199

NOTE / NOTE

Structural design properties of concrete for a

bridge in Alberta
Hamid R. Soleymani

Abstract: In this investigation, the structural design properties of concrete were characterized. Compressive, tensile,
and flexural strengths were measured at different ages. In addition, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, creep, shrink-
age, and various other properties were measured. Laboratory results were compared with several structural codes used
by engineers for bridge and structural design. The results serve as a reminder that assumed code values can be signifi-
cantly in error and must be used only in the absence of better data.
Key words: concrete, creep, shrinkage, modulus of elasticity, strength, design.

Résumé : Cette étude caractérise les propriétés de conception structurale d'un béton. Les résistances à la compression,
à la traction et à la flexion ont été mesurées à différents âges. De plus, le module d'élasticité, le coefficient de Poisson,
le fluage, le retrait et diverses autres propriétés ont été mesurés. Les résultats en laboratoire ont été comparés à divers
codes de construction utilisés par les ingénieurs lors de la conception de ponts et de structures. Les résultats soulignent
que les valeurs présumées dans les codes peuvent être erronées et qu'elles ne doivent être utilisées qu'en l'absence de
meilleures données.

Mots clés : béton, fluage, retrait, module d'élasticité, résistance, conception.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Soleymani 205

Introduction ties. In addition, creep causes deflections to increase by a

A concrete bridge across the North Saskatchewan River in
Edmonton, Alberta was planned with a cast-in-place three-
span balanced cantilever design. The superstructure construc-
tion would start at the piers and proceed by free cantilevering
toward mid-span. It is important that the two cantilever arms
meet with proper alignment at mid-span. This is achieved by
predicting concrete deformations and adjusting the forms ac-
cordingly. After the mid-span closure pours are completed,
time dependent deformations in the bridge will cause stresses
to redistribute. To consider these effects with adequate preci-
sion, it is necessary to know the modulus of elasticity, creep,
shrinkage, and other properties of the proposed concrete.
It is known that Edmonton concrete properties vary signif-
icantly from “textbook” values. For example, it is known
that the modulus of elasticity of Edmonton concrete is about
20% lower than typical textbook values. This translates into
25% more deflection than typical textbook concrete proper-
Received 20 July 2004. Revision accepted 16 September
2005. Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
http://cjce.nrc.ca on 19 January 2006.
H.R. Soleymani. Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Alberta, 220 Civil Engineering
Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2W2, Canada (e-mail:
hsoleymani@ualberta.ca).
Written discussion of this note is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 July 2006.
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 33: 199–205 (2006) doi:10.1139/L05-092
factor that ranges from 2 to 4. While a typical textbook
value of 3 may be adequate at the preliminary design stage,
it is not adequate for final design. There are insufficient data
available on Edmonton concretes to know with confidence
what specific values to use for the design of the proposed
bridge.
Objectives
The purpose of this testing program was to establish the
structural design related properties for a typical concrete
bridge and to allow design and construction to proceed in a
cost effective and expeditious manner. In addition, the re-
sults were compared with several codes and standards used
by engineers for bridge and structural design including Ca-
nadian Standards Association (CSA), American Concrete In-
stitute (ACI), and Comité Euro-international du Béton
(CEB) - Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte (FIP),
(CEB-FIP).
Materials and concrete mix
The Alberta Ready Mixed Concrete Association
(ARMCA) supervised the development and production of a
generic mix that would, at least approximately, provide the
following characteristics: 55 MPa compressive strength at
28 d (fc′), 30 MPa compressive strength at 2 d, maximum
water/cement (w/c) ratio of 0.34, maximum aggregate size
© 2006 NRC Canada
200
of 20 mm, 5% to 8% air content, meeting air void spacing
factor requirements of Alberta Infrastructure and Transporta-
tion, suitability of slump for workability and placing in mod-
erately congested forms without segregation, less than 1000
Coulombs permeability as required by AASHTO T-277
(1986), and a 100-year design life.
Type 10 Portland cement, Type F fly ash, and silica fume
were used in this mix. Physical and chemical properties for
cement, fly ash, and silica fume are presented in Table 1.
The w/cm for this concrete was 0.21. A coarse aggregate
with maximum size of 14 mm and two fine aggregates were
incorporated in this mix. The final aggregate gradation is
shown in Fig. 1. Three admixtures were used: an air entrain-
ing agent, a superplasticizer, and a water reducer. The mix
proportions for a 1 m3 batch with aggregates at saturated
