TRAINING REPORT

On

STUDY OF BASICS OF TELECOMMUNICATION

(16 July,12 to 24 Aug,12)

At
REGIONAL TELECOM TRAINING CENTRE (BSNL), RAJPURA
Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the
award of B.Tech degree

In

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by:

PRANIKA KAUR – 2310201

Submitted to:

Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department
Ambala College of Engineering And Applied Research
Devasthali, Near Mithapur, Ambala Cantt
(Affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra)
i
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It’s a great pleasure to present this report of summer training in Telecommunication in

partial fulfillment of B.Tech degree from Ambala College of Engineering and Applied
Research, Ambala affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra.

First of all i would like to thank almighty GOD who has given this wonderful gift of life
to me. He is the one who is guiding me in right direction to follow noble path of
humanity.
At the outset, I would like to express my immense gratitude to my training guide Mr. Ajit
Singh, Mr. A.S Sandhu and Mr. Rajesh Kumar Garg (SDE) for guiding me right from the
inception till the successful completion of the training.

I am falling short of words for expressing my feelings of gratitude towards them for
extending their valuable guidance about market and support for literature, critical reviews
of report and above all the moral support they had provided me with all stages of this
training.

I would also like to thank my friends and all my group members for their help and
cooperation throughout the training.

Pranika

(2310201)

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.

TRAINING CERTIFICATE i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

COMPANY PROFILE 1

Chapter 1- Overview of Telecommunication Networks 3-6

1.1- Introduction 3

1.2- Voice Signal Characteristics 4

1.3- Network Architecture 4

1.4- Access to an ISDN 6

Chapter 2- Overview Of Broadband Technology 7-10

2.1- Objectives 7

2.2- Introduction 7

iii
2.3- Definition of Broadband 8

2.4- Need of Broadband 8

Chapter 3- Digital Switching 11-16

3.1- Introduction 11

3.2- Time and Space Switching 11

3.3- Digital Space Switching 12

3.4- Practical Space Switch 13

3.5- Digital Time Switch 13

3.6- Output Associated Control 14

3.7- Input Associated Control 15

3.8- Time Delay Switching 16

3.9- Non Blocking Feature of a Time Switch 16

3.10- Two Dimensional switching 16

Chapter 4- PCM Principle 17-26

4.1- Introduction 17

4.2- Multiplexing Techniques 17

iv
 4.2.1- Frequency Division Multiplexing 17

4.2.2- Time Division Multiplexing 18

4.3- Pulse Code Modulation 19

4.3.1- Sampling 19

4.3.2- Quantization 21

4.3.3- Encoding 23

4.4- Synchronization 24

4.5- Signalling in PCM Systems 25

4.6- Multiframe Structure 26

Chapter 5- Fiber Optics Communication 27-32

5.1- Fiber Optic Applications 27

5.2- Advantages of OFC 27

5.3- Fiber Optic System 28

5.4- Principle of Operation-Theory 28

5.5- Propagation of Light through Fiber 29

5.6- Geometry of Fiber 30

v
5.7- Fiber Types 31

5.7.1- Step Index Multimode Fiber 31

5.7.2- Graded Index Multimode Fiber 32

5.7.3- Single Mode Fiber 32

Chapter 6- GSM 33-41

6.1- The Cellular Structure 33

6.2- cluster 33

6.3- Architecture Of GSM Network 34

6.3.1- Mobile Station 34

6.3.2- The SIM 35

6.3.3- The Base Station Subsystem 35

6.3.4- The Operation and Support Subsystem 36

6.4- The GSM Functions 36

6.5- Operation, Administration & Maintenance 37

6.6- Frequency Hopping 38

6.7- Base Station Subsystem 38

vi
6.8- Mobile Evolution 40

6.8.1- First Generation 40

6.8.2- Second Generation 40

6.8.3- Third Generation 40

6.9- Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution(EDGE) 41

Chapter 7- General Packet Radio Service 42-43

7.1- Introduction 42

7.2- What is General Packet Radio Service 42

Chapter 8- Present & Future Generations of Technology(3G/4G) 44-50

8.1- 3G Communication 44

8.2- Advantages of 3G 45

8.3- Disadvantages of 3G 45

8.4- Potential Killer Applications 46

8.5- 3G Network 46

8.6- Future Trends(3G to 4G onwards) 47

8.7- Operational Excellence 48

vi
8.8- Service Evolution 48

8.9- Multi-Technology Approach 49

ABBREVIATIONS 51

REFERENCES 52

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. PAGE NO.

