First year CHAPTER 1

MEASURMENT
SCIENCE :-
THE DESIRE to know about things ,event and natural phenomena around us is called science .

The word SCIENCE is came from Greek word SICO which mean to know. Science is sum of knowledge
which men has gained thought aged. In past knowledge is limited as passage of time .the knowledge is
expand then it was impossible to study therefore it is divided into two main branches

1. Physical science
2. biological sciences.

Physical science ;-
It deals with a living object .e.g. physics ,geology,chimstery

biological sciences;-

It deals with a living object .e.g. botany ,zoology

Physics ;-
Physics is the branch of science that deals with matter, energy and the relationship between them. And
also explain the natural phenomena with help of fundamental laws.

The word physics actually come from Greek word which mean nature .there fore

Physics is also Called study of nature

branches of physics
The following are main branches of physics
a. Nuclear Physics (ii) Particle Physics (iii) Relativistic Mechanics (iv) Solid State
Physics

a. Nuclear Physics;-
The nuclear physics deals with the atomic nuclei.
b. Particle Physics;-
It deals behavior and properties of elementary particles
c. Relativistic Mechanics;-
It deals with motion of bodies which moves with very large velocities (approaching that of
light
d. Solid State Physics:-
The solid state physics deals with structure and properties of matter.
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES;-
The quantities that can be measured and are used to describe the properties of matter are
called physical quantities,

Types of physical quantities

Base Quantities & Derived Quantities
Base Quantities
The base quantities are those physical quantities in terms of which other physical quantities
are defined. Examples: Mass, length, time .
Derived Quantities;-
The quantities that are derived from the base quantities are called derived quantities. (ii)
Examples: Velocity, acceleration, force.
e.g..L*L=area so unit will be m2

L*L*L=volume so unit will be m3….so we dreive another unit .

Q # .How the base quantities are measured?
Ans.The measurement of base quantity involves two steps: (i) The choice of a standard. (ii)
The establishment of a procedure for comparing the quantity to be measure with standard.

Q # .What are the characteristics of an ideal standard?

Ans.An ideal standard has two principle characteristics. (i) It is accessible (ii) It is invariable

NOTE ;-TO represent the physical quantities we need to magnitude and units…
Magnitude;-
The numerical value of physical quantities is called physical quantities
Units ;-
The standard name of physical unit by which whole world know is called units.
Types of unit ‘
I. Base Units (ii) Supplementary Units (iii) Derived Units

Base Units ;-
The units associated with the base quantities are called base units. The names of base units
together with symbols are listed in following table:

Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Length Meter m

Mass Kilogram Kg
 Time SEC S
Elect;ric Current Ampere amp

Thermodynamic kelvin K
Temperature
Amount of Substance mole mol

Intensity of Light candela cd

Supplementary Units:
The General Conference on Weights and Measures has not yet classified certain unit of SI
under either base or derived units. These SI units are called derived supplementary units.
Radian and steradian are supplementary units.
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Plane Angle radian Rad

Solid Angle steradian Sr

Plane angle ;-
Angle subtended by an arc at the center of a circle in a plane is called plane angle .
Radian;-
The length of arc became equal to the length to radius of a circle will be one radian
Solid;- Angle;-
Angle subtended by a surface at the center of a sphere is called solid angle .e.g light rays from
touch ,birth day cap ;ice cream cone .
Steradian;-
The angle subtended by a surface is one steradian if its area is equal to square of radius of the
spherical surface .
Note ;- how to convert degree to radian
By using a formula of pi/180
For example 60 to radian …60 pi/180 ====pi/3
2]90 to radian 90 pi/180===pi/2
Derived Units:
SI units derived from base and supplementary units are called derived units. Some of the
derived units are gives. Force [f=ma =kg m/s2
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS;-
In 1960, an international committee agreed on a set of definitions and standards to describe
the physical quantities. The system that was established is called System International of
units. Significance: Due to simplicity and convenience with which the units in this system are
amenable to arithmetic manipulation, it is in universal use by the world’s scientific
community.
ERROR AND UNCERTAINITIES;-
The difference between measured VALUE and actual value is called error. The magnitude of
the difference between measured value and actual value is known
The difference between measured value is called uncertainty …the magnitude of the
difference between measured value and actual value is unknown ..
Types of error
1. Personal error
2. Systematic error
3. Random error
Personal error ;-
Errors are made by experimenter
Systematic error ;-
Error in a measured due to faulty apparatus
Random error ;-errors due to environmental change .
The errors may occur due to following reasons.
(i) Negligence or inexperience of a person
(ii) The faulty apparatus
(iii) Inappropriate method or technique
Q # .The time period of the simple pendulum is measured by a
stop watch. What types of errors are possible in the time
period?
Ans.The possible errors that might occur are the personal errors and systematic
errors. The personal error occurs due to negligence or inexperience of a person,
while the systematic may be due to the poor calibration of equipment or incorrect
marking etc.
PRECISION AND ACCURACY;-
Precision means the closeness of measured values ..precision depends upon the
least count of the devices
ACCURACY;-
Accuracy means the closeness of measured value to actual value ..
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES;-
To express any physical quantity in terms of specific symbols of corresponding base
quantities, written within square brackets, is called the dimension of that physical
quantity. The scientific symbols used to express the dimensions of different physical
quantities are as follows:
Q # .What are the advantages of dimension analysis?
Ans.The dimension analysis may be used for (i) Checking the correctness of a
physical equation (ii) Deriving a possible formula of a physical quantity
Q # 53.What is homogeneity principle?
Ans.According to homogeneity principle “If the dimensions of a physical quantity on
both sides of equation are the same, then the equation will be dimensionally
correct”.
Q # 56.Write down any two drawbacks of dimensional analysis?
Ans.The major drawbacks of dimensional analysis are: (i) The dimension analysis is
unable to find the values of any constant of proportionality in physical equations. (ii)
The dimensional analysis cannot be applied to the physical quantities involving
trigonometric and logarithmic functions.

