

b) Distorts distributions 1:1:2:2:4:2:2:1:1 distribution to a 9:3:3:1 or a 9:7 distribution
depending on whether you have dominance alone or dominance and epistasis.
c) Reduces the association between phenotype and genotype. For instance a breeder selecting
a plant with a desired phenotype is not sure whether he has selected the right genotype,
because many genotypes are pooled into one phenotype. This makes selection ambiguous.
CHAPTER FOUR
LINKAGE AND RECOMBINATION
LINKAGE: Genes that reside together on a chromosome are said to be linked. All the genes that
are physically located on a single chromosome are said to belong to a single linkage
group.
LINKED GENE INHERITANCE:
Linked genes show non-random assortment of genes, thus violating Mendel's second law.
The result is that the parental combinations of gametes occur in predominant numbers as
compared to the recombinant gametes. Hence, F1 plants in a test cross do not show the
characteristic 1:1:1:1 ratio that is expected in a dihybrid cross. The ratio of the recombinant
types to the total number of test cross progeny gives the recombination frequency (r). The
parental gametes each occur at a frequency of (1-r)/2 and the recombinant gametes each
occur at a frequency of r/2.
This shows that genes that reside on a single chromosome tend to assort together as a group
thus preventing the random assortment of genes. The recombination that occurs between
genes that are linked together is as a result of crossing over. This is the physical process of
32
breakage and reunion of chromosomes, whereby blocks of genes are exchanged between
non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Crossing overs are visible during
meiosis as 'x' shaped configurations called chiasmata.
CHIASMA FREQUENCY AND RECOMBINATION FREQUENCY:
Chiasma frequency (crossover frequency) refers to the frequency of chiasma formation

during meiosis. Chiasma frequency can hence vary from 0 to 1. When a chiasma is formed
(at the four stand stage) between two genes only half the gametes formed will be
recombinant type gametes. Hence the recombination frequency is half of the chiasma
frequency. Hence recombination frequency varies between 0 to 0.5. These are referred to as
the limits of recombination. Take for example the chiasma frequency is 80 %. This means
that if there are 100 meiotic events chiasma form only 80 times. Every time meiosis occurs
four gametes are formed. Hence 100 meiotic events will yield 400 gametes. When a
chiasmata forms during meiosis, of the four gametes that are produced only two are
recombinant types. Hence Recombinant Type (RT) gametes = 80 x 2 = 160
Recombination % = No of RT gametes 160

-------------------- = ----- x 100 = 40%
Total gametes 400
(ie half of chiasma frequency)
LIMITS OF RECOMBINATION:
Recombination frequency (r) can vary between 0 to 0.5. The probability of crossing over
occurring between two genes is proportional to the distance between genes.
Case 1: On the extreme if the genes are tightly linked in such a way that there will
be no chiasma formation between them, then, both chiasma frequency and
recombination frequency will be 0. When r = 0, the genes are said to be completely
linked and the phenomenon referred to as complete linkage. In this case only
parental type gametes are formed, because the genes are so close together that the
probability of crossing over between the two genes is almost 0. Hence in the test
cross progeny the observed ratio would be 1:1 and not the usual 1:1:1:1.
Case 2: On the other extreme, if the gene loci are far apart (on the opposite ends of
chromosomal arms) such that the probability of chiasma formation is 100% (in other
words cross over occurs between the genes at every meiotic event) or if the genes
are on separate chromosomes and are independently assorting, then, the
33
recombination percentage will be 50%. When r = 0.5, 50% of the gametes would be
parental type, while the other 50% would be recombinant types. Hence, each
gametic type would occur at equal frequency and the F1 test cross would result in a
1:1:1:1 ratio. This is referred to as independent assortment.
Case 3: If the genes are linked and allow chiasma formation at frequencies levels 0
and 1, the recombination frequency would be between 0 and 0.5. When r is between
0 and 0.5, the genes (2) under consideration are said to be incompletely linked.
Incomplete linkage results in parental type gametes being more predominant than
the recombinant types. How much predominant depends on the value of r. Lower
the value of r, less frequent will the recombinant types be. In such a situation test
cross progeny will not give the normal 1:1:1:1 ratio. The PT > RT.
LINKAGE RELATIONSHIPS:
When the two genes that are linked on a chromosome are either in the dominant
form or in the recessive form they are said to be in the coupling phase (cis
configuration). However, when one gene in the dominant form is linked to another
in the recessive form, the genes are said to be in the repulsion phase (trans
configuration). See Figure 1. The table below shows that linkage relationships do not
affect recombination frequencies, but the parental types (AB, ab) in the coupling
phase become the recombinant types in the repulsion phase and similarly the
recombinant types in the coupling phase (ab, Ab) become the parental types in the
repulsion phase.
Table 1: Gametic frequency of double heterozygotes in coupling and repulsion

phases.
Gametes AB Ab aB ab
Coupling phase (1-r)/2 r/2 r/2 (1-r)/2
Repulsion phase r/2 (1-r)/2 (1-r)/2 r/2
DETECTION OF LINKAGE:
Linkage can be detected by noting the relative frequency of the parental types and the recombinant
types in the F1 test cross progeny. Normally a goodness of fit test (2) is conducted to verify
whether the observed ratio between the parental types and the recombinant types infact follow a 1:1
34
ratio (See Problem 7 in Problem Sheet No. 1). If it does we say that there in no linkage; if the
hypothesis is rejected, on the other hand, we would have evidence to conclude that linkage exists
between the two loci.
CALCULATING RECOMBINATION PERCENTAGE BETWEEN TWO GENES:
The method of calculating recombination percentage depends on whether we have (a) F1 test cross
data or (b) F2 data.
(a) F1 test cross data: In this method, we simply find the two least frequent of
the four genotypes. These are the recombinant genotypes. The number of
recombinant types as a percentage of the total number gives the
recombination percentage. If it is expressed as a fraction, we refer to it as
recombination frequency (see Question 3 and 7 in Problem sheet).
Now you find the linkage relationship by finding the parental genotypes (the
two more predominant ones) and removing the gametic contribution of the
recessive genotype used in the test cross. In the resulting parental type
gametes if the dominant is linked to the recessive it is repulsion. If the
dominant of one gene is linked to the dominant form of the other or the
recessive of one gene is linked to the recessive form of the other they are
said to be in coupling phase.
(b) F2 data: If the F2 data is given, find the frequency of the double recessive
genotype.
P [aabb] = P [ab] x P [ab] .............Law of product probability

P [ab]2 = P [aabb] ; P [ab] = P[aabb]
This gives the frequency of the gamete ab.
P [ab] = P [AB] ............................. hence can find the freq of AB
Now [1 - (frequency of AB and ab)] gives the freq of aB and Ab.
Each of them would be half of this value.
Recombination frequency can be calculated by adding the two least frequent
gametes. The relationship that exists among the two genes in the, two, more
frequent gametes will tell you the linkage relationship, whether coupling or
repulsion (See Problem 4 & 6).
FINDING THE GENOTYPIC AND PHENOTYPIC FREQUENCIES IN THE F2:

35
If the recombination frequency is known one can find the frequency of the gametes produced by
the double heterozygous F1 plant by using the information provided in Table 1. The gametes and
their frequencies can be used in a punnet square to obtain the genotypic and phenotypic ratios (see
Problem 1 in Problem Sheet 1.
FACTORS AFFECTING CROSSING OVER:
The factors that adversely affect chiasma formation between two genes are referred to as cross over
suppressors. Factors related to crossover suppression can be categorised into intrinsic and extrinsic
factors.
INTRINSIC FACTORS:
These include proximity of genes to centromere or telomere (chromosomal termini),

chromosomal inversions, sex in Drosophila (when male used as the heterozygous parent
crossovers do not occur), age (crossover decreases with age), cytoplasmic and genetic
factors.
EXTRINSIC FACTORS:
These include temperature (c.o increases above 22oC), nutrition (Ca++, chelating agents and
antibodies increase c.o) and radiation (x ray increases c.o).
4.2 CONSTRUCTING A GENETIC MAP (GENE MAPPING)
Thomas Hunt Morgan (1910) showed that linkage does exist and that linked genes
are often inherited together but may be separated by crossing over. Later Morgan
(1911) found that a definite relationship existed between recombination percentage
and the linear distance separating genes on a chromosome. A map unit (m.u) is an
arbitary unit to measure the distance between genes and is equal to 1 per cent
recombination. Another way to express it is in Morgan units. 100 % recombination
= 1 morgan unit; hence 1% recombination = 1 centimorgan (cM).
TWO POINT SYSTEM OF MAPPING:
This method is based on mapping two genes at a time, by finding the recombination
percentage between them. Using this method genes can be assigned to chromo-
somes (linkage groups) and using the method you will be using to solve Question 2
in Problem Sheet 1, one can find the distance between genes on a chromosome.
36
In a two point linkage system, the greater the unmarked distance (without
segregating loci) between two genes, the greater the chance of double crossovers
occuring without detection. Therefore the most reliable estimates of the amount of
crossing over will be gained from closely linked genes. Double crossovers do not
occur within a distance of 10-12 map units in Drosophila. The minimum double
crossover distance will vary between different species. Within this distance,
recombination percentage is equivalent to map distance. Outside this minimum
distance, the relationship between recombination percentage and map distance
becomes non-linear as illustrated in Fig 2. Hence the true distance will thus be
underestimated by recombination frequency, and at large distances they virtually
become independent of each other.
THREE POINT SYSTEM OF MAPPING:
This is the popular method of mapping used. In this method a third marker gene (C)
is used in between the two genes (A, B). Since the central marker gene is exchanged
when double crossovers occur, double crossovers can be detected and can be
accounted for. Hence, the estimated gene distance is not underestimated as in the
two point linkage system. In three point mapping two regions are recognised, that
between the marker gene (C) and A (Region I), and that between the marker gene
(C) and B (Region II). A single crossover (SCO) in Region I results in gene A being
exchanged. A single crossover in Region II results in gene B being exchanged. A
double crossover in both Regions A & B results in the central gene being exchanged.
Recombination percent in Region I = (SCO [RI] + DCO) x 100