3.1- Digital Switch 11

3.2- Serial Parallel Converter 13

3.3- Output associated with control switch 14

3.4- Input associated controlled time switch 15

4.1- Time division multiplexing 18

4.2- Sampling process 20

4.3- PAM output signals 21

4.4- Quantizing positive signal 22

4.5- 2.048 Mb/s PCM Multiframe 25

5.1- Principle of Fiber Optic Communication 28

5.2- Transmission of light between 2 mediums 29

5.3- Propagation of light through fiber 30

5.4- Geometric of fiber 30

5.5- Step –Index Multimode Fiber 32

5.6- Graded-Index Multimode Fiber 32

5.7- Single Mode Fiber 32

6.1- Architecture of the GSM network 34

6.2- BSS Configuration 39

8.1-The UMTS networks and domains 48

viii
 COMPANY PROFILE

The Regional Telecom Training Centre is one of the premier training institutes of
BSNL, established on 1-12-1975.It imparts training in modern Telecommunication
Engineering, Information Technology, and Management to BSNL Staff. This ISO
9001:2008 certified centre of excellence is equipped with state-of-the-art telecom
technology laboratories, which include:-

OFC LAB PDH/SDH/DWDM LAB

MLLN LAB / RPR LAB COMPUTER LABS
NETWORKING LAB GSM & CDMA LAB
IPV6 LAB C-DOT LAB
BROADBAND / MULTIPLAY LAB BATTERY & POWER PLANT LAB
RPR LAB INTERNET NODE

The campus is situated away from the town’s hustle-bustle and has a beautiful ambience. Thishis
his institute of the RTTC Complex is spread over 20 acres of lush green campus, havinges
Aca academic /Administrative Block, Staff Quarters, 3 Hostels (Total capacity of 200 ), o
and other facilities like Student Centre, health Club (GYM), Table Tennis, Badminton etc are ava
.Fully furnished separate hostel for boys and girls with mess facilities and 24 hours lighttt ,
wateand security. Whole RTTC Campus is Wi-Fi enabled. There are 10 lecture halls,1Seminar&
1 & 1 Conference Hall –all fitted with overhead/DLP Projectors. The faculty members are ll-
qualcertified technocrats and experienced professionals from among various Telecom specialties
comcomprises of 35 staff members. Besides imparting all types of Telecom & Managementent
relatcourses to the staff of BSNL, RTTC has also embarked upon to impart training to nonon
BSNBSNL aspirants.sts.

In aI In addition to in-house Training ,we are conducting Training program on :-

Industrial Training for Engineering /MBA(IT)/Diploma Graduates Students

Summer / Vocational / Winter Industrial Training (4/ 6 Weeks)
Summer / Vocational / Winter Industrial Training (6 months)
 Project Work for Engineering Students ( 6 Months )
BSNL Certified program for Non BSNL Staff
BSNL Certified Training Program on Mobile Communication.
BSNL Certified Training Program on Optical Fiber Communication
BSNL Certified Training Program on Transmission Systems
BSNL Certified Training Program on Networking
BSNL Certified Training Program on Telecom Industry Familiarization

BROADBAND LAB COMPUTER LAB SWITCHING LAB

CHAPTER-1

OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1.1 Introduction:
The telephone is a telecommunication device that is used to transmit and receive
electronically or digitally encoded speech between two or more people conversing. It is
one of the most common household appliances in the world today. Most telephones
operate through transmission of electric signals over a complex telephone network which
allows almost any phone user to communicate with almost any other user.