surface dry conditions are summarized in Table 2. The con-
crete had a 180 mm slump, 6.8% air content measured with
a pressure meter, a temperature of 20.7 °C, and a unit weight
of 2227 kg/m3.
Two sets of curing conditions were used. For most stan-
dard reference tests, continuous moist curing at 23 °C ±2
was used, which is the standard moist curing and is based on
CSA A23.2 (2000). For the creep and other selected tests,
the specimens were moist cured for a period of 14 d or until
the age of loading, whichever came first. After the initial
moist curing, the specimens were kept in a laboratory envi-
ronment at, on average, 23 °C and 50% relative humidity.
This curing regime is referred to as standard creep curing
conditions and is based on AASHTO (1999). The annual
mean relative humidity for Edmonton, Alberta is 50% (CSA
S6 2000). Thus, creep curing conditions are more represen-
tative of field conditions in Edmonton, Alberta than moist
curing conditions.
Concrete testing results
Strength
Compressive strength tests were performed on nominal
150 mm × 300 mm cylinders at various ages under standard
moist curing conditions. Table 3 presents the measured com-
pressive, flexural, and splitting strengths of cylinders at dif-
ferent ages. Figure 2 shows the gain in measured
compressive strength (fc′) with time and the best-fit curve for
the measured results, ACI 209 (1986), and CEB-FIP Model
Code 1990 (CEB-FIP 1993) strength gains models. As can
be seen, the ACI 209 prediction model gives closer results
than the CEB-FIP prediction model for ages less than 28 d.
Both ACI 209 and CEB-FIP models underestimate the com-
pressive strength of this concrete for ages less than 28 d;
however, CEB-FIP suggests higher and ACI 209 suggests
lower strengths than measured for this concrete after 28 d. It
is worth noting that the particular mix tested would be at the
lower limit of acceptability for a 55 MPa concrete, based on
the concrete compressive strength acceptance criteria of
CSA A23.1 (2000).
Flexural strength tests were performed on triplicate beams
at ages of 7, 28, and 56 d for standard moist curing condi-
tions.
Splitting tensile strength tests were performed on tripli-
cate cylinders at ages of 7 and 28 d with standard moist cur-
ing conditions. The splitting tensile strength is expressed as
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006
fct = a(fc′)n. For n = 0.5, the data from Table 3 give a best-fit
equation for fct as fct = 0.52(fc′)0.5. For all samples tested in
this experiment, the CEB-FIP model underestimated the
splitting tensile strength of concrete. This code uses a =
0.214 and n = 0.69 for this purpose.
Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio
The modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio were deter-
mined in accordance with ASTM C469 (1994) from tripli-
cate cylinders at various ages. Figure 3 presents the
measured modulus of elasticity, along with predictions by
CSA S6-00 and CSA A23.3-94. Equation [1] below gives
the best fit to the measured data with a maximum of ±5%
deviation as per CSA S6-00 code.
1.5
⎛ γ ⎞
[1] Ec = (3000 fc ′ + 6900) ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ 2300 ⎠
The next best fit is obtained with Equation 8-6 in CSA
A23.3 (1994), and it is represented by eq. [2] as follows:
1.5
⎛ γ ⎞
[2] Ec = (3300 fc ′ + 6900) ⎜ c ⎟
⎝ 2300 ⎠
The worst fit was obtained with Equation 8-7 in CSA A23.3
(1994), and it is represented by eq. [3] as follows:
[3] Ec = 4500 fc ′
While CEB-FIP modulus of elasticity prediction model
gives very similar results to those given by the measured
modulus of elasticity at the early age of concrete (7 d), it
overestimates the modulus of elasticity after 28 d.
Poisson’s ratio ranged from 0.145 to 0.203, with a mean
value of 0.18. This is in line with CSA S6-00, which speci-
fies that, unless determined by an approved physical test,
Poisson’s ratio for elastic strains shall be taken as 0.20. The
value of 0.18 for the mix in question rounds off to 0.20, as
indicated in CSA S6-00, and is within the range of typically
expected values.
Creep
Creep tests were performed on triplicate cylinders in ac-
cordance with ASTM C512 (1994). Loading started after 3,
28, and 92 d. The sustained compressive stress was approxi-
mately 11.2 MPa for all ages, which was below 40% of
strength for all ages at the time of loading. The results are
shown in Fig. 4. Each data point plotted represents the aver-
age of approximately 27 individual readings. Following the
analysis method of ASTM C512, a semi-log plot was used
and normalized to give values per kPa of sustained stress.
The strains include the initial “elastic” deformation due to
the applied stress. The creep rate is the slope of the trend-
line and the reciprocal of the intercept is the apparent instan-
taneous modulus of elasticity, which are 16 500, 23 900, and
26 200 MPa for 3, 28, and 92 d ages at loading, respectively.
Using the creep test data to estimate the modulus of elastic-
ity resulted in lower values than those measured using
ASTM C469 (1994).
Figures 5–7 compare test results against the creep predic-
tions obtained from CSA S6-00, ACI 209 model, and CEB-
© 2006 NRC Canada
Soleymani 201

