Truck Tyre Basics

Impressum Truck Tyre Basics

© 1999 by Continental AG Hannover

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be used or re-produced in

any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without prior written permission of
Continental AG.

The contents of this publication are the result of many

years of research and experience gained in application
technology. All information is given in good faith; it
does not represent a guarantee with respect to
characteristics and does not exempt the user from
testing the suitability of products and from ascertaining
that the industrial property rights of third parties are
not violated.

No liability whatsoever will be accepted for damage -

regardless of its nature and its legal basis - arising
from advice given in this publication. This does not
apply in the event that we or our legal representatives
or management are found guilty of having acted with
intent or gross negligence. No liability is borne for
damage due to ordinary negligence. This exclusion of
liability applies also to the personal liability of our legal
representatives and employees and other persons
employed in fulfilling an obligation.

We reserve the right to effect technical changes in the

course of product development.

MC 11/99

01311107
Printed in Germany

2
Truck Tyre Basics List of contents

Introduction 4

From the crossply to the radial tyre 6

From the 5° to the 15° tapered rim 7

Development of low profile tyres 8

The materials that make up a truck tyre 9

Tyre components and their functions 10

Sidewall markings 12

The most important markings 14

Units of measurement and definitions 15

Tyre manufacture - a glimpse

inside the factory 16

Tyre tips
Tread depth 20
Tyre inflation 20
Regrooving 21
Storing tyres 21

3
Introduction
Truck Tyre Basics

The good old pneumatic tyre is now well over a

hundred years old, and has not really changed much
from its original concept.

John Boyd Dunlop registered this pneumatic tyre with

the British Patent Office in 1888 and is therefore
generally considered to be its inventor. Whether he
was the first person or the second to register this
patent - the pneumatic tyre is now an indispensable
feature of our motorised society.

Market surveys carried out in Europe reveal that

nowadays more than threequarters of all freight is
transported by truck.

In comparison, the next most popular mode of

transport, the railway, carries only an eighth of the
total.

Tonnage distribution across individual

modes of transport

Truck
77

Rail
12
%
Inland
water-
ways
4
E
Aero-
plane
3
W
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80%
Source: EMNID-Institut

4
Truck Tyre Basics

These impressive figures do, however, reveal clearly

that commercial vehicle tyres are used in a wide
range of applications and therefore have to meet
many different requirements.

First and foremost a tyre must have an adequate load

capacity and be able to transmit
• drive
• brake and
• lateral forces
under all conditions.

Demands made on a truck tyre

(snow- and ice-free road surface)

Driving safety Durability Economy Comfort

Structural longterm Suspension

Tyre fit on the rim Power transfer Service life
durability characteristics

Resistance
Braking deceleration Reliability at speed Wear pattern Driving noise
to shedding

Airtightness Lateral acceleration Blow-out resistance Sidewall wear True running

Traction Impact resistance Rolling resistance

Stone deflection Regroovability

Avoidance of tread
Remouldability
pattern breakup

5
 Truck Tyre Basics

From the crossply to the radial tyre

After the invention of the pneumatic tyre, it was a
further thirty years before the first crossply tyres were
developed for commercial vehicles. Progress in
commercial vehicle technology imposed substantial
requirements on crossply tyres which - despite all the
advances made - they were eventually unable to meet.
It was only with the introduction of the radial tyre
concept, where substantially improved design and
materials meant the tyre could meet the necessary
requirements, that development was able to progress
and reach the standards we have today.