--------------
Total
Recombination percent in Region II = (SCO [RII] + DCO) x 100

--------------
Total
COEFFICIENT OF COINCIDENCE AND INTERFERENCE:

In most organisms, the formation of one chiasma actually reduces the probability of
another chiasma forming in an immediately adjacent region of the chromosome.
This phenomenon is referred to as interference. This reduction in chiasma formation
can be thought of as being due to a physical inability of the chromatids to bend back
37
upon themselves within certain minimum distances. The net result of this
interference is the observation of fewer double crossover types than would be
expected according to map distances. The strength of interference varies in different
segments of the chromosome. Interference especially high near the centromere and
telomeres. Coefficient of coincidence measures the strength of interference. It is
expressed as a ratio between the observed and expected double crossovers.
% observed double crossovers

Coefficient of coincidence = -----------------------
% expected double crossovers
Coefficient of coincidence (CC) + Interference = 1
When interference is complete, no double crossovers will be expected and

coincidence becomes 0. When we observe all the double crossovers ecpected,
conicidence is unity and interference becomes ). The percentage of expected double
crossovers can be predicted by assuming that crossing overs in Regions I and II are
independent. This allows the use of the law of product probability to calculate
expected DCO. (Expected DCO = recombination frequency in Region I x
Recombination frequency in Region II. The interference increases as the distance
between loci A and B decreases (See Fig 3).
LINKAGE ANALYSIS IN THE THREE POINT CROSSES
SAMPLE QUESTION:
There are three recessive mutant genes in corn viz.

1. v - virescent seedlings
2. gl - glossy leaves
3. va - variable sterile
The homozygous parents were crossed and the resulting F1 plants were test crossed to a triple
recessive genotype. Phenotypic analysis of the test cross progeny gave the following results:
Phenotypes No. of Individuals

Normal 235
Glossy, variable sterile 62
Variable, sterile 40
Virescent, variable sterile 04
Virescent, glossy, variable sterile 270
Glossy 07
Virescent, glossy 48
Virescent 60
38
1. Find the gene order and the linkage relationships?

2. Find the genotype of the parents?
3. Find the map distance between genes?
4. Find the interference that is operative?
Step-1: Find The Gene Order
a) Find the parental types (most frequent):
+ + + = 235
gl v va = 270
Note: This gene orders is a guessed sequence.
Find the double cross over types (least frequent):
+ v va = 04
gl + + = 07
c) Find gene order:
Note: The double crossovers result in the exchange of the central gene. Therefore, if we
can find by changing which gene pair in the double crossover types, we could obtain the
parental phenotypic combinations, that gene would be the central gene.
For instance in our case: by exchanging ‘+/gl’ in the double crossover types to ‘gl/+’, we
will obtain the parental phenotypic combinations [ (+++), (gl va v) ]. Therefore ‘gl’
should be the central gene.
Gene order: va gl v
Step-2: Find The Parental Types, Single Crossovers (Region-1), Single Crossovers
(Region-2) And Double Crossovers
LINKAGE RELATIONSHIPS
39
1. Parental types: + + + 235

va gl v 270
2. Single crossover (SCO): va + + 40

(Region-1) + gl v 48
3. Single crossover (SCO): + + v 60

(Region-2) va gl + 62
4. Double crossover (DCO): + gl + 07

va + v 04
____
Total: 726
Step-3: Find The Recombination Values In Region-1 And In Region-2
Recombination (%) = SCO (R1) + DCO x 100 = 88 + 11 x 100

Region-1 Total 726
= 13.6%
Recombination (%) = SCO (R2) + DCO x 100 = 122 + 11 x 100

Region-2 Total 726
= 18.3%
Step-4: Gene Map:
13.6 18.3
________________________________________________
va gl v
Step-5: Find Interference
a) Observed DCO = 11 x 100

726
40
= 1.52%
b) Expected P(DCO) = 0.13 x 0.183
Expected DCO% = 0.13 X 0.183 X 100

= 2.379%
c) Coefficient of Coincidence
= Observed DCO (%) = 1.52 = 0.63
Expected DCO (%) 2.379
d) Interference = 1 - Coefficient of coincidence

= 1 - 0.63
= 0.37
Interference in 37 percent
4.3 LINKAGE ANALYSIS IN ASCOMYCETES
In fungi, linkage analysis and chromosome mapping is much simpler than in the higher plants and
animals. Firstly, because fungi are haploid and hence they have only one allele with respect to a
gene. Consequently, the genotypes are manifested in the phenotype without the complicating
influences of dominance. Secondly because the meiotic products (tetrads) are conserved in sacs,
which makes linkage analysis simpler.
Ordered and unordered tetrads.
In the Class Ascomycetes the meiotic products (tetrads) are conserved in sacs called ascus sacs. The
meiotic products later under go mitosis to produce eight ascospores. Ascomycetes that produce
narrow ascus sacs, which preserve the eight ascospores in the order in which they were formed
during meiosis, are referred to as ordered tetrads.
Some Ascomycetes produce ascospores in spherical, large ascus sacs, which do not preserve the
order in which the ascospores are formed during meiosis. These are referred to unordered tetrads.
Ordered tetrad analysis
This is the method of linkage analysis (and gene mapping) used in Ascomycetes that produce an
ordered tetrad.
To understand that ordered tetrad analysis, firstly we need to understand sexual reproduction in
Ascomycetes. Fig-1 illustrates the typical sexual phase in Ascomycetes. During unfavourable
41
conditions mycelia of the '+' mating type produce sexual structures called the protoperithecium or
ascogonium, while the '-' mating type produces a sexual structure called the antheridium. Upon
contact, the nuclei from the antheridium are transferred into the ascogonium through a tube called
the trichodyne.
The ascogonium produces numerous ascogenous hyphal outgrowths. Single pairs of '+' and '-' nuclei
migrate into each of these hyphal outgrowths. These nuclei are terminated in the penultimate cell
by septa. In the penultimate cell the haploid nuclei fuse to produce a diploid zygotic nucleus. This
process is referred to as fertilization. The zygotic nucleus immediately undergoes meiosis to
produce the tetrad. The penultimate cell elongates to produce a narrow ascus sac. Ordered tetrads
are formed because (a) the first division plane in meiosis is parallel to the second division plane,
leading to the linear arrangement of the tetrad nuclei (b) the narrow ascus sac preserves the order in
which the tetrad nuclei are formed. Immediately following meiosis, a mitotic division produces
eight haploid nuclei. The haploid nuclei are then surronded by cytoplasm, resulting in the eight
ascos spores.
The mature ascogonium bearing the numerous ascus sacs is referred to as perithecium or fruiting
body. Each perithecium may contain hundreds of ascus sacs or asci.
Fig-2 illustrates the fate of a single gene (C- black spores; c- white spores) during the process of
fertilization and subsequent meiosis. Note that the segregation pattern is dependent on whether a
crossover occurs between the centromere and the gene of interest. When there is no crossover the
spores in the ascus sac result in a 4:4 segregation pattern. This is referred to as the first division
segregation pattern, because the first division plane of meiosis separates the coloured spores (C)
from the uncoloured spores (c).
A crossover event, on the other hand, results in a 2:2:2:2 pattern. This is called the second division
segregation pattern, because the second division plane divides the coloured spores (C) from the
uncoloured spores (c).
Since each ascus sac represents a meiotic event, one can harvest all ascus sacs from a perithecium
and score them as to whether they are first division segregation types or second division segregation
types. Since the second division segregation types indicate cross over events, one can determine the
chiasma frequency by using the equation.
Chiasma frequency = Second division segregation types of Asci

__________________________________________
total number of asci.
Recombination frequency = Chiasma frequency / 2
The recombination frequency gives the distance between the gene and the centromere. After one
maps the distance of various genes from their centromere, one can put them all into a genetic map.
42
This method of using ordered tetrad data to conduct linkage analysis is referred to as ordered tetrad
analysis.
e.g. The results of a cross between a+ strain and a +b strain of Nerospora yielded the following
results. The ordered tetrad data are given below. Find the distance between genes a and b?
79 a+ a+ +b +b
14 a+ ++ ab +b
6 a+ ab ++ +b
1 a+ +b a+ +b
Unordered tetrad analysis
Unordered tetrad analysis refers to linkage analysis using unordered tetrad data.
Unordered tetrads are produced in large spherical ascus sacs. Hence the meiotic products can get
mixed up. With ascomycetes that produce unordered tetrads, one cannot separate the asci into first
division and second division segregation types as before, since the order in which the spores are
formed are not preserved. One can however separate the asci into a) parental ditypes b) non-
parental ditypes and (c) tetra types. In this method of linkage analysis one determines the distance
between two genes.
Parental ditypes: Asci that contains two types of ascospores, both of which carry the parental
combination of genes.
Parental ditypes are formed either when there is no cross over or when there
is a two strand double cross over event between the genes (Fig-3).
Non-parental ditype: Asci that contain two types of ascospores (hence ditype), but both types
carry the non-parental combination of genes.
Non-parental ditypes are formed by a four-strand double cross over event.