Table 1. Physical properties and chemical compositions of Portland cement, fly ash, and silica fume.
Chemical composition (%) Physical properties
Loss of Fineness retained Density
Materials SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 ignition on sieve 325 (g/cc)
Cement 20.9 4.4 3.0 63.0 3.71 2.69 2.09 7.22 3.15
Fly ash 61.9 20.0 4.51 5.72 — 0.06 0.5 32.4 1.93
Silica fume 94.3 — — — — 0.18 2.79 1.98 2.29

Fig. 1. Combined aggregate particle size distribution. ing specimens, measured creep strains at all loading times
100
were 1.14 to 1.50 times higher than the ACI 209 prediction
model. However, the measured creep strains for specimens
90
tested after 92 d were lower than the ACI 209 model for all
80 ages under loading. The difference reached to 33% higher
70 creep strain prediction by the ACI 209 model after 90 d un-
Percent passing

60 der loading. It must be noted that the ACI 209 creep model
50
is based on a loading age of 7 d for moist-cured concrete,
while this study used 3 d moist curing specimens.
40
By comparing Figs. 5–7, it can be concluded that the
30 CEB-FIP creep prediction model, over-predicted creep
20 strains for 28 and 92 d age at loading specimens, however, it
10
under-predicted creep strains for 3 d age at loading speci-
mens until 28 d after loading. For 3 d age at loading speci-
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
mens CSA S6-00 suggests higher than measured strains and
Sieve size (mm) ACI 209 and CEB-FIP models predict values smaller than or
comparable to measured creep strains. The CEB-FIP code
Table 2. Concrete mix proportions for 1 m3. gave the closest prediction to measured values for these
specimens. When specimens were loaded after 28 d curing,
Concrete ingredient Quantity CSA S6-00 predicted values similar to measured strains,
Coarse aggregate (14 mm rock) 992 kg while CEB-FIP and ACI 209 models suggested higher
Fine aggregate (10 mm rock) 152 kg strains than measured strains at all times under loading.
Fine aggregate (5 mm sand) 603 kg
Cement (Type 10) - (c) 461 kg Drying shrinkage
Fly ash (Type F) - (f) 85 kg
Silica fume 41 kg Two shrinkage prediction models, including ACI 209 and
Water 121 kg CSA S6-00, were studied and the results from these models
Air entraining admixture 200 mL/100 kg (c+f) were compared with measured shrinkage strains.
HRWRa admixture 100 mL/100 kg (c+f) Shrinkage values from the triplicate companion cylinders
NRWRb admixture 1000 mL/100 kg (c+f) of the 3 d age at loading creep tests are reported in Fig. 8.
a
The specimens were moist cured for 3 d, and then cured at
HRWR, high range water reducer.
b
NRWR, normal range water reducer.
23 °C and 50% relative humidity. The shrinkage strain re-
sulting from 28 d of drying at 50% relative humidity (after
3 d moist curing) was found to be approximately 400 × 10–6.
FIP model code. The measured shrinkage strains on un- While extrapolation is difficult, the ultimate shrinkage ap-
loaded specimens were subtracted to give the creep strain pears to be approximately 600 × 10–6 (i.e., 600 micro strain).
only. Furthermore, in these figures the time axis is time un- About two-thirds of this ultimate shrinkage occurred within
der load, and is arithmetic rather than logarithmic. the first 28 d of drying. The CSA S6-00 significantly under-
For concrete with strength in the range of 40–60 MPa, a predicted the shrinkage strains, as did the ACI 209 method,
reduction factor between 1 and 0.67 must be applied to cal- but to a lesser degree.
culate the creep strain. It must be mentioned that for the cal-
culation of elastic strain, εe, by CSA S6-00, eq. [1], from the Density
same code, was used to calculate the modulus of elasticity
for 28 d concrete strength. The unit weight of the plastic concrete, as determined by
In Fig. 5, for all standard creep curing ages considered in CSA A23.2-00, was 2227 kg/m3. The density of the hard-
this study (3, 28, and 92 d), CSA S6-00 estimated the creep ened concrete was determined by the volumetric method
strains greater than the measured values after 28 d under with nominal 150 mm × 300 mm cylinders. The average
loading. Measured creep strains at 92 d after loading were density was approximately 2200 kg/m3 but varied depending
8% to 23% less than what CSA S6-00 predicted. upon the moisture content. Cylinders that were saturated sur-
Figure 6 compares the measured and predicted creep face dry had an average density of 2232 kg/m3. The same
strains using the ACI 209 model. For 3 d standard creep cur- cylinders had an average oven dry density of 2117 kg/m3.