Crossply tyre Radial tyre

1 1

The fabric plies (1) cross over each other The belt (1) and casing plies
at the same angle. (2) overlap at different angles.
Used by Continental for: Used by Continental for:
• Tyres for two- • Industrial tyres • Tyres for cars, • Agricultural tyres
wheeled vehicles • EM tyres trucks and • Multi-purpose tyres
• Agricultural tyres • Multi-purpose tyres two-wheeled vehicles (MPT)
(MPT) • Industrial tyres

There are very distinct differences in the construction On firm road surfaces the radial tyre is superior to the
of radial and crossply tyres. crossply tyre in many ways. One of the strong points
of the crossply tyre, however, is its good selfcleaning
Whereas the carrying “air container” on crossply
tread pattern; its stiffer sidewalls also enhance
tyres is made from criss crossing layers of rubberised
resistance to tipping on vehicles with a high centre of
fabric, on radial tyres it is formed by radially running
gravity, such as cranes.
plies (casing plies) of rubberised cord (on commercial
vehicle tyres steel cord is normally used). The radial tyre, however, definitely dominates today's
truck sector.
A so-called belt, made up of 3-5 rubberised steel
cord belt plies, prevents or reduces tread
deformation caused by tyre deflection or swelling
when the tyre is inflated.

6
Truck Tyre Basics

From the 5° to the 15° tapered rim

Inner tube

Flap

Sealing ring

5o tapered rim 15o tapered rim

tube-type tubeless tubeless

In the development of the radial tyre, the multi-
piece 5° tapered rim from the crossply tyre was
initially used, in conjunction with an inner tube and
flap. In the course of further development, the one-
piece 15° rim used in the car sector was adopted.
This type of rim offers substantial advantages in
terms of true running, weight reduction and
automatic fitting options. Compared with
conventional rims, the newly-designed bead seat
means improved true running and also the option
of a reduced height:width (H:W) ratio.

7
 Truck Tyre Basics

Development of low profile tyres

275
10.00 R 20 Rim 7.50
Load capacity (kg per axle) S 6,000
TW 10,900
A Ø 1052

Tyre inflation (bar) 8.0

271 Rim 7.50

11 R 22.5 Load capacity (kg per axle) S 6,300
TW 11,600
A Ø 1050

Tyre inflation (bar) 8.5

Rim 8.25
281 Load capacity (kg per axle) S 6,300
275/80 R 22.5
TW 11,600
A Ø 1028

Tyre inflation (bar) 8.5

Rim 7.50
267
275/70 R 22.5 Load capacity (kg per axle) S 6,300
TW 11,600
A Ø 961

Tyre inflation (bar) 8.5

277 Rim 8.25

285/60 R 22.5 Load capacity (kg per axle) S 6,300
TW 11,600
A Ø 914

Tyre inflation (bar) 8.5

In addition to This means that for each inner pressure (= tyre

• reduced outer dimensions (lowering inflation) there is a calculated load capacity. The tyre
the vehicle height) and inflation should be adjusted in line with the axle
• weight savings, weights specified by the vehicle manufacturer and
a reduced H:W ratio means further advantages in the actual weights in operation. Under-inflation
performance characteristics, such as impairs driving performance and wear pattern,
• quiet running increases rolling resistance and, as a result, fuel
• steering precision and consumption. Under-inflation over a longer period
• good wear pattern. leads to premature casing damage or to total tyre
failure.
A tyre's load capacity is determined primarily by its
volume and inner pressure.

8
Truck Tyre Basics

The materials that make up a truck tyre

A tyre comprises different components, all of which
contain elements in varying compositions.

These elements vary with the size and type of tyre.

Listed in the example below are the elements used

for the 315/80 R 22.5 HSL tyre. This particular tyre
weighs approximately 62 kg.

7
Tyre example: HSL
6 1 315/80 R 22.5

5
2

4 3

Compound: Structural components:

1 Natural rubber 18.8 kg 30.5% 5 Core wire 8.5 kg 13.8%
(electro-plated steel wire)
2 Synthetic rubber 3.4 kg 5.6%
6 Nylon fabric 0.12 kg 0.2%
3 Halogen butyl rubber 1.23 kg 2.0%
7 Steel cord 12.2 kg 19.8%
4 Other chemicals 17.3 kg 28.1% (electro-plated stranded
(accessory agents, steel wire)
plasticiser, preservative,
vulcanising agents)

9
 Truck Tyre Basics

Tyre components and their functions

10
Truck Tyre Basics

1 Tread strip
Material Rubber compound
Function The tread strip has to provide high wear resistance and good grip under all
road conditions. In some instances the tread strip combines two different
materials (cap and base); the base is there to minimise the tread tem-
perature and the rolling resistance.