Since this is the rarest of all double crossover events, non-parental ditypes
are rare. (Fig-3)
43
Tetratypes: Asci that contain four types of ascospores. Two containing the parental
combinations, while the other two types contain the non-parental
combination of genes.
A single crossover event or a three-strand double crossover event (Fig-3) can

form Tetratypes.
Recombination percentage between two genes is calculated by
= NPD + 1/2 TT
-------------------
total
eg. A cross (ab+) x (++c) is made in an ascomycete with unordered tetrads. From the analysis
of 1000 asci given below, determine the genetic distances between the three loci and draw a
genetic linkage map.
Ascus type No.

_________________________________________________
1 400 (ab+) (ab+) (++c) (++c)

2 375 (abc) (abc) (+++) (+++)
3 150 (a++) (+++) (abc) (+bc)
4 75 (++c) (++c) (ab+) (ab+)
__________________________________________________
44
45
46
47
CHAPTER FIVE
POLYPLOIDY AND POLYPLOID INHERITANCE
______________________________________________________________________________
Polyploidy or ploidy refers to changes in chromosome number in organisms. Such changes are
referred to as macromutations to distinguish them from micromutations or genic mutations, which
are mutational changes within a gene.
Most organisms do not tolerate changes in ploidy, since they bring about gross imbalances within
the genome. In general many plant species tolerate ploidies, while animals do not.
TYPES OF PLOIDY
Polyploidy can be distinguished into Euploidy and Aneuploidy.
Euploidy refers to changes that result in whole number multiples of the basic chromosome number
(monoploid genome).
Euploidy can be further categorised into Autopolyploidy and Allopolyploidy.
Autopolyploidy refers to whole number multiples of the monoploid genome, where the duplicating
genomes are identical.
If the monoploid number (basic chromosome number) is X. A diploid will be 2X, triploid 3X, a
tetraploid 4X and a Hexaploid 6X. Cultivated bananas are triploids, cultivated potatoes are
tetraploids, sweet potatoes are hexaploids etc.
Allopolyploidy refers to whole number multiples of the basic chromosome number, but the
duplicating genomes are not identical. Allopolyploids are formed by interspecific hybridisation,
which bring different genomes together followed by allopolyploidy. Sugarcane, brassicas, plantains,
wheat etc are well known examples of allopolyploids.
Aneuploidy refers to changes in chromosome number confined to a few chromosomes in the

monoploid genome. Aneuploids which have supernumerous chromosomes are referred to a
hyperploids and those which have less than the diploid number are referred to as hypoploids.
Examples of hyperploidy include trisomics, double trisomic, tetrasomics etc. Examples of

hypoploidy include nullisomics, monosomic, double monosomics etc.
48
Evolutionary significance of autopolyploids.
Autopolyploids have more than two alleles with respect to a gene. For instance triploids will have
three alleles with respect to a gene. Hence autopolyploids show greater vigour, since they have
more copies of the gene. Higher ploidies hence show gigantism. The optimum ploidy varies with
organisms. In addition, polyploids capable of having more than two alleles would show greater
adaptability and greater genetic variation in the progeny. Hence, higher ploidies are more
favourable in some species. Evolution has hence selected organisms for the optimum ploidy level.
Autopolyploids however suffer from reduced fertility and consequently reduced seed-set, since
chromosomal disjunction during meiosis can be sometimes erratic. For instance in a tetraploid you
would have four homologous chromosomes. During normal disjunction they will separate 2:2 into
gametes. However, 3:1 segregation can sometimes occur. This results in abnormal chromosome
numbers in the gametes, and thus gamete sterility. Hence autopolyploidy is not favoured in species
that are seed propagated.
Evolutionary significance of allopolyploids.
Allopolyploidy brings together the genomes of closely related species, and hence allopolyploids
have a greater diversity of genes, which allow them to be even more environmentally flexible than
autopolyploids. They normally combine the good features of the two species involved in
interspecific hybridisation.
Evolutionarily mature allopolyploids are generally fully fertile unlike the autopolyploids. Hence
allopolyploid crops such as brassica, wheat, tobacco etc are fully fertile and are good seed crops. In
addition, they are environmentally more flexible. The greater variation among their progeny also
makes them evolutionarily flexible.
e.g. Plantains arose as a result of interspecific hybridisation between two diploid banana species,
Musa acuminata (AA) and Musa balbisiana (BB). Musa acuminata produces the diploid dessert
banana ( e.g. variety Sucrier). This produces soft, sweet edible bananas. These however are
vulnerable to drought as well as insect pests and diseases. Musa balbisiana produces an inedible,
hard, starchy type fig, but is very robust, capable of with standing droughts and diseases. The
plantain types arose as a result of interspecific hybridisation between these species, followed by
allopolyploidy. The cultivated plantain varieties have a ABB genome or AABB genome. The AAB
produces a dessert type, which has some a somewhat starchy fruit (e.g. SIlk). Theee varieties are
much more hardier than the AAA varieties (Gros Michel, Cavendish).
Note:
Macromutations or chromosomal mutations do not always lead to changes in chromosome number
but can also result in changes in chromosome structure. Examples of chromosome structure
includes inversions, duplications, translocations and deletions.
49
CHAPTER FIVE
SEX DETERMINATION AND SEXLINKED INHERITANCE
_______________________________________________________________________________
1. IMPORTANCE OF SEX:
It is a mechanism that provides for the great amount of genetic variability characterising
natural populations, by ensuring recombination of genes between dissimilar individuals.
The evolutionary process of natural selection depends upon this genetic variability to
supply the raw material from which the better adapted types are selected.
2. SEX DETERMINING MECHANISMS:
2.1 MECHANISMS INVOLVING SEX CHROMOSOMES:
The sex chromosomes are central in the sex determination process.
Genome = Autosomes + Sex Chromosomes
e.g. Drosophila: Four pairs of chromosomes (genome)

First 3 pairs are autosomal chromosomes
4th pair – sex chromosome
2.1.1 The XY method of sex determination

(Lagaeus system of sex determination)
e.g. Lygaeus tunicus – Male – a pair of non homologous sex chromosomes

(XY). Heterogametic sex.
- Female - a pair of homologous sex chromosomes
(XX). Homogametic sex.
XY x XX
X Y X
XX XY
1 Female : 1 Male
50
Note: Other examples are human beings, mammals.
2.1.2 XO Method of sex determination

(Protenor system of sex determination)
e.g. Insects belonging to order Hemiptera and Orthoptera

Protenor – Male: The X chromosome does not have a homologous
pair – Heterogametic sex.
Female: XX – Homogametic sex.
Male Female
XO x XX
X O X
XX XO
1 Female : 1 Male
2.1.3 ZO Method of sex determination
e.g. Butterflies, moths, caddies flies, silkworms, fishes and some birds
Females: ZO – Heterogametic sex
Male: ZZ – Homogametic sex
Male x Female
ZZ ZO
Z Z O
ZZ ZO
1 male : 1 female
51
2.1.4 ZW Method of sex determination
e.g. Chicken.
In this case, the chromosomes are labelled Z and W instead of X and Y
respectively in order to call attention to the fact that the female is the
heterogametic sex (ZW) and the male is the homogametic sex.
Female Male
ZW x ZZ
Z W Z
ZZ ZW
1 male : 1 female
2.1.5 Compound Sex Chromosomes:
e.g. Nematode: Acaris incurva
Male Female
XXXXXXXXY x XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX Y XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX XXXXXXXX Y

1 Female : 1 Male
The group of 8 X chromosomes are inherited as a group.
2.2 GENIC BALANCE (CHROMOSOME BALANCE THEORY OF SEX DETERMINATION)
- In this system not only the sex chromosomes but also the entire complement of
autosomes determine the sex.
- The sex is determined by the balance between factors for maleness, residing in all
the autosomes, and the factors for femaleness, residing in the X chromosomes.
- The Y chromosomes though essential for male fertility is not involved in sex
determination.
52
- The expression of sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes to autosome

sets.
X/A ratio = 1 or higher produces a female
X/A ratio = 0.5 or less produces a male
X/A ratio = 0.5 – 1.0 produces an intersex
- Drosophila:
Let A represent a haploid set of autosomes
Normal Drosophila male : AAXY X/A ratio = 0.5 male

Normal Drosophila female : AAXX X/A ratio = 1.0 female
Evidence for the chromosome balance theory of sex determination
Bridges (1922) observed that Drosophila occasionally produces a triploid due to non-disjunction
of chromosomes during anaphase.
Normal disjunction Non disjunction

(failure of paired chromosomes
to separate during anaphase)
Female Male Female Male

AAXX x AAXY AAXX x AAXY
AX AX AY AAXX AX AY
AAXX AAXY AAAXXX AAAXXY

Female Male X/A = 1 X/A = 0.33
Female Superfemale
He crossed a triploid female to a normal male. The triploid produces different types of gametes
due to abnormalities in the disjunction of chromosomes during anaphase.
Case (a): AAAXXX x AAXY
AAX AXX AX AY
AAAXX AAAXY AAXXX AAXXY

Intersex (X/A = 0.6) supermale (X/A = 0.3) superfemale (X/A = 1.5) female X/A = 1
53
Case (b): AAXX AX AX AY
AAAXXX AAAXXY AAXX AAXY

X/A = 1 X/A = 0.67 X/A = 1 X/A = 0.5
Female Intersex Female Male
Case (c): AA AAXXX AX AY
AAAX AAXXXX AAXXXY AAAY

X/A = 0.3 X/A = 2 X/A = 0.67 Supermale
supermale superfemale intersex
Note: Intersex: -neither male nor female

-Gynandromorphs: has both male and female organs
Intersexes are highly influenced by the environment