With the appropriate attachments/equipments, they can be used to transmit

dataTelecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are
geographically far apart. An entity may be a computer or human being, a facsimile
machine, a teleprinter, a data terminal and so on. The entities are involved in the process
of information transfer that may be in the form of a telephone conversation (telephony) or
a file transfer between two computers or message transfer between two terminals etc.
With the rapidly growing traffic and untargeted growth of cyberspace, telecommunication
becomes a fabric of our life. The future challenges are enormous as we anticipate rapid
growth items of new services and number of users. What comes with the challenge is a
genuine need for more advanced methodology supporting analysis and design of
telecommunication architectures. Telecommunication has evaluated and growth at an
explosive rate in recent years and will undoubtedly continue to do so.

The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal
connectivity is realized when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with
any other entity in another part of the world. In many ways telecommunication will acts
as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation. The
telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication.

1.2 Voice Signal Characteristics:

Telecommunication is mainly concerned with the transmission of messages between two
distant points. The signal that contains the messages is usually converted into electrical
waves before transmission. Our voice is an analog signal, which has amplitude and
frequency characteristics.

Voice frequencies: - The range of frequencies used by a communication device

determines the communication channel, communicating devices, and bandwidth or
information carrying capacity. The most commonly used parameter that characterizes an
electrical signal is its bandwidth of analog signal or bit rate if it is a digital signal. In
telephone system, the frequencies it passes are restricted to between 300 to 3400 Hz.

In the field of telecommunications, a Telephone exchange or a Telephone switch is a

system of electronic equipment including telephone switches

1.3 Network Architecture:

When electronic devices were introduced in the switching systems, a new concept of
switching evolved as a consequence of their extremely high operating speed compared to
their former counter-parts, i.e., the Electro-mechanical systems, where relays, the logic
elements in the electromechanical systems, have to operate and release several times
which is roughly equal to the duration of telephone signals to maintain required accuracy.
Research on electronic switching started soon after the Second World War, but
commercial fully electronic exchange began to emerge only about 30 years later.
However, electronic techniques proved economic for common control systems much
earlier. In electromechanical exchanges, common control systems mainly used switches
and relays, which were originally designed for use in switching networks. In common
controls, they are operated frequently and so wear out earlier. In contrast, the life of an
electronic device is almost independent of its frequency of operation.

4
In electromechanical switching, the various functions of the exchange are achieved by the
operation and release of relays and switch (rotary or crossbar) contacts, under the
direction of a Control Sub-System. These contracts are hard - wired in a predetermined
way. When the data is to be modified, for introduction of a new service, or change in
services already available to a subscriber, the hardware change ranging from inconvenient
to near impossible, are involved.

In an SPC exchange, a processor similar to a general-purpose computer is used to control

the functions of the exchange. All the control functions, represented by a series of various
instructions, are stored in the memory. e.g. for taking a decision according to class of
service, the stored data is referred to, Hence, this concept of switching.

This imparts and enormous flexibility in overall working of the exchange. Digital
computers have the capability of handling many tens of thousands of instructions every
second, Hence, in addition to controlling the switching functions the same processor can
handle other functions also. The immediate effect of holding both the control program
and the exchange data, in easily alterable memories, is that the administration can
become much more responsive to subscriber requirements. both in terms of introducing
new services and modifying general services, or in responding to the demands of
individual subscriber. For example, to restore service on payment of an overdue bill or to
permit change from a dial instrument to a multi frequency sender, simply the appropriate
entries in the subscriber data-file are to be amended.

Stored program control (SPC) has become the principal type of control for all types of
new switching systems throughout the world, including private branch exchanges, data
and Telex systems. Two types of data are stored in the memories of electronic switching
systems. One type is the data associated with the progress of the call, such as the dialed
address of the called line.