Chapter 2

Vectors

Vector;-
The physical quantities that are completely described by magnitude with
proper unit and direction are called vectors. Displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force and momentum are examples of vectors. A vector is
represented graphically by a directed line segment with an arrowhead. The
length of the segment, according to a chosen scale, corresponds to the
magnitude of the vector.
rectangular coordinates system;-
. The lines which are drawn perpendicular to each other are called
coordinate axis and a system of coordinate axis is called the rectangular or
Cartesian coordinate system. A coordinate system is used to describe the
location of a body with respect to a reference point, called origin. Two
Dimensional (2D) Coordinate System: -
The 2D coordinate system consists of two reference lines drawn at the right
angle to each other. One of the lines is named as x-axis and the other the y-
axis. A point P, in xy-plane, is represented by the coordinates . This
notation means that if we start at the origin, we can reach point P by moving
‘a’ units along positive x-axis and ‘b’ units along positive y-axis. The direction
of position vector of point P in a plane is described by the angle which the
representative line of the vector makes with positive x-axis in anti-clockwise
direction.
Three Dimensional (3D) Coordinate System:-
The 3D coordinate system consists of three mutually perpendicular lines.
The lines are named as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis. A point P, in space, is
represented by the coordinates . This notation means that if we start at
the origin, we can reach point P by moving ‘a’ units along positive x-axis, ‘b’
units along positive y-axis and ‘c’ units along positive z-axis. The direction
of position vector of point P in space is specified by the three angles
which the representative line of the vector makes with x, y and z-axis
respectively .
Head to Tail rule;-
Ans. The vectors can be added graphically by head to tail rule.
According to this rule, the addition of two vectors ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗ consists of following
steps:
(i) Place the tail of vector B on the head of vector A .
(ii) Draw a vector from the tail of vector A to the head of vector

B , called the resultant vector R

Important Note:
The vector sum A,B and R has the same resultant

So addiation is commutive …

Q # 4. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar

quantity?
 Ans. No it is not possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity because only
the physical quantities of same nature can be added. Vectors and scalars are
different physical quantities.

Q # 5. Can you add zero to a null vector?

Ans. No, zero can’t be added to a null vector because zero is a scalar and scalars
can’t be added to vectors. Only the physical quantities of same nature can be added.

Q # 6. What do you know about the Resultant Vector?

Ans. The resultant of two or more vectors is a single vector which would have same
effect as if all the original vectors are taken together.
The vector ⃗R ⃗ has the same effect as the combined effect of vectors

⃗A ⃗ , ⃗B ⃗ , and ⃗C ⃗ . So ⃗D ⃗ is the resultant vector of the vectors ⃗A ⃗ , ⃗B ⃗ ,

and ⃗C ⃗ .

Q # 7. Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their

sum be zero? Explain.
Ans. No, the sum of two vectors having unequal magnitudes can’t be zero. The sum
of two vectors will be zero only when their magnitudes are equal and they act in
opposite direction.

Vector Subtraction ;-
Subtraction of a vector is equivalent to the addition of one vector
into negative of second vector. Consider two vectors ⃗A ⃗ and ⃗B ⃗ . In order
to subtract ⃗B ⃗ from ⃗A ⃗ , the negative of vector ⃗B ⃗ is added to vector A by
head to tail rule.
The resultant is given by:
C= ⃗A- ⃗B= ⃗A ⃗+ ⃗-B ⃗
(ii) Equal Vector;-
The vectors are said to be equal if they have same magnitude and direction,
regardless of the position of their initial points. This means that parallel vectors of
the same magnitude are equal to each other.
(iii) Null Vector;-
A vector of zero magnitude and arbitrary direction is called null vector. For
example, the sum of a vector and its negative vector is a null vector.

⃗A ⃗+ (- ⃗A ⃗ ) =0
(iv) Component of a Vector;-
 A component of a vector is its effective value in a specific direction. (v)
Rectangular Component The components of a vector which are perpendicular to
each other are called rectangular components.
(vi) Position Vector;-
The position vector describes the location of a point with respect to origin. In two
dimensions, the position vector ‘ ’ of point is described .
Unit vector;-
A vector having the unit magnitude is called the unit vector. It is used to indicate the
direction
of a vector. The unit vector in the direction of vector ⃗A ⃗ is expressed as:
where ̂ is the unit vector in the direction of vector ⃗A ⃗ and | | is its magnitude. In
space, the direction of x, y and z-axis are represented by unit vectors ,̂ ̂ and ,̂
respectively.