-intersex: high temperature – more female
low temperature – more male
-intersex: some modifier genes – more male
some modifier genes – more female
2.3 HAPLO-DIPLOIDY:
In this case, autosomes alone determine sex. The number of autosome complements are
only important.
e.g. Hymenopteran insects such as bees, wasps, ants
- Bees: Males develop parthogenetically from unfertilised eggs

(arrhenotyky) – hapoloidy (n)
Females originate from fertilised eggs – diploid (2n)
Quantity of food available
Queen Worker
The diploid egg develops into a sterile worker or a fertile queen depending on the food
available. (Note that environment affects fertility and not the sex.)
54
- The sex ratio is under the control of the queen. The queen chooses which eggs to
fertilise from those laid in the hive, using sperms stored in the seminal recepticle.
2.4 SINGLE GENE EFFECTS:
In this single genes within the autosome determine sex of an organism.
2.4.1 Complimentary sex factors:

e.g. Hymenopteran wasp – Bracon hebator
Sex determination in this wasp not only follows the haplo-diploidy system but is also
affected by a complementary autosomal gene.
Unfertilised eggs haploid males
Fertilised eggs diploid males

Complementary gene homozygous
diploid females
Complemetary gene heterozygous
The complementary gene has nine multiple alleles – Sa, Sb, Sc … Si.
Therefore SaSa, SbSb, ScSc, ……… SiSi - males
SaSb, SaSc, SaSd, ……… ShSi - females
Diploid female x Haploid male

SaSb Sa
a
S Sb Sa
a b a a
S S SS SaSb
Haploid males diploid male diploid female
2.4.2 Transformer Gene:
In Drosophila: the third autosomal chromosome carries a ‘transformer’ gene,

which in its homozygous recessive state transforms a diploid female into a sterile male.
Diploid Female Sterile Male

AAXX tra.tra
2.4.3 ‘Mating types’ in microbes:
55
dominant - A - Mating type – 1

Chlamydomonas reinhardi - 1 gene
recessive - a - Mating type – 2
Fungi – unifactorial – 2 mating types

- bifactorial - 4 mating types
SEX DETERMINATION IN PLANTS
Most plants are bisexual, both sexes reside on the same plant. However some plants are
dioecious (staminate plant, pistillate plant).
1. Single Gene Control:

Well known examples of dioecy are usually under the genetic control of a
single gene locus.
e.g. Asparagus Staminate x Pistillate
AA aa
A a
Aa - Staminate
selfed
1AA: 2Aa: 1aa

3 male 1 female
2. Corn:
Monoecious --- apex tassel --- staminate flowers
--- axil ears --- pistillate flowers
There are two pairs of genes that control sex
1. Recessive genes ‘bs’ in homozygous recessive state – results in a barren

stalk – has no ears but has a normal tassel. These plants will be staminate (male).
56
2. Recessive gene ‘ts’ in homozygous recessive state converts tassel flowers into
pistillate flowers – so that an ear develops on the top of the plant – pistillate plant
(female).
3. Another mutant gene in homozygous recessive state (sk.sk) produces plants with
ears that do not produce silk.
Genotype Sex
Bs__ Ts__ normal monoecious

bsbs Ts__ staminate
Bs__ tsts pistillate – ears term. & latt.
bsbs tsts pistillate – ears term. only.
BsBs tsts sksk non functional female plant
3. Melandrium:
This plant shows chromosomal sexuality similar to the XX-XY system.

Melandrium has imperfect flowers on different plants
- Staminate plants XY – very big Y chromosome

- Pistillate plants XX – two small X chromosomes
The Y chromosome determines a tendency to maleness just as it does in human beings.

XY ratio is critical in determining sex.
GENOTYPE X/Y RATIO SEX

XYY 0.5 male
XY 1.0 male
XXXYY 1.5 male
XXY 2.0 male with occasional flowers
XXXXY 4.0 intersex with occasional flowers
Only X female flowers
57
Deletion studies where part of the chromosomes is lost has shown the functional regions
in the sex chromosomes.
I Suppressor region
Differential region Differential

V
of X chromosome II II Promoter region region of Y
II chromosome
III Fertility region
Homologous regions IV IV IV
X Y
When Region – I is deleted = perfect flowered plants

Region – II is deleted = pistillate
Region – III is deleted = sterile staminate plants with aborted
stamens.
4. Papaw (Carica papaya):
Dioecious - Sex is determined by five closely linked genes on the sixth

chromosome.
- They function as though they were three alleles of a single
gene.
1. M1 – dominant – male
2. M2 – dominant – hermaphrodite
3. m - recessive – female
- M1M1, M1M2, M2M2 – seeds not viable.

M1m – male
M2m – hermaphrodite
mm – female
Possible Crosses:
M1m x mm M1m : mm ½ productive

1 : 1 ½ good quality
58
M2m x M2m 1M2M2 : 2 M2m : 1 mm

lethal
All productive/ 1/3 good quality
M2m x M1m 1 M2M1 : 1 M2m : 1 M1m : 1 mm

Lethal
1
/3 unproductive
INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS
INHERITANCE
Inheritance refers to the transmission of a characteristic from one generation to the next or in simple
words how parental traits are passed on to the progeny.
MODES OF INHERITANCE
The mode of inheritance of a character depends firstly whether the gene is located in the nucleus
(nuclear genes) or whether it is located in the cytoplasm (cytoplasmic genes (or) extra chromosomal
genes). If it is located in the nucleus, then it depends on whether it is an autosomal gene (a gene that
resides on any of the autosomal chromosomes) or whether it is a sex chromosome associated gene.
Sex chromosome associated genes are the sex-linked genes (those that reside on the non-
homologous portion of the X chromosome) or holandric genes (those that reside on the non-
homologous portion of the Y chromosome).
1. NUCLEAR GENE INHERITANCE
Nuclear gene inheritance involves the inheritance of genes that reside on chromosomes in
the nucleus. Nuclear gene inheritance is mediated through a process called meiosis, which
ensures recombination of genes and equi-parental inheritance. In other words, each
parent contributes equally to the progeny genetic material. The process of recombination
(reshuffling and regrouping of genes) ensures variability in the resulting progeny. Nuclear
gene inheritance therefore follows Mendel's principles with some exceptions.
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1.1 Autosomal inheritance
We have already seen that the inheritance of autosomal genes follow a Mendelian
inheritance governed by Mendel's first and second principles, except in the case of linked
gene inheritance where Mendel's second principle is violated. Mendelian inheritance is
biparental or equiparental, which means that each parent, contributes equally to the progeny
genetic material. Further the inheritance does not show reciprocal differences, that is the
resulting progeny ratios would not change if the the parental traits are switched.
The amount of variation that you see with respect to a character depends on whether one or
a few genes (oligogenic trait) govern the character or many genes (polygenic trait).
Oligogenic traits yield a number of discrete phenotypes in a particular ratio, depending on
the intra-allelic and inter-allelic interactions (Qualitative traits), while polygenic traits show
a numerous phenotypes, which merge boundaries into a continuous distribution due to large
environmental influences on the trait (Quantitative traits).
Finally, the pattern of inheritance of an autosomal trait depends on ploidy. Ploidy refers to
the no. of basic set of chromosomes in an individual. A basic set refers to a set of unique
chromosomes in the nucleus of an individual. Diploids generally have two basic sets.
Individuals that contain more than two sets are called polyploids. Polyploids follow
Mendel's principles, although the phenotypic ratios will be different and there will be greater
variation in the progeny.
There are some autosomal genes (nuclear genes) that show some features of the inheritance
of cytoplasmic genes. These genes are said to have maternal effects. Such genes with
maternal effects seem to show maternal transmission but they indeed follow a mendelian
inheritance. We will look at them later. The inheritance of 'genes with maternal effects'
shows reciprocal differences.
1.2 Sex chromosomal inheritance
These refer to the genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. These sex chromosomes
are only found in the animal kingdom but is generally absent in the plant kingdom, with the
exception of a plant called melandrium. Hence, sex-chromosomal inheritance is generally
limited to the animal kingdom.
The mode of inheritance of traits that reside on the sex chromosomes depend on whether the
genes reside on the non-homologous portion of the x chromosome (sex-linked genes) or on
the non-homologous portion of the Y chromosome (holandric genes).
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1.2.1 Sex linked inheritance
Sex linked genes show a sex linked inheritance. Although sex linked inheritance follows
Mendel's principles, there are some characteristic features that allow them to be
distinguished from autosomal inheritance. Because it follows mendelian principle it is
biparental or equiparental in nature.
a) Shows reciprocal differences: the genotypic and phenotypic ratios would be different
when parental phenotypes are switched. Autosomal traits do not show reciprocal
differences.
b) Criss-cross inheritance pattern: The phenotypes of the male and the female individuals
are reversed in the progeny in relation to the parental phenotypes. For instance if you
cross a red-eyed male to a white-eyed female, the result would be a white-eyed male and
a red eyed female.
c) Skip generation inheritance: A particular trait may disappear in one generation and
reappear in the next generation.
d) Expected mendelian ratios are not sometimes obtained.
e) Sex linked recessive traits are more common in males than females. Autosomal traits
are equally common in both sexes.
1.2.2 Holandric traits:
Holandric traits show a father-to-son inheritance and are passed on only through the paternal
line. These traits are therefore confined to the males and are never transmitted to the
females, because the females do not have a Y chromosome.
2. EXTRA-CHROMOSOMAL INHERITANCE
Genes that reside outside of the nucleus are called extra-nuclear genes, extra-chromosomal
genes, organellar genes or cytoplasmic genes. They all mean the same thing, that is genes
that reside in DNA found in organelles such as mitochondria (mtDNA) and cytoplasm
(ctDNA), which are in the cytoplasm.
The organellar genome:
The organellar genome is different to the nuclear genome in several respects. Firstly the
DNA is not complexed with proteins to form chromosomes, but is naked. Secondly, the
61
DNA is a circular double helix (not a linear molecule as in the nuclear genome). Thirdly, the
DNA molecules are much smaller in size compared to a chromosome, so they carry much
fewer genes (100s compared 10,000 or more in the nuclear genome). The mitochondrial
DNA consists of genes coding for enzymes involved in cellular respiration and proteins
involved in the protein synthesis (transcription and translation); whereas the chloroplast
DNA contains genes involved in functions such as synthesis of chlorophyll and other plant
pigments and antibiotic resistances. Fourthly, the DNA molecules are found in multiple
copies. For instance, there are approximately 40 chroloplasts in a plant cell, in each
chloroplast there are 4-18 nucleoid regions, with each nucleoid region containing 4-8
circular DNA molecules. Hence each organellar gene will have 640 - 5760 copies.
Since the organellar genomes resemble the prokaryotic genomes found in bacteria, there is a
school of thought that believes that organelles could have arisen as symbiotic association of
eukaryotic cells with bacteria, early in the evolution of eukaryotes. These symbiont could
later have became an integral part of a eukaryotic cell over evolutionary time scales. This is
called the endosymbiont theory of the origin of the organellar genome. Lot of molecular
evidences are accumulating that support this theory.
Inheritance of organellar genes (Extrachromosomal inheritance)
Firstly, there is no organised mechanism such as meiosis in the nuclear genome to equally
divide and transmit the cytoplasmic genome into the gametes. Hence a random subset of the
total number of organelles is partitioned into the egg cell. There is no mechanism of
recombination. Secondly, since the male gamete, be it a sperm in animals or a pollen grain
in plants, does not have much cytoplasm in them they do not transmit the organellar
genomes to the progeny. Hence, transmission is uniparental only through the female gamete
- uniparental inheritance/ maternal inheritance. Hence, traits that reside in the cytoplasmic
genome are transmitted from mother to the progeny through the maternal line. Thirdly, since
all the progeny receive the cytoplasmic genome from the mother they are all uniform.
Hence extrachromosomal inheritance can be defined as the self-perpetuation and