Examples include:-
 1. Call barring (outgoing or incoming): The customer can prevent unauthorized
calls being made and can prevent incoming calls when wishing to be left in peace.
2. Call waiting: The ‘Call waiting’ service notifies the already busy subscriber of a
third party calling him.
3. Call Forwarding: The subscriber having such a feature can enable the incoming
calls coming to his telephone to be transferred to another number during his
absence.
4. Conference calls: Subscriber can set up connections to more than one subscriber
and conduct telephone conferences under the provision of this facility.
5. Do Not Disturb: This facility enables the subscriber to free himself from attending
his incoming calls. Using this facility the calls coming to the subscriber can be
routed to an operator position or to an answering machine.

1.4 Access to an ISDN:

1. Basic-Rate Access (BRA) :- The customer’s line carries two 64 kbit/s “B” channels
plus a 16 kbit/s “D” channel (a common signaling channel) in each direction.

2. Primary Rate Access (PRA):- The line carries a complete PCM frame at 2 Mbit/s in
each direction. This gives the customer 30 circuits at 64 kbit/s plus a common signaling
channel, also at 64 kbit

CHAPTER-2
 OVERVIEW OF BROADBAND TECHNOLOGY

2.1 OBJECTIVES:

The main objective of this chapter is to build up the following :

i) To understand what is Broadband

ii) To understand the need of broadband

iii) To familiarize with the various broadband technologies

iv) To familiarize with Broadband Network

2.2 INTRODUCTION:

With the evolution of computer networking and packet switching concept a new era of
integrated communication has emerged in the telecom world. Rapid growth of data
communication market and popularity of Internet, reflect the needs of enhanced
infrastructure to optimize the demand of traffic. Integration of telecom and computer
networking technology trend has further amplified the importance of telecommunications
in the field of information communication. The demand for high-speed bandwidth is
growing at a fast pace, driven mostly by growth in data volumes as the Internet and
related networks become more central to business operations. The rapid growth of
distributed business applications, e-commerce, and bandwidth-intensive applications
(such as multimedia, videoconferencing, and video on demand) generate the demand for
bandwidth and access network.

2.3 DEFINITION OF BROADBAND:

Broadband is the nonspecific term for high-speed digital Internet access. To state the
obvious, ‘broadband’ indicates a means of connectivity at a high or ‘broad’ bandwidth.
There are the various ways to define the broadband :-
i) Term for evolving digital technologies that provide customers a high-speed data
network connection
ii) Provides signal switched facility offering integrated access to voice, data, video,
and interactive delivery services
iii) The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines broadband as an
advanced telecommunications capability
“An ‘always-on’ data connection that is able to support interactive services including
Internet access and has the capability of the minimum download speed of 256 kilo bits
per second (kbps) to an individual subscriber from the Point Of Presence (POP) of the
service provider intending to provide Broadband service where interactive services
including the Internet through this POP.
It reflects that: -
i) One of the latest trends in enhancing communication systems involves
broadband technology
ii) Broadband refers to greater bandwidth-or transmission capacity of
medium.
iii) Broadband technology will allow for high-speed transmission of voice,
video, and data over networks like the Internet

2.4 NEED OF BROADBAND:

The concept of socio economy has an important role in the field of communication of
data, audio, video, speech or any other kind of application. It is an era of CAPEX and
OPEX.
8
The Internet, e-mail, web sites, software downloads, file transfers: they are all now part
of the fabric of doing business. But until now, it has not been possible for businesses to
fully take advantage of the benefits that technology can truly deliver.
Kim Maxwell in his book-"Residential Broadband: An Insider's Guide to the Battle for
the Last Mile" has grouped potential residential broadband applications into three general
categories: "professional activities " (activities related to users' employment),
"entertainment activities " (from game playing to movie watching), and "consumer
activities " (all other non-employment and non-entertainment activities). as follows:

Professional Activities:

i) Telecommuting (access to corporate networks and systems to

support working at home on a regular basis)

ii) Video conferencing (one-to-one or multi-person video telephone

calls)

iii) Home office (access to corporate networks and e-mail to

supplement work at a primary office location)

Entertainment Activities:

i) Web surfing (as today, but at higher speeds with more video
content)

ii) Video-on-demand (movies and rerun or delayed television shows)

iii) Video games (interactive multi-player games)

Consumer Activities:

i) Shopping (as today, but at higher speeds with more video content)

ii) Telemedicine (including remote doctor visits and remote medical

analyses by medical specialists)

iii) Distance learning (including live and pre-recorded educational

presentations)

iv) Public services (including voting and electronic town hall meeting).