2 Multi-ply steel belt

Material Steel cords embedded in rubber compound
Function Enhances driving stability, reduces rolling resistance and gives the tyre its
long service life. Restricts casing growth and increases the tyre's structural
strength.

3 Steel casing
Material Steel cord
Function Gives the tyre its structural strength and its deflection characteristics;
substantially determines driving comfort.

4 Inner lining
Material Rubber compound
Function Major factor in preventing diffusion of air and moisture in tubeless tyres.

5 Sidewall
Material Rubber compound
Function Protects from lateral scuffing and the effects of the weather.

6 Bead reinforcement
Material Nylon, aramide, steel cord
Function Securing the end of the steel cord ply on the bead core. Reinforcing
the bead against high shear forces.

7 Bead core
Material Steel wire embedded in rubber compound
Function Ensures the tyre sits firmly on the rim.

11
 Truck Tyre Basics

Sidewall markings

TW
I
10
TR
E
SID AD:

1 EW 5
AL PLI
L:
1 S S TU
E
PL TE
Y
ST L
EE
E BE
L LO
LE
9

SS
AD

RA
5

N
GE

REAX. L . LOAD
H
M AX

G R OA D D U
M

O O SING AL 73
1a

VA L E 82 85 L
B L 70 BS
E LBS
5a

RA ATAT 120 PS
DIA 120 I CO
L
6

PS
I CO
LD
LD

3 1 5 /8 0 R 2 2 . 5
12
S
TIRE MANUFACTURERS INSTRUCTION
CATION/IMPROPER INFLATION/

RE FREQUEN TLY WITH GAUGE :

DOT ??3 W
MADE IN ???

4 2
TO MISAPPLI

KLKF
OVERLO FLATION PRESSU
-- FOLLOW

13
URE DUE
ADING

109
IN
E FAIL

CHECK
* TYR

3
--
ULT OUNTING
M:

LY
FRO

RY MPROP E ON
R H RES.
M
ER

IOU DU ON AI NT TI
OS
RES

OU
M AY

G:ASSEM EXTE ULD M

I

154
S I E TO
SER B LY NSI
NJU

NIN IM -ON SHO

15 /
0L
AR E/R LIP NS

11
W F TIR E & C ERSO

14 0
15
TY N O CAG ED P

9 M
FE OSIO ETY RAIN
SAEXPL SAF LLY T

E4
E IA
US EC

??
SP

??
??
*

Designations on the tyre meet both the US standard Explanation

FMVSS 119 and the European standard ECE R 54, DOT = US Department of Transportation
and refer to tyre characteristics.
ETRTO = The European Tyre and Rim
Technical Organisation, Brussels
ECE = Economic Commission for
Europe (UN Institution in Geneva)
FMVSS = Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standard

12
Truck Tyre Basics

Legal and standardised markings

used on the tyre sidewall

1 Manufacturer 7 TWI
(brand name or logo) Tread Wear Indicator

1a Tread pattern reference 8 Recommended application

only Continental Truck Tyres
2 Size designation
315 = tyre width in mm 9 Regroovable
80 = aspect ratio (section The manufacturer has designed
height to section width) =80% the tyre for regrooving
R = radial construction
22.5 = rim diameter (code) 10 Tubeless
Tube Type
3 Service description
consisting of 11 E = tyres complies with value
154 = load index for single fitment set forth in ECE-R 54
150 = load index for dual fitment
L = code letter for speed rating 4 = country code for the coun-
try in which the approval
4 Country of manufacture number was issued
(here: 4 = Netherlands)
5 US load designation
of single/dual fitment and indication 12 DOT = U.S. Department of Transportation
of max. inflation pressure in psi (responsible for tyre safety standards)
(1 bar = 14.5 psi)
13 Manufacturer code:
5a Load range • Tyre factory
in accordance with US standard • Tyre size
• Tyre model
6 Data as per US safety standard
on inner construction or number of • Date of manufacture
plies, in this case (Production week/year)
Tread: under the tread there are five steel
cord plies (including carcass)
Sidewall: viewed from the side there is one
steel cord ply (in this case the carcass ply)