independent transmission of a subset of the cytoplasmic genome through the maternal line.
Characteristic features of maternal inheritance
1. Maternal inheritance (uniparental inheritance)
2. Mendelian ratios not obtained. Since all the progeny receive the genes from the
maternal genome and there is no meiosis, mendelian segregation ratios are not
obtained.
62
3. Reciprocal differences. Naturally there will be reciprocal differences since

transmission is through the maternal line.
4. Perpetual transmission through maternal line. Only way variations can emerge is by
mutation.
Example: Inheritance of varigation in Mirabilis jalaba (4 O' clock plant.
3. NUCLEAR-CYTOPLASMIC GENE INHERITANCE
Both nuclear genes and cytoplasmic genes code for some characteristics. Such
characteristics are said to have a nuclear cytoplasmic gene inheritance. The inheritance of
these characters shows features of both nuclear and cytoplasmic gene inheritance.
Male sterility in Corn is inherited by nuclear cytoplasmic inheritance. The male sterile
phenotype shows aborted pollen, while the male-fertile phenotype (normal) shows normal
fertile pollen.
A cytoplasmic gene in the chlorplast codes for male sterility. When the gene is in the 'S'
form it codes for a male sterile phenotype and when in the 'F' form it codes for a male fertile
(normal) phenotype.
There is nuclear gene called the restorer gene (R), which in the dominant form (RR or Rr)
can restore male fertility even when a 'S' gene is present in the cytoplasm. Hence the name
because of its ability to restore fertility.
Hence in reality only when the nuclear gene is in the recessive form (rr) and when the
cytoplasmic gene is in the 'S' form will a male sterile plant result. Here both the cytoplasmic
gene and the nuclear gene cooperate to produce a phenotype, hence called nuclear-
cytoplasmic inheritance.
rr-S = Sterile
rr-F = Fertile
RR-S = Fertile
RR-F = Fertile
Nuclear genes are inherited by mendelian inheritance, while a cytoplasmic gene is

inherited by maternal inheritance. Hence segregation occurs but in non-mendelian
proportions and with reciprocal differences. Hence, the inheritance shows some of the
features of nuclear inheritance and cytoplasmic inheritance. Example.
63
MATERNAL EFFECT
What are they?
We saw earlier on that some nuclear autosomal genes, uncharacteristically show reciprocal
differences and apparent maternal transmission not typical of autosomal inheritance. Such
differences arise through maternal transmission of products of nuclear genes to the zygote through
the egg cell. This differential transfer of nuclear genetic products is because of the larger
cytoplasmic contribution of the egg to the zygote, in comparison to that of the male gamete.
Definition
Hence, maternal effects are modified phenotypic effects caused by the transmission of maternal
products to the progeny through the egg, thus disguising the true genotype of the progeny.
Types of maternal effects.
The maternal effects may be transient or temporary or diminishing in nature or they may be
permanent or non-diminishing in nature.
a) Diminishing maternal effects
Modified phenotype that result from maternal transmission of nuclear gene products to the
progeny is temporary and is superseded in time by the phenotype based on the progeny
genotype. This is because the maternally transmitted nuclear gene products disintegrate
with time and are replaced by the gene products produced by the progeny individual.
Example: Flour moth (Ephestia kuhniella)
Gene A in the dominant form (A_) converts a precursor kynurenine into a brown pigment.
This converts the normal red eyes to a brown eye and the normal white larvae to a brown
one.
Male Female Female Male

Aa x aa Aa x aa
1 Aa : 1 aa 1 Aa : 1 aa
Brown white larvae All brown larvae
after some time
1 Brown : 1 White
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Note that the second cross showed reciprocal differences and maternal transmission,
characteristic of extrachromosomal genes, because of maternal effects, but in due cause the
true mendelian proportions are revealed. Hence, called diminishing maternal effect.
b) Non-diminishing maternal effects:
Modified phenotype that results from maternal transmission of nuclear gene products to the
progeny lasts throughout the life of the individual and is hence permanent or non-
diminishing. The true genotype of the progeny individual is only revealed in the next
generation.
Example: Snail sp. (Limnaea sp)
Gene D in the dominant form (D-) codes for dextral coiling of the snail shells (rightward
coiling). In the recessive form (dd) it codes for sinistral coiling (leftward coiling).
Male Female Female Male

DD x dd DD x dd
Dd (sinistral) Dd (dextral)
Self Self
1 DD : 2 Dd : 1 dd 1DD : 2 Dd : 1 dd
All dextral All dextral
Explanation: The maternal effect transmitted through the egg initiates clevage of the zygote
in a particular orientation, which leads to a particular coiling. Once the coiling is initiated
even if the substance is replaced by the true genotype, coiling that has initiated cannot be
reversed. Hence the phenotype is non-diminishing. However, the true genotype is revealed
in the next generation.
Hence maternal effects can be distinguished from extrachromosomal inheritance by there