9
These applications have different bandwidth requirements, and some of them are still out
of reach today. For example, all of the "professional" activities will likely be supported
with less than 1.0 Mbps of bandwidth. Similarly, web surfing and home shopping will be
supported with less than 1.0 Mbps of bandwidth.

Movies and video, however, demand more bandwidth. Feature length movies can
probably be delivered with 1.5 Mbps of bandwidth, but broadcast quality video will
probably require more— perhaps as much as 6.0 Mbps.

The Internet is poised to spin off thousands of specialized broadband services. The access
network needs to provide the platform for delivery of these services. Following are the
various applications or services, which are very popular in society and needs broadband
connectivity: -

Virtual Networks: The private virtual networks (LAN/WAN) can be used in an ample
variety of multimedia services, like bank accounts and central offices.

Education by distance: Education will not have any limits to reach from source to
destination. Along with the traditional school a concept of remote leaning center is
emerged out and popular for various courses. There is no limit of distance, area or
location in such distance learning.

Telework: Organization firm workers that incorporate communication systems via

satellite, can work remotely connecting directly to their head offices Internet by a high
speed connection that permits users to work efficiently and comfortable.

Telemedicine: Doctors situated in different clinics can stay in contact and consult
themselves directly to other regional medical centers, using videoconference and the
exchange of high quality images, giving out test results and any type of information.

Electronic commerce: Electronic commerce is a system that permits users to pay

goods and services by Internet. Thanks to this service, any person connected to the
network can ad quire such services with independence from the place that he is situated
and during the 24 hours, simply using a portable computer.

10
 CHAPTER-3

DIGITAL SWITCHING

3.1 Introduction:

A Digital switching system, in general, is one in which signals are switched in digital
form. These signals may represent speech or data. The digital signals of several speech
samples are time multiplexed on a common media before being switched through the
system. To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the time-slots of
the two speech samples which may be on same or different PCM highways. The
digitalized speech samples are switched in two modes, viz., Time Switching and Space
Switching.

3.2 Time and Space Switching:

Generally, a digital switching system several time division multiplexed (PCM) samples.
These PCM samples are conveyed on PCM highways (the common path over which
many channels can pass with separation achieved by time division.). For example, PCM
samples appearing in TS6 of I/C PCM HWY1 are transferred to TS18 of O/G PCM
HWY2, via the digital switch, as shown in Fig 3.1.

Fig 3.1: Digital Switch

11
The interconnection of time-slots, i.e., switching of digital signals can be achieved using
two different modes of operation. These modes are: - i) Space Switching

ii) Time switching

A sample, in a given time-slot, TSi of an I/C HWY, say HWY1, is switched to same time-
slot, TSi of an O/G HWY, SAY HWY2. Obviously there is no delay in switching of the
sample from one highway to another highway since the sample transfer takes place in the
same time-slot of the PCM frame. Time Switching, on the other hand, involves the
interconnection of different time-slots on the incoming and outgoing highways by re-
assigning the channel sequence.

3.3 Digital Space Switching:

The Digital Space Switch consists of several input highways, X1, X2,...Xn and several
output highways, Y1,Y2,.............Ym, inter connected by a crosspoint matrix of n rows
and m columns. The individual crosspoint consists of electronic AND gates. The
operation of an appropriate crosspoint connects any channel, a , of I/C PCM highway to
the same channel, a, of O/G PCM highway.