13
 Truck Tyre Basics

The most important markings

Speed Index:

Index F G J K L M N

Speed in km/h 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

(mph) 50 56 62 68 75 81 87

Load Index:

Index 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156

Load capacity (kg/Tyre) 3075 3150 3250 3350 3450 3550 3650 3750 3875 4000

Example of tyre marking:

156
315/80 R 22.5 154/150 M L tubeless
150

315 tyre width in mm

80 cross-sectional ratio H:W in %
R radial design
22.5 nominal rim diameter of 15° tapered rim (code)
154 3750 kg tyre load capacity S (single tyre fitment)
150 3350 kg tyre load capacity Tw (twin tyre fitment)
M Speed 130 km/h (81 mph)
156
( L) alternative permitted operating code
150
tubeless tubeless

14
Truck Tyre Basics
Units of measurement and definitions
As a matter of principle the technical data in the
tables always complies with the international
standards as specified by ISO and the ETRTO.
Further details such as other tyre sizes or designs,
plus the static radius and the rolling circumference
comply with DIN/WdK Guidelines.
Lengths
are given in millimetres (mm).
Tyre pressure
tyre inflation pressure is given in Bar based on cold
tyre.
Outer diameter New*)
is a nominal size which refers to the tread centre.
Max. outer diameter in service
is the maximum diameter permitted in the tread
centre as a result of permanent growth during tyre
use. Dynamic deformations are not included.
Cross-section width New*)
is a nominal size which refers to the smooth tyre wall.
Max. operational width
is the maximum permitted width. This includes scuff
ribs, decorative ribs, lettering and permanent growth
during use. Dynamic deformations are not included.
Static radius
is the distance from the tyre centre to the ground
level. Measurements are checked on fitted-tyres
inflated to the tyre pressure specified in DIN 70020
Part 5.
Rolling circumference
is the distance covered by each revolution of the tyre.
Load capacities
are given in kgs (weight in the sense of mass)
A
M = Dual-tyre spacing
A = Outer diameter on the tyre
f r = static radius
f = deflection under load
Dual-tyre spacing
Maintaining the minimum spacing distance ensures
that the two tyres in a dual fitment arrangement
function without any infringing the ETRTO standards
providing the tyres are not fitted with chains.
In the course of development, a variety of
designations for tyre dimensions have been
introduced, some of which are used concurrently.
The following combination is most frequently used:
tyre width in mm, then H : W (height : width) in % and
finally the codes for the tyre construction - for
example R for “radial” and “-” for “crossply” - and the
nominal rim diameter.
When planning vehicle wheel space, automotive
designers must proceed on the basis of the
maximum values for tyre width and outer diameter,
taking into account the tyre`s static and dynamic
deformation. In this way they ensure that all
standardly approved tyres will fit in all cases. If this is
not possible in exceptional cases, appropriate
measures are to be taken to exclude any possible
risk to safety.
PR
The ply rating, or PR for short, is an internationally
used standard for the structural strength of the tyre
sub-structure. The term stems from the time when
cotton was still used for the fabric sub-structure. In
those days PR actually referred to the number of
plies. When materials with greater strength were
introduced, the same structural durability was
achieved with fewer plies.
PR therefore now refers to a load capacity category
and is being increasingly replaced by the Load Index.
*) Construction size
maximum operational width
B
new cross-sectional width
M
Maximum tyre Ø in operation
H
tyre Ø new
Rim Ø
clear rim width
B and Ø new when using the measuring rim
15
 Tyre manufacture - a
glimpse inside the factory. Truck Tyre Basics