© 2006 NRC Canada

202 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006

Table 3. Compressive, flexural, and splitting testing strength results.

Compressive Flexural strength Splitting test
Age (d) strength (MPa) Average (MPa) (MPa)
2 28.3 28.2
2 27.9
2 28.3
3 31.0 30.9
3 30.8
3 31.0
7 37.0 39.2 4.24 2.97
7 40.6 4.00 2.97
7 40.0 3.14
8 42.1 42.1
8 42.1
8 42.1
14 47.5 47.6
14 47.9
14 47.5
28 51.5 53.2 5.05 4.19
28 53.7 4.66 4.26
28 52.7 5.49 4.15
28 56.2
28 54.9
38 60.2 59.9
38 59.5
56 4.82
56 4.87
56 5.09
91 68.3
91 67.0 67.7
91 67.7

Fig. 2. Compressive strength gain with time. Fig. 3. Measured and predicted modulus of elasticity as a func-
120 tion of compression strength.
Measured 50 000
100 CEB-FIP Ec (S6-00)
ACI-209
Compressi ve strength (MPa)

Ec (A23.3 Eq. 8-6)

Log. (Measured) 40 000
Modulus of elasticity (MPa)

Ec (A23.3 Eq. 8-7)

80
Measured

60 30 000

40 20 000

20
10 000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0
Age (d) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Compressive strength (MPa)
This corresponded to saturated water content of 115 kg/m3,
which in turn corresponded to 11.5% saturating air voids. of 2200 kg/m3, the resultant unit weight of reinforced con-
The average density for cylinders that were moist cured for crete will be 23.2 kN/m3. For comparison purposes, CSA
14 d, followed by 14 d of drying at 50% relative humidity, S6-00 indicates that, in the absence of more precise informa-
was 2203 kg/m3. One would expect that the in-service mois- tion, the unit weights of reinforced and prestressed concrete
ture conditions would lead to a long-term density some- should be taken as 24.0 and 24.5 kN/m3, respectively.
where between 2117 and 2203 kg/m3.
A density of 2300 kg/m3 is typically assumed for plain Coefficient of thermal expansion
concrete. Thus, the concrete under discussion is about 5% Knowledge of the thermal properties of concrete is impor-
lighter than expected. Assuming a steel reinforcement con- tant for design and construction of the bridge deck, where
tent of 3% by volume and a plain in-service concrete density thermal differentials may occur from environmental effects.