Each crosspoint column, associated with one O/G highway, is assigned a column of
control memory. The control memory has as many words as there are time-slot per frame
in the PCM signal. In practice, this number could range from 32 to 1024. Each crosspoint
in the column is assigned a binary address, so that only one crosspoint per column is
closed during each time-slot

The binary addresses are stored in the control memory, in the order of time-slots. The
word size of the control memory is x bits, so that 2x = n, where n is the number of cross
points in each column . A new word is read from the control memory during each time-
slot, in a cyclic order. Each word is read during its corresponding time-slot, i.e. Word 0
(corresponding to TS0), followed by word 1 (corresponding to TS1) and so on. The word
contents are contained on the vertical address lines for the duration of the time-slot.

12
3.4 Practical Space Switch:

In a practical switch, the digital bits are transmitted in parallel rather than serially,
through the switching matrix. In a serial 32 time-slots PCM multiplex, 2048 Kb/s are
carried on a single wire sequentially, i.e., all the bits of the various time-slots follow one
another. This single wire stream of bits, when fed to Serial to Parallel Converter is
converted into 8-wire parallel output. For example, all 8 bits corresponding to TS3 serial
input are available simultaneously on eight output wires (one bit on each output wire),
during just one bit period, as shown in fig.3.2. This parallel output on the eight wires is
fed to the switching matrix.

Fig 3.2: Serial parallel converter

It can be seen that during one full time-slot period, only one bit is carried on the each
output line, whereas 8 bits are carried on the input line during this period. Therefore, bit
rate on individual output wires, is reduced to 1/8th of input bit rate=2048/8=256Kb/s

3.5 Digital Time Switch:

A Digital Time Switch consists of two memories, address memory to control the writing
and reading of the samples in the buffer memory and directing them on to the appropriate
time-slots.

13
Speech memory has as many storage locations as the number of time-slots in input PCM,
e.g., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system.

The writing/reading operations in the speech memory are controlled by the Control
Memory. It has same number of memory locations as for speech memory, i.e., 32
locations for 32 channel PCM system. Each location contains the address of one of the
speech memory locations where the channel sample is either written or read during a
time-slot.

3.6 Output associated control:

In this mode of working, 2 samples of I/C PCM are written cyclically in the speech
memory locations in the order of time-slots of I/C PCM, i.e., TS1 is written in location 1,
TS2 is written in location 2. The contents of speech memory are read on output PCM in
the order specified by control memory. Each location of control memory is rigidly
associated with the corresponding time-slot of the O/G PCM and contains the address of
the TS of incoming PCM to be connected to.

Fig. 3.3: Output associated with control switch

14
3.7 Input associated control:

Here, the samples of I/C PCM are written in a controlled way, i.e., in the order specified
by control memory, and read sequentially. Each location of control memory is rigidly
associated with the corresponding TS of I/C PCM and contains the address of TS of O/G
PCM to be connected to.

The previous example with the same connection objective of connecting TS4 of I/C PCM
to TS6 of O/G PCM may be considered for its restoration. The location 4 of the control
memory is associated with incoming PCM TS4. Hence, it should contain the address of
the location where the contents of TS4 of I/C PCM are to be written in speech memory. A
CC writes the number of the destination TS, viz., 6 in this case, in location 4 of the
control memory. The contents of TS4 are therefore, written in location of speech memory,
as shown in fig3.4.

The contents of speech memory are read in the O/G PCM in a sequential way, i.e.,
location 1 is read during TS1, location 2 is read during TS2, and so on. In this case, the
contents of location 6 will appear in the output PCM at TS6. Thus the input PCM TS4 is
switched to output PCM TS6. In this switch, there is sequential reading but controlled
writing.

Fig 3.4: Input Associated Controlled Time Switch

15
3.8 Time Delay Switching:

The writing and reading, of all time-slots in a frame, has to be completed within one
frame time period (before the start of the next frame). A TS of incoming PCM may,
therefore, get delayed by a time period ranging from 1 TS to 31 TS periods, before being
transmitted on outgoing PCM.