Supplier Manufacturing Manufacture of

industries compounds semi-finished
products
5 6
Steel cord

1
Measuring out Manufacture Steel cord calenders Cutting to size
the natural rubber of steel cord of steel cord

7
Steel industry Tread strip

2
Measuring out the Tread strip extruder Checking weight Cooling tread strips Cu
raw materials and per metre of
accessory agents

Chemical industry
Textile cord 8

3
Preparing the Production of Textile cord calenders Cutting to size
basic compound textile cord of textile cord

Steel core 9
Natural rubber
production

Uncoiling core wire Coating core wire Re-coiling core wire Be

4
Finalising
the compound
Sidewall/ 10
Inner lining

Textile industry

Shaping the compound Sidewall extrusion Inner lining

into transportable units calendering

16
 Truck Tyre Basics

Assembly Vulcanisation Quality control

11 12 13

Optical final check

s Cutting to size Checking Bringing together the Pre-treatment of

of tread strip single weights • Inner lining the moulded blank
• Bead cores
• Steel casing
• Sidewalls X-ray check

Checking imbalances

e Bead core ring Applying bead Assembly of the Vulcanising the tyre Checking uniformity
core profile tread layer fluctuations

Laser holography

Every individual production

stage - from evaluation of the
raw materials to delivery of
the finished tyre - is subject
to constant quality control.

17

Truck Tyre Basics
Supplier industries
and manufacturing compounds
The tyre industry draws its raw materials from various
sectors of industry. After appropriate pre-treatment,
these materials are then further processed to form
individual semi-finished products.
The steel industry provides high tensile steel,
1 the basic material used in the manufacture of
the belt and the casing (steel cord), as well as in the
bead cores (steel wire).
The chemical industry supplies a variety of
2 raw materials and accessory agents needed in
tyre manufacture. These are primarily various
synthetic rubbers and additives, which affect, for
example, the tyre's wear resistance, grip and ageing
stability.
Natural rubber is extracted from specific trees
3 by cutting into the bark. The milky-like liquid
(latex) clots when acids are added and, once it has
been washed with water, it is pressed to form solid
bales.
The textile industry provides the basic
4 materials for cord manufacture: rayon, nylon,
polyester and aramide fibres. These are used, for
example, to manufacture bead reinforcements.
Natural and synthetic rubber bales are divided
5 up, appropriate quantities measured out,
weighed and mixed with other additives in several
stages, in accordance with strictly specified recipes.
More than ten different natural rubber compounds
are processed to form the individual components of
modern tyres.
These individual tyre components and their functions
are described in detail on pages 10 and 11.
Manufacture of semi-finished products
6 Steel cord
Steel cord, pre-treated and delivered on
bobbins, is fed into a calender via special coiling
devices. It is then embedded in one or more layers of
natural rubber. Depending on the tyre size, this
“continuous belt” is cut at a specific angle and to
specified dimensions using guillotine shears; it is then
rolled up for further transport.
Tyre production - how a
truck tyre is made
Tread strips
7 The ductile material manufactured in the mixing
plant is extruded to form a continuous strip.
After extrusion, the weight is checked and the tread
strip immersed in a cooling tank. Once it has been
cut to the required lengths the weight is re-checked.
Textile cord
8 A number of individual textile fibres are fed into
the calender via special coiling devices and then
embedded in a thin layer of natural rubber. This
“continuous belt” is cut to the required widths on the
shearing machine and rolled up for further transport.
Steel bead core
9 The core of a tyre bead is made up of several
steel wires, shaped to form a ring and individually
coated with rubber. This ring is then additionally
covered with a core profile made from rubber
compound.
Sidewall/inner lining
10 The extruder is used to produce sidewall
patterns featuring different geometry, depending on
the tyre size.
The inner lining is impermeable to gases and is
extruded on the calender to a wide, thin layer.
Assembly and vulcanisation
11 The semi-finished products manufactured in the
various individual stages referred to above are
gathered on the assembly machine and combined in
two stages (casing and tread layer) to form a
moulded blank.
Before being vulcanised, the “moulded blank"
12
is sprayed with a special liquid. In the
vulcanisation press heat, pressure and time give it its
final shape.
Final quality controls and despatch
13 After vulcanisation, the tyres are checked
optically and undergo various other checks.
Once the tyres have passed all the tests, they are
taken to the delivery warehouse to be prepared for
despatch.
18
 Truck Tyre Basics