impermanence, they disguise the true genotype of the individual only for part of the life
cycle (diminishing maternal effects) or for one generation only (non-diminishing maternal
effects). Extrachromosomal inheritance shows perpetual maternal transmission.
PRACTICALS
______________________________________________________________________________
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GENETICS PRACTICAL-1
Mitosis And Meiosis
You are provided with slides showing various stages of mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is normally
observed on growing root tips, where mitotic cell divisions are rapidly taking place. You are
provided with longitudinal and cross sections of dividing root tips of onion, corn etc. Meiosis is
usually observed during gametogenesis. You are provided with cross sections of anthers of
Setcreasea.
Exercise:
Mitosis:
1. Using a light microscope (high power) observe the various stages of mitosis. For this
purpose you will use longitudinal sections of root tips. You will see the rapidly dividing cells
immediately following the quiescent zone adjacent to the root tip.
Draw clearly labeled diagrams of the all the stages from a slide. Drawing should represent
what you actually see and not what you see in a text book diagram. No shading with the
pencil is allowed. (You may not see all the stages on one slide and hence you may have to
exchange slides with your colleagues). Indicate the magnification. Check if the
chromosomes are proportional to the cell size in your drawing. You will not see the
chromatids, so don't even try to draw them!!
2. Using your handout on cell division as a guide, determine the stages of mitosis for each of the
diagram. Annotate your diagram to indicate what stage you think the drawing represents,
using rationale arguments.
eg. If the nuclear membrane is present and the chromosomes are visible within it, it must be
early prophase. If the nuclear membrane is absent, chromosomes are visible but are not
organised on an equatorial plane, then it must be late prophase.. and so on.
3. Count the number of nucleoli in the interphase nuclei (Average and range).
4. Using the cross section of root tips, identify a cell that is in metaphase. (All the
chromosomes will be on one plane (equatorial plate) at this stage and hence would be visible
together).
Determine the number of chromosomes on the equatorial plane. What is the basic
chromosome number of onion/ corn? It may be easier to count the deeply stained
centromeric regions.
66
Meiosis
1. Examine cross sections of immature anthers of Setcreasea and make labeled drawings of the
various stages of meiosis. Diagrams should be proportionately drawn and the magnification
indicated. Annotate the diagrams as before to indicate what stage you think the diagrams
represent with reasoning.
Note that the meiotic division will occur within the pollen mother cells. If the division is
taking place within the entire cell, it indicates that it is undergoing the first division of
meiosis. If the division is taking place within two half cells, then it is undergoing second
division.
Note also that you will not be able to differentiate between the various substages of prophase-
I such as leptotene, zygotene, pachytene etc. You may only be able to record them as early
or late prophase-I.
GENETICS PRACTICAL-#2
MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
67
Today, you will prepare your own slides to observe the various stages of mitosis and meiosis.
You are provided with growing root tips harvested from onion (Allium cepa), and/or flowers of
Setcreasea. You will observe your preparation and identify the various stages of mitosis and
meiosis that you can discern.
MITOSIS IN SQUASH PREPARATIONS OF GROWING ROOT TIPS
Preparation of Slides
a) The root tips of onion has been harvested and fixed in ethanol-acetic acid (3:1) at 36-40 oC for
12 - 24 hours. The acetic acid penetrates and swells the protoplasm, while the ethanol
hardens and preserves the protoplast around the chromosomes. Fixing for 12-24 hours
reduces the staining of the cytoplasm.
b) Wash away the fixative from the root tips with water in a watch glass.
c) Place the root tips in acetocarmine until they become moderately stained.
d) Wash away the excess stain, and place root tips on a clean slide with a drop of water.
e) Cut off the remainder of the root from the stained tip. The tip is what you will use to view
the stages of mitosis.
f) Place a cover slip and gently tap to spread the cells with a matchstick or the back of a pencil.
Place a piece of blotting paper and firmly press the cover slip with your thumb.
g) Gently heat the slide to flatten cells.
h) Seal the edges of the cover slip with nail varnish and observe under high power.
Exercise
a) Observe your slides, identify the dividing cells and draw all the stages of mitosis that you can
see.
b) Clearly label the drawings, and annotate them to indicate the stage of mitosis you think they
are.
68
Meiosis In Squash Preparation Of Flower Buds Of Setcreasea
You are provided with flower buds of Setcreasea. Remove the bracts and dissect out the small
flower buds. Open the flower buds using a dissecting needle and remove anthers that are white
to pale yellowish green anthers. Anthers that are yellow are too old and will not have dividing
pollen mother cells.
Slide preparation
2. Place the anthers in a drop of aceto-carmine and crush them firmly with the glass rod.
Discard all visible debris with a needle. The PMCs will remain in the staining fluid.
3. Cover the object with a cover slip and warm gently over a flame. Repeat this procedure
intermittently without allowing the stain to boil or to completely evaporate. Heating allows
the staining to intensify. Add more stain if necessary.
4. Check under a microscope to see if the PMC's are in any stage of active division (pollen =
too old; cells in interphase - too young).
5. The preparation may be squashed by gentle pressure and sealed. If the staining is not
adequate you may need to heat again with stain. Overheating will destroy the cell and
nuclear membranes.
N.B Repeat the preparation several times in order to gain experience in squashing anthers and
to produce a series of preparations in which all the stages can be observed.
Observation and Exercises
a) Identify the different stages of meiosis
b) Determine the number of bivalents in metaphase-1
c) Make drawings of all meiotic stages you have seen. Label your drawings and annotate them
appropriately to indicate what stage of meiosis they represent.
GENETICS PRACTICAL-#3
INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS
69
F2 generations derived from different crosses of corn are provided to you. You are required to
provide a mechanism of inheritance for each F2 generation provided. In order to do this, you
will first formulate hypotheses to explain the segregation ratios for seed colour in each F2
generation. Then, you will test each hypothesis using an appropriate technique (chi-squared test
to test the conformity of the observed ratio to that of the expected ratio.) Based on the results,
you will provide a genetic and biochemical explanation.
Objectives of the Laboratory:
1. Formulate null and alternate hypotheses for each F2 generation.

2. Conduct a chi-squared test to test the validity of the null hypothesis
3. Provide genetic and biochemical explanations based on the inference.
Exercise
1. From each F2 provided, take three random samples, containing approximately 100 seeds
each. (Fill the beaker up to the mark, which will give you approximately 100 seeds). Mix
the seeds well before taking each sample. Transfer the three samples to labeled petri dishes.
Work with one F2 at a time, to avoid confusing the samples.
2. Separate the various seed colours in each sample and carefully count them.
3. Tabulate your results in the form of a table and determine the means for the various colours.
F2 – X
Sample Red seeds Yellow seeds

1
2
3
Mean
4. Convert the mean red: mean yellow, into a ratio (divide by the smallest number). Propose
possible genetic ratio to explain the observed mean ratio above. To do this you should
compare your ratio with all the monohybrid and dihybrid ratios giving two colours that you
know of.
5. Formulate a null hypothesis, alternate hypothesis, underlying genetic explanation, critical

value.
70
6. Conduct a chi-squared test (do a Yate's correction if required).
7. Derive your conclusion based on chi-squared table.
8. Provide a genetic explanation.
9. Propose a biochemical pathway to explain the results
10. Continue with the other F2 samples in a similar way.
GENETICS PRACTICAL-4
INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS
71
Objectives of the Laboratory:
i) Determination of the genetic control of seed colour. ie how many genes control seed
colour, what sort of intra allelic (dominance relationship) and interallelic interactions
(independent assortment vs epistasis) govern the inheritance of seed colour.
ii) Understand the scientific process involved in studying character inheritance. For
example, formulation of null and alternate hypotheses; design experiments to test the
hypotheses; statistical analysis of results; draw logical conclusions
iii) Interpretation and presentation of results. For example, provide genetic and biochemical
explanations to explain your results.
Important: Students are required to hand-in their worksheets before leaving the class. Ensure
that your name/ ID no. and sample number are recorded. The report should be written
according to the sample problem provided in the handout.
Question:
Seeds of the F1 generation derived from a cross between two different yellow-seeded varieties of
corn were collected as Sample F1. The F1 plants were selfed and the resulting F2 seeds were
bulked. Take three (3) representative samples of the bulk, each containing approximately 100
seeds. The F1 plants, when test-crossed, gave the test cross generation. Take three
representative samples of approximately 100 seeds each from the test cross generation.
Carefully label these six samples (three from the F2 generation and three from the testcross
generation, as F2-Sample1, F2- Sample2….. etc.).
a) Separate each sample into the various colours and count them carefully. Find the
means for the F2 and test cross generations
b) What phenotypic frequencies for seed colour are approximated in the F2 and test
cross generations ? (Show the counts as well as means)
c) Formulate a hypothesis to explain the ratio in the F2, and test the observed ratio
against the hypothesized ratio, statistically? (Show all steps)
d) Inferring from the statistical test in part (b), predict what phenotypic ratio you would
expect in the test cross? (Diagram the cross.)
e) Statistically test the predicted test cross ratio (from part (c)), against the observed
ratio obtained for the test cross generation? (Show all steps). Does the test cross
support your hypothesis for the F2 generation?
72
What is the purpose of having the testcross generation, in addition to the F2

generation?
f) What genetic phenomenon can be inferred from the results? Provide a genetic as well
as biochemical explanations to describe the genetic phenomenon you have inferred.
Diagram the cross to indicate the parents, F1, F2 and test cross generations.
GENETICS PRACTICAL #5
PROBLEM SHEET # 1 – LINKAGE ANALYSIS.
73
1. a) What are the gametic frequencies of linked genes in coupling and repulsion positions if
‘r’ were the cross over frequency?
b) If the recombination value between two linked genes Aa and Bb is 20% and if the F1
heterozygote which is selfed carries these genes in the repulsion position, what would
be the frequencies of the phenotypes and genotypes in the F2 generation?
2. a) From the following distances between individual pairs of genes, construct a map of the
chromosome.
r–c 10 map units

c–p 13 map units
p–r 3 map units
s–c 18 map units
s–r 8 map units.
b) If recombination between A and B is 8% and B and C is 13% what might it be between

A and C?
3. Chromosome six in corn carries 2 genes, A and B. A test cross of a F1 heterozygote gave
genotypes in the following frequencies:
AaBb: 52 Aabb: 11 aaBb: 14 aabb: 48
Predict the phenotypic ratio that would be obtained if the F1 heterozygote

is selfed?
4. A dihybrid cross in corn involving genes P and S gave phenotypes in the following numbers
in the F2 generation.
P_S_ : 251 P_ss : 124 ppS_ : 123 ppss : 1
(a) Find the linkage relationship?

(b) Calculate the map distance between genes P and S.
5. Maize plants homozygous for the recessive gene ‘variable sterile’ (va) exhibit irregular
distribution of chromosomes during meiosis. Yellowish green seedlings are the result of
another recessive gene called virescent (v). A third recessive called glossy (gl) produces
74
shiny leaves. All three of these genes are linked. Two homozygous plants were crossed and
produced an all normal F1. When the F1 were test crossed, progeny phenotypes appeared s
follows:
60 virescent 4 variable sterile, virescent

48 virescent, glossy 40 variable sterile
7 glossy 62 variable sterile glossy
270 variable sterile, virescent, glossy 235 wild type
(a) What are the genotypes and phenotypes of the original parents?
(b) Diagram the linkage relationship in the F1.
(c) Determine the gene order.
(d) Calculate the amount of recombination observed between the genes and diagram the
gene map.
(e) How much inference is operative?
6. Coloured kernal is dominant to colourless in corn; full kernal is dominant to shrunken. A

pure coloured, full variety is crossed to a colourless, shrunken variety. In the F2 there was
73% coloured, full: 2% coloured, shrunken: 2% colourless, full : 23% colourless, shruken.
Estimate, the crossover percentage between these two genes.
7. A cross AAbb x aaBB produces an F1 of genotype AaBb that is test–crossed to a double

recessive parent. The four classes of the test cross progeny appear in the following numbers:
AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb
68 205 215 72
(a) What genetic phenomenon is indicated by the data?