© 2006 NRC Canada

Soleymani 203

Fig. 4. Measured creep strain per kPa stress for 3, 28, and 92 d age at loading.

Strains per k Pa stress (micro-strain)

3 d age at loading, initial elastic strain 608 micro-strain
0.20 28 d age at loading, initial elastic strain 442 micro-strain
92 d age at loading, initial elastic strain 425 micro-strain
y = 0.0171Ln(x) + 0.0606
0.15 2
R = 0.9754
y = 0.0074Ln(x) + 0.0418
0.10 2
R = 0.9858

0.05
y = 0.004Ln(x) + 0.0382
2
R = 0.9796
0.00
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time under load + 1 (d)

Fig. 5. Measured and predicted creep strains by CSA S6-00 arithmetic plot.
1800
3 d age at loading predicted by CSA S6-00
1600 28 d age at loading predicted by CSA S6-00
92 d age at loading predicted by CSA S6-00
Creep strain ( micro-strains)

1400 3 d age at loading measured

28 d age at loading measured
1200 92 d age at loading measured

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time under load (d)

Fig. 6. Measured and predicted creep strains by ACI arithmetic plot.

1800
3 d age at loading measured
1600 28 d age at loading measured
92 d age at loading measured
Creep strain s (micro-strains)

1400 3 d age At loading predicted by ACI 209

28 d age at loading predicted by ACI 209
1200
92 d age at loading predicted by ACI 209
1000

800

600
400

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time under load (d)

The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete was mea- their temperature. In addition to the primary (instantaneous)
sured from triplicate cylinders that were nominally movements due to temperature, there was a small secondary
150 mm × 300 mm. Three cylinders were soaked to provide movement that dissipated with time. It is also believed that
fully saturated conditions, and three cylinders were air dried the equilibrium moisture content varies with temperature
in the laboratory at 30% to 50% relative humidity to provide and that the secondary movements are associated with mois-
partially saturated cylinders. Temperature conditions were ture movement into or out of the specimens. The coefficient
established by placing the cylinders in chambers at various of thermal expansion of concrete measured in this study
temperatures ranging from +26 to –31 °C. ranged from 9.1 to 13.4 × 10–6/°C, with a mean value of
In conducting these experiments, the lengths of specimens 10.7 × 10–6/°C. For comparison purposes, CSA S6-00 indi-
were measured at 1, 2, 3, and sometimes 4 d after changing cates that a value of 10.0 × 10–6/°C should be used in the ab-

© 2006 NRC Canada

204 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006

Fig. 7. Measured and predicted creep strains by CEB-FIP arithmetic plot.

1800
3 d age at loading predicted by CEB-FIP
1600 28 d age atloading predicted by CEB-FIP

Creep strain (micro-strains)

1400 92 d age at loading predicted by CEB-FIP
3 d age at loading measured
1200
28 d age at loading measured
1000 92 d age at loading measured
800
600
400
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time under load (d)

Fig. 8. Comparison of measured and models for drying shrinkage after 3 d moist curing.
600
Measured
Predicted by ACI 209
500
Predicted by CSA S6-00

400
Shrinkage (micro-strain)

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Drying time (d)