In the factory in Hannover-Stöcken, tyres for cars and The Research & Development Department is also
commercial vehicles have been manufactured for located in Continental's Hannover-Stöcken site.
over 50 years.

19
 Tyre tips Truck Tyre Basics

Tread depth
The following requirements are law in the majority of
European countries:

• Pneumatic tyres on trucks and trailers have to

feature tread grooves or sipes round their entire
circumference and over the whole width of the
tread area.

• The main grooves on truck tyres have to have a

tread depth of at least 1 mm, 1.6 mm or 2 mm,
depending on the law in each country. The limit in
the UK is 1mm.
Wear indicators on commercial vehicle tyres are
The depth of the tread pattern is to be measured in
bridge-like protrusions 1.6 mm high, which show
the grooves or sipes; bridge-like protrusions or
whether the tyre has reached the wear limit.
reinforcements in the tread base should be
ignored in this context. The tread depth should therefore never be measured
on the wear indicators, but next to them.
• On tyres with wear indicators (TWI = Tread Wear
Indicators), the tread depth should be measured in N.B. Consult your local Continental office for
the grooves where the wear indicators are located. legislation regarding specific countries.

Tyre inflation
100
One of the most important causes of excessive tyre
wear and damage is incorrect tyre pressure.
80
Service manuals produced by the vehicle
Service life in %

manufacturers and technical documentation from 60

the tyre manufacturers provide information about

correct tyre pressure. These values apply without 40

exception to the cold tyre, as the inner pressure of

the tyre increases in operation. 20

Tyre pressure should be checked every 2 weeks, at

0
the latest every 4, on the cold tyre. Spare tyres must 120 100 80 60 40

also be checked. Tyre pressure in % of the recommended value

Example: Service life in relation to tyre

pressure (100% = recommended value)

20
Truck Tyre Basics Tyre tips

Under inflation leads to

• increased flexing, which makes the

tyre overheat and may cause tyre
failure;

• increased wear = shorter service life;

• higher rolling resistance and subse-
quently increased fuel consumption;
• irregular wear.
When checking tyre pressure an optical inspection of
the tyre for external damage (e.g. embedded nails or
screws) should also be made. Missing valve caps
and leaky valves should be replaced immediately.

Regrooving
Tyres which can be regrooved are designated
1
REGROOVABLE
2
3
on the sidewall area.
Steel Cord
These tyres feature an additional “rubber layer"
1. Tread depth of
between the belt sector and the tread grooves, which new tyre
is currently between 2 and 4 mm depending on the
2. Additional tread
tyre size and tread pattern. depth through
regrooving

This rubber layer can be used to achieve a longer tyre 3. Remaining basic
thickness to pro-
service life by having the tyre regrooved once the tect the steel belt

appropriate wear limit is reached on the original tread

pattern. A basic continuous layer of 2 mm must still Regrooving is best carried out in accordance with the
cover the belt. manufacturer's instructions.

Storing tyres
Tyres should be stored in cool, dry, dark and Tyres age more quickly if exposed to direct sunlight
moderately ventilated rooms. or heat.

Tyres which are not fitted on rims should be stored

standing up. Avoid contact with fuel, lubricants,
solvents and chemicals.

21
01311107