(b) Perform a statistical test to confirm your hypothesis?
(c) Diagram the cross to indicate how the results would have been obtained.
8. The genetic map for three linked genes ( A, B, C) is given below. The interferences between
regions a – b and b – c is 60 percent. The F1 heterozygote of a cross involving parents
AbC/AbC, and aBc/Abc was test crossed.
75
Find the expected numbers of the various test cross progeny genotypes, if the total number
evaluated is 1200.
a b c
15 20
9. a) Briefly outline the advantages of a three-point linkage system over a two-point

linkage system of gene mapping.
b) In tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), the following genes are located on

chromosome-2.
d - dwarf plant + - tall plant
m - mottled green leaf + - uniform green leaf
p - pubescent fruit + - smooth fruit
A test cross of a triple heterozygote for the above characteristics gave the following
results.
c) Phenotypes No.
________________________________________
Wild type 30
Pubescent fruit 1
Dwarf 20
Mottled leaf 440
Mottled leaf, pubescent fruit 14
dwarf, pubescent fruit 470
dwarf, mottled leaf, pubescent 23
dwarf, mottled leaf 1
_________________________________________
i) What is the correct gene sequence?

ii) Which are the non-crossover progeny classes and which are the crossover
progeny classes?
76
iii) What are the distances between the genes? Draw a genetic map, indicating
the position of loci.
iv) What do you understand by the term interference? Is there interference and
if so how much?
v) What would have been the genotypes and phenotypes of the original true-
breeding parents and of the F1 triple heterozygotes.
77
GENETICS PRACTICAL #6
PROBLEM SHEET # 2 - MICROBIAL GENETICS
1. The following crosses were made between two strains of Neurospora. Find the distance
between the genes and the linkage relationship.
CROSS PD NPD TT
ac + x + th 51 49 0
ac + x + pb 88 0 12
ac + x + pf 62 6 32
pb + x + pf 64 4 32
pf + x + th 29 3 68
2. The following random spores are recovered from the cross a++ x +bc. Derive a map for
the three genes.
abc 52 a++ 102

ab+ 34 +b+ 8
a+c 6 ++c 28
+bc 112 +++ 58
TOTAL = 400
3. The following tetrad data were obtained from the cross AB x ab in Neurospora. Draw a
linkage map showing the relative position of the two genes and the centromere.
SPORE PAIRS NO. OF ASCI

1–2 3–4 5–6 7–8
AB AB ab ab 1766
AB aB Ab ab 220
AB Ab aB ab 14
Total 2000
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4. Given the following unordered tetrad data from Neurospora. Cross +++ x xyz. What are
the linkage relationships between the genes and the map distances between them?
CLASS UNORDERED TETRAD PAIRS NO. OF ASCI
1 xyz xyz +++ +++ 24

2 xyz +yz x++ +++ 2
3 xy+ xy+ ++z ++z 20
4 xyz xy+ +++ ++z 8
5 x++ x++ +yz +yz 20
6 x+z x+z +y+ +y+ 26
5. An a b Neurospora was crossed with an + + form. Meiosis occurred and 1000 asci
were dissected. What is the linkage arrangement between genes?
NO. OF ASCI
700 ab ab ab ab ++ ++ ++ ++
0 a+ a+ a+ a+ +b +b +b +b
190 ab ab a+ a+ ++ ++ +b +b
90 ab ab +b +b ++ ++ a+ a+
5 ab ab ++ ++ ++ ++ ab ab
5 a+ a+ +b +b +b +b a+ a+
10 ab ab ++ ++ +b +b a+ a+
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TUTORIALS
GENETICS TUTORIAL NO-1
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE AND MEIOSIS
1. What do you understand by the terms basic chromosome number (x) and haploid number (n).
Clearly distinguish between these terms.
2. What are Mendel's principles of inheritance? What do you understand by the chromosome
theory of inheritance? What are the parallels between chromosome theory of inheritance
and Mendel's principles.
3. Describe the steps in Meiosis. What stage in meiosis corresponds to Mendel's first
principle? What stage is equivalent to Mendel's second principle?
4. Mutation and Recombination account for genetic variability seen within a species.
Distinguish clearly between recombination and mutation?
5. Distinguish clearly between random chromosome assortment and crossing over? What
stages in meiosis are these brought about?
6. Define the terms gene, locus, and allele. How are new alleles formed in nature?
7. Define homologous chromosomes and their involvement in recombination?
8. Discuss the significance of meiosis?
9. What stage in mitosis are chromosomes counted, and why?
10. The amount of variation created in the F2 generation is a function of genetic diversity of
parents. Discuss this statement.
pu/PU/2001.
80
THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST AUGUSTINE

DEPARTMENT OF LIFE SCIENCES
PREDICTING INHERITANCE / DOMINANCE
1. Define the law of product probability?
2. Why is the segregation of different genes considered independent?
3. What is the exception to the rule that genes assort independently?
4. How can you use the law of product probability to predict the inheritance of a phenotype
using the branch method?
5. How can you use the law of product probability to predict the inheritance of a genotypes
using the branch method?
6. How can you use the law of product probability to determine the genetic constitution of a
parent, when the other parent and the progeny phenotypic proportions are known?
7. What do you understand by the term complete dominance?
8. What is the basis of complete dominance at the molecular level?
9. Define co-dominance and incomplete dominance? Give examples.
10. How does incomplete dominance function at the molecular level?
11. What is the molecular basis for over dominance?
12. What do you understand by multiple allelism? Why is multiple allelism considered to be the
norm rather than the exception.
13. How does multiple allelism lead to genetic variability?
pu/PU/2001.
81

GENOTYPE-PHENOTYPE RELATIONSHIP
1. What are the factors that affect genotype-phenotype relationship?
2. What do you understand by the term 'modifying factors'
3. Modifying factors operate through biochemical pathways explain? In other words,

phenotype-genotype relationships have a biochemical basis, explain?
4. Students should be familiar with the biochemical basis for the various interallelic interactions
- complementary epistasis, inhibitory epistasis and duplicate epistasis.
5. Genotype-phenotype relationship is important in plant & animal breeding, explain?
6. Discuss how the environment can influence the expression of a character at the molecular
level?
7. What are the measures of environmental influence on gene expression? What measures are
used for monogenic traits as opposed to polygenic traits?
8. Distinguish between gene penetrance and expressivity?
9. What do you understand by pleiotropic effects of a gene?
10. What do you understand by the term 'additive genetic effects'
11. What is the difference between polygenic traits vs monogenic traits
12. Distinguish clearly between heritability in the broad sense as opposed to heritability in the
narrow sense, and discuss their importance.
pu/PU/2001.
82

LINKAGE ANALYSIS
1. What do you understand by gene linkage?
2. Why do linked genes violate Mendel's second principle?
3. What are the limits of recombination? Define complete linkage, incomplete linkage and no
linkage?
4. What is the relationship between chiasma frequency and recombination frequency?
5. What do you understand by linkage relationship?
6. Distinguish between linkage in the coupling phase and linkage in the repulsion phase?
7. Will recombination percentage be influenced by the whether the genes are in the coupling
phase or repulsion phase? Explain.
8. How will you calculate the linkage value between two genes if the test cross segregation data
is provided to you?
9. How will you calculate the linkage value between two genes if the F2 data is provided?
10. What is the advantage of a three-point system of linkage analysis over that of a two-point
linkage analysis?
11. Distinguish clearly between coefficient of coincidence and interference.
12. What are the uses of studying gene linkage?
13. Students should be able to work out problems in two-point and three point linkage analysis.
83
pu/PU/2001
84

LINKAGE IN ASCOMYCETES
1. What do you understand by ordered tetrads? How is it different from unordered tetrads?
Illustrate how ordered and unordered tetrads are formed in Ascomycetes.
2. What do you understand by tetrad analysis? Why is tetrad analysis much simpler than
conventional two-point or three point linkage analysis?
3. What do you understand by asci of the first division segregation pattern type as opposed to
asci of the second division segregation pattern type.
4. How can the information on the no of first and second division segregation types used in
determining the linkage between two genes.
5. Illustrate clearly how parental ditype, nonparental ditypes and tetratypes are formed.
SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX LINKED INHERITANCE
6. Distinguish clearly between XY and ZW systems of sex determination?
7. What do you understand by the chromosome balance theory of sex determination?
8. What evidences exist to support the chromosome balance theory of sex determination?
9. Describe sex determination in Drosophila
10. Describe the sex determining mechanisms in corn or papaw.
11. List the sex determining mechanisms in the animal kingdom vs plant kingdom.
12. Determine the characteristic features of sex linked inheritance.
13. Distinguish clearly between sex linked traits and sex limited traits
14. What do you understand by autosomes?
85
pu/PU/2001.
86

POLYPLOIDS
1. Differentiate clearly between euploidy and aneuploidy?
2. If a diploid (2X = 42) is converted into a monosomic, how many chromosomes would it
have?
3. How is autopolyploidy different from allopolyploidy?
4. Indicate how allopolyploids are formed?
5. A tetraploid organism has 28 chromosomes. Determine the basic chromosome number