sence of more accurate data. It is recommended by ACI 209 Air void system analysis
model that this value be used for ordinary thermal stress cal- Air void system analysis was performed in accordance
culations when the type of aggregate and degree of satura- with ASTM C457 (1994). An air voids content of 9.45%,
tion are unknown. For estimating thermal movements in a with a spacing factor of 0.14 mm and specific surface of
bridge, the above-mentioned codes recommend using a 25.38 mm2/mm3, was measured. The air content value was
range of values. Lower and upper values for the coefficient higher than that measured by the air meter when the samples
of thermal expansion are 8.5 × 10–6/°C and 11.7 × 10–6/°C. were cast, but it was lower than the one inferred from the
The measured values exceed this range. difference between saturated surface dry and oven dry densi-
ties. While the air content appeared to be higher than ex-
pected, the spacing factor was lower than expected.
Chloride ion permeability Normally, the air void system is considered acceptable, if the
Rapid chloride permeability tests (Coulomb rating) were spacing factor does not exceed 0.26 mm (CPCA 1994).
conducted in accordance with an ASTM C1202 (1993). This Thus, the air void system would be considered to provide ac-
is essentially the same document as AASHTO T277 (1986), ceptable freeze–thaw resistance.
which suggests testing of three 10 cm diameter by 5 cm
thick samples at an age of 28 d. A Coulomb rating of 552
was achieved by the permeability tests. The CSA S6-00 pro-
vides no information regarding requirements for chloride ion Summary
permeability. For comparison purposes, CSA S413 (1994)
recommends that an average Coulomb rating must not ex- One type of concrete was characterized for its structural
ceed 1500 for a low-permeability concrete, which is a con- engineering properties. Laboratory testing results were com-
crete with a w/c ratio that does not exceed 0.4. Based on the pared with several codes, standards, and specifications.
results of this test, the concrete permeability could be con- Comparison of measured and predicted parameters con-
sidered as very low. However, some researchers have ques- firmed that each concrete is unique and its properties could
tioned the reliability of this testing procedure in evaluating be different than those of another concrete. Therefore, using
the permeability of concrete. general models could result in unrealistic designs. For the

© 2006 NRC Canada

Soleymani
concrete used in this study some comparison results for dif-
ferent engineering properties are as follows:
• The best prediction for the modulus of elasticity was
given by CSA S6-00. Despite the fact that, in most cases,
engineers use simplified CSA A23.3, the elastic modulus
predicted by this standard was 10% to 20% higher than
measured value.
• Creep predictions based on CSA S6-00, ACI 209, and
CEB-FIP do not match the test data under all conditions.
While the CEB-FIP provided the best predictions for
specimens that were moist cured for a short time, CSA
S6-00 predicted results closer to measured creep strains
for specimens that were moist cured for a long time be-
fore loading.
• Shrinkage was significantly underestimated by CSA S6-00,
while ACI 209 also underestimated the shrinkage, how-
ever, to a lesser degree. The long-term trends suggest an
ultimate shrinkage strain of 600 × 10–6. This is less
shrinkage than is usually assumed.
• The difference between the oven-dry and saturated densi-
ties was 115 kg/m3, suggesting an air content of 11.5%.
The linear traverse measured the air content as 9.45%. A
portion of the difference may be due to differences be-
tween the physical samples tested, however it is more
likely that the linear traverse measures only the air in the
paste and not the air in the aggregates.
• For purposes of concrete dead load computations, the plain
concrete density was approximately 2200 kg/m3. Allowing
for a steel reinforcement content of 3% by volume, gives
one a reinforced concrete unit weight of 23.2 kN/m3, which
is somewhat lower than that suggested by CSA S6-00.
• The coefficient of thermal expansion is somewhat greater
than usually assumed. It was found to vary from 9.1 to
13.4 × 10–6/°C with a mean value of 10.7 × 10–6/°C. Use
of the lower and upper values should be considered in
thermal stress and thermal movement calculations.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Dave Rogowsky was the principal investigator of this
project. His significant contribution to this paper is acknowl-
edged. Financial support for this project was provided by the
Province of Alberta through Stantec Consulting Ltd. Mana-
gerial support was provided by Dr. Reed Ellis. The Alberta
Ready Mixed Concrete Association (ARMCA), with advice
from Mr. Ed Kalis of ARMCA, Mr. John Dutton of Lafarge
Canada Inc, and Mr. John McClafferty of the Inland Group,
developed a generic mix design and provided the concrete
used in this study. EBA Engineering Consultants Ltd., and
Thurber Engineering Ltd. performed a number of tests for
205
this research. Mr. David Robson, P.Eng., of EBA Engi-
neering Consultants Ltd., and Mr. Suresh Gurjar, P.Eng., of
Thurber Engineering Ltd. provided invaluable advice and
suggestions during the planning and execution of the work.
The University of Alberta provided support for this project
through the use of various test facilities on campus. Univer-
sity staff and students who contributed to the work include
Mr. Larry Burden, Mr. Richard Helfrich, Mr. Ehab Abdel
Wahab, Ms. Carlene Ramsay, Ms. Neilu Rishi, and Mr. Mi-
chael Paulsen.
References
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© 2006 NRC Canada