(monoploid number) and its haploid number?
6. Trace the allopolyploid evolution of banana and plantains.
7. What are the usefulness of autopolyploids in agriculture.
EXTRACHROMOSOMAL INHERITANCE & MATERNAL EFFECTS
8. What are the characteristic features of extrachromosomal inheritance? How is it different

from nuclear inheritance?
9. Give an example of extrachromosomal inheritance.
10. What do you understand by maternal effects? How can they be distinguished from
extrachromosomal inheritance.
11. Distinguish clearly between diminishing and non-diminishing maternal effects with
examples.
12. What do you understand by nuclear-cytoplasmic gene interaction? Illustrate your answer
with an examples.
87
13. What are the commonalties between extra-nuclear inheritance and maternal effects?
14. What are the functions of the extrachromosomal genome.
88
TUTORIAL-1
CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE
The objective of the exercise is to bring some of the significant concepts in meiosis clear in the
minds of the students.
These are
1. The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis parallel that predicted by Mendel for his
'particles of inheritance'. This led to the chromosomal theory of inheritance which states
that the chromosomes are the unit of inheritance.
2. Recombination and mutations create genetic variability. Recombination is a process of

reshuffling existing genes to bring about new genetic variations. Recombination is brought
about by meiosis. Recombination occurs through
3. Meiosis is a reduction division, which results in reduction of the complement of

chromosomes to half in the gametes. This ensures constancy of genetic material generation
after generation.
One can only bring these concepts clear in the mind of the students by asking probing questions that
will make them think. You as the tutor should merely direct the students when they make mistakes
and clearly summarise at the end.
At the end you should summarise to bring the above three concepts clear in the mind of the students.
These are merely some examples of questions?
MEIOSIS AND MENDEL'S LAWS
1. List the differences in the products of mitosis and meiosis?
2. What stage in meiosis parallels the behavior of genes as predicted by Mendel's first law?
Probe the students with these questions before you come to the question above.
How many unique chromosomes will be there in a cell following the first division of
meiosis?
How is that the number of unique chromosomes in a cell are halved at the end of meiosis,
although the total number of chromosomes remain the same?
At what stage in meiosis would the chromosome number in each individual cell truly be
halved?
Why is the second division in meiosis referred to as 'equational'
What does Mendel's first law state?
89
3. What stage in meiosis parallels the behavior of genes as predicted by Mendel's second law?
Again probe the students with the following questions before coming to the above question.
What does Mendel's second law state?

Can you diagrammatically show how this happens during meiosis?
(use two pairs of homologous chromosomes as an example, one carrying 'A' 'a' and the other
carrying 'B' 'b')
What process in meiosis determines whether 'A' will go with 'B' or 'b' to a pole? Similarly 'a'
with 'B' or 'b'
If this process is random, it would lead to random assortment of genes.
4. Chromosome theory of inheritance: What is this? Indicate to the students that the behavior
of chromosomes during meiosis as seen under the light microscope was similar to that
predicted by Mendel's for his particles of inheritance (long before the microscopes were
invented). This led to the theory that the chromosomes are the units of inheritance.
RECOMBINATION
1. How are variability created in organisms?
2. What do you understand by the term recombination?
3. What are the processes in meiosis that lead to recombination of genes and therefore genetic
variability?
What are the processes that bring about recombination of genes (reshuffling of genes)?
What do you understand by the term random chromosome assortment? What stage in
meiosis does this take place? Indicate to the students that random chromosome assortment
brings about new combinations of paternal and maternal chromosomes of an individual into
its gametes.
What do you understand by the term crossing over? What stage in meiosis does this occur?
Indicate to the students that the process of crossing over reshuffles genes between the
homologous chromosomes.
Random fertilisation of the variable haploid gametes to produce diploid organisms also
brings together various combinations of genes and contributes to the variation.
90
APPENDIX I
GOODNESS OF FIT TEST.
GENETIC HYPOTHESIS.
In Genetic experiments, certain phenotypic ratios are expected based on certain genetic hypothesis.
If the experiments were infinitely large, and the observed ratios exactly match the expected then we
would confirm the hypothesis. However, if the observed ratios were different we would have to
reject the hypothesis.
All actual experiments, however, involve finite number of observations and therefore some
deviation from the expected numbers (sampling error) is to be anticipated. Such deviations are
referred to as chance variations or random variations. Hence even if the genetic model fits the data,
one would anticipate some discrepancy between the observed and the expected frequencies due to
random variation, how much deviation from the expected, can be allowed before we reject the
hypothesis? Conventionally, the hypothesis in most biological experiments is rejected when the
deviation is os large that it could be accounted to be significant.
A statistical test often used to assess the goodness of fit of the observed results to the expected, is the
chi-square test (χ2 test).
The chi – square test is used to test whether the observed frequencies differ significantly from the
frequencies which might be expected according to some assumed hypothesis. This process of
testing a given hypothesis is called Hypothesis Testing.
k
2
χ = ∑ (oi – ei )2
i=1 ei
k = n. of classes
o = observed frequency
e = expected frequency.
Note: χ2 is a measure of the descrepancy between observed and expected results.
Hypothesis testing
Null Hypothesis- = Observed F2 data follows a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 genetic ratio.

(H0)
91
Underlying genetic hypothesis :- 2 genes, complete dominance,

independently assorting loci, no gene interactions.
Altenate hypothesis - Observed F2 data does not follow a 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 genetic ratio.

(H1)
Critical level:- 5%
χ2 test:-
Phenotypes Obeserved Expected based on Deviation d2
Null Hypothesis d=o – e d2 e
Red, round 520 9/16x954 = 536.6 -16.6 275.6 0.514
Red, wrinkled 192 3/16x954 = 178.9 13.1 171.6 0.959
White, round 178 3/16x954 = 178.9 -0.9 0.81 0.0045
White, wrinkled 64 1/16x954 = 59.6 -4.4 19.36 0.074

____ ____ _____
954 0 χ2 = 1.55
What is the probability of a deviation of this magnitude (χ2 = 1.55) to occur due to chance alone.
To find this we have to look on the χ 2 probability table. The probability distribution varies with the
degrees of freedom (K- 1). In this case the degrees of freedom is:-
k–1=4–1=3
Line 3 in Table 1 gives the probability distribution of χ 2 when k = 3. The probability of obtaining a
χ2 value as large as 1.55 due to chance alone is between 0.50 – 0.70 (from the table). In other words
this observed variation could occur 50 – 70 % of the times due to chance variation alone. Hence we
do not have sufficient reasons to reject the null hypothesis at the critical value of 5%. Therefore we
fail to reject the null hypothesis and accept that the data as being in conformity with the 9: 3: 3: 1
ratio. This confirms with the underlying genetic hypothesis. The results obtained is hence not
significant.
Yates Correction for Small Samples.
The chi – square test assumes that the data follows a continuous distribution. When the number of
classes is 2 (k = 2), the distribution becomes discontinuous. A correlation should therefore be
92
applied in the calculation of chi – square to correct for the lack of continuity. The Yates correction
for continuity is applied as follows:
χ2 (corrected) = ( │o – e │ – 0.5)2
e
0 e (│o – e │ – 0.5) d2 d2/e
60 50 9.5 90.25 1.805

40 50 9.5 90.25 1.805
_____
3.61 = χ2
Note: Yates correction should also be applied when the expected frequency of a phenotypic
class falls between 5 – 10. Chi – square tests should not be applied at all when expected
frequency of a class falls below 5.
Exercise:
The F2 population of a cross gave red and white seeds in the following frequency
Red: 272 White: 220
i. What genetic phenomenon is suggested by the data.
ii. Perform an appropriate statistical test to confirm your hypothesis.
iii. Give a genetic as well as biochemical explanation to explain the mode of gene action.
Table 1: Chi – square Distribution
93
APPENDIX II
94
APPENDIX III
95

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Dr. P Umaharan - Introductory Genetics.

AGRI1011 – Introduction to genetics

Topics Learning Objectives

1. Chromosomal theory of Students should be able to define Mendel's

Students should be able to conceptualize

 homologous pairs of chromosomes

Students should be able to explain the

(b) ensure inheritance of genetic material

Students should be able to explain how

Students should be able to define

Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to see the parallality

2. Predicting inheritance Using the concepts learned in topic 1,

Students should appreciate that inheritance

Students should be able to test the predicted

Students should be able to appreciate

3. Genotype-phenotype relationship Students should be able to differentiate

Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to define intra-

Students should be able to define interallelic

Students should be able to discuss

4. Polygenic traits show a quantitative Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to differentiate

Students should be able to define heritability

5. Linked genes violate Mendel’s Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to predict outcomes

6. Gene mapping Students should be able to discuss the

Students should be able to list the

Students should be able to appreciate that

Students should be able to explain the

Students should be able to discuss sex

Students should be able to differentiate

8. Introduction to polyploidy in plants Students should be able to differentiate

Students should be able to discuss the origin

9. Extrachromosomal inheritance Students should be able to differentiate

Students should be able to :

(a) Distinguish between maternal effects

Students should be able to explain nuclear-

CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE

MENDEL'S PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE: Mendel theorized that the inheritance of

Principle of independent assortment: Alleles (determinants) of different loci assort

CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE: With the discovery of the light microscope in

CHROMOSOMAL ORGANISATION: We now know that chromosomes are made up of

Chromosomes can be distinguished from one another by their size, shape

basic chromosome set contains a unique set of chromosomes. The number of

forms an enzyme, which can catalyze a biochemical reaction that converts a

The genotype-phenotype relationship can be affected by a number of factors, which

GENETIC VARIATION: This refers to the variability in genotype, among individuals of an

Genetic variation is generated in organisms by two processes, recombination and

RECOMBINATION: Recombination or the reshuffling of genes occurs through meiosis during

a) random chromosome assortment

Random chromosome assortment refers to the process by which homologous

Crossing over is a process by which segments of the homologous

MONOHYBRID, DIHYBRID AND TRIHYBRID INHERITANCE

Genetic variability and phenotypic variability

# genes gametes Perfect pop. # phenotypes # genotypes #heterozygote

MONOGENIC, DIGENIC, OLIGOGENIC AND POLYGENIC TRAITS

(a) G1: Growth Stage of Interphase

(b) S: Synthesis stage

(c ) G2: Second Growth Stage

- Synthesis of RNA and protein continues.

2. CELL DIVISION Karyokinesis Mitosis