3.9 Non-Blocking feature of a Time Switch:

In a Time Switch, there are as many memory locations in the control and speech
memories as there are time-slots in the incoming and outgoing PCM highways, i.e.,
corresponding to each time-slot in incoming highway, there is a definite memory location
available in the speech and control memories. Similarly, corresponding to each time-slot
in the outgoing highway there is a definite memory location available in the control and
speech memories. This way, corresponding to free incoming and outgoing time-slots,
there is always a free path available to interconnect them. In other words, there is no
blocking in a time switch.

3.10 Two Dimensional Switching:

Though the electronic cross points are not so expensive, the cost of accessing and
selecting them from external pins in a Space Switch, becomes prohibitive as the switch
size increases. Similarly, the memory location requirements rapidly go up as a Time
Switch is expanded, making it uneconomical. Hence, it becomes necessary to employ a
number of stages, using small switches as building blocks to build a large network. This
would result in necessity of changing both the time-slot and highway in such a network.
Hence, the network, usually, employs both types of switches viz., space switch and time
switch and. therefore, is known as two dimensional network. These networks can have
various combinations of the two types of switches and are denoted as TS, STS, TSST etc.
Though to ensure full availability, it may be desirable to use only T stages.

16
 CHAPTER-4

PCM PRINCIPLE

4.1 Introduction:

A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could be provided
by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as early as mid of
19th century. However, due to fast industrial development and increased telephone
awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on increasing at a rapid rate. To cater to
the increased demand of traffic between two stations or between two subscribers at
the same station we resorted to the use of an increased number of pairs on either the open
wire alignment, or in underground cable. This could solve the problem for some time only
as there is a limit to the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment
due to headway consideration and maintenance problems.

4.2 Multiplexing Techniques:

There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques

i) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

ii) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

4.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM):

The FDM technique is the process of translating individual speech circuits (300-3400 Hz)
into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of the transmission medium.

The frequency translation is done by amplitude modulation of the audio frequency

with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the output of the modulator a filter network is
connected to select either a lower or an upper side band.

17
4.2.2 Time Division Multiplexing:

Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing

a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a
sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be transmitted. Thus
the entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel. Normally all time slots 1 are
equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot with a specific common repetition
period called a frame interval. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.

Fig. 4.1: Time Division Multiplexing

Each channel is sampled at a specified rate and transmitted for a fixed duration. All channels
are sampled one by one and the cycle is repeated again and again. The channels are
connected to individual gates which are opened one by one in a fixed sequence. At the
receiving end also similar gates are opened in unison with the gates at the transmitting
end. The signal received at the receiving end will be in the form of discrete
samples and these are combined to reproduce the original signal.

18
4.3 Pulse Code Modulation:

PCM systems use TDM technique to provide a number of circuits on the same
transmission medium viz open wire or underground cable pair or a channel provided by
carrier, coaxial, microwave or satellite system.

Basic Requirements for PCM System:

To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing
steps are required

i) Filtering

ii) Sampling

iii) Quantization

iv) Encoding

v) Line Coding

4.3.1 Sampling:

It is the most basic requirement for TDM. Suppose we have an analogue signal Fig.
4.2(b), which is applied across a resistor R through a switch S as shown in Fig. 4.2(a) .
Whenever switch S is closed, an output appears across R. The rate at which S is closed is
called the sampling frequency because during the make periods of S, the samples of
the analogue modulating signal appear across R. Fig.4.2(d) is a stream of samples of the
input signal which appear across R. The amplitude of the sample depends upon the
amplitude of the input signal at the instant of sampling.

19
 Fig. 4.2: Sampling Process

Sampling Theorem:

"If a band limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate equal to or
more than twice the highest signal frequency in the band, then the sample contains all
the information of the original signal." Mathematically, if fH is the highest frequency in
the signal to be sampled then the sampling frequency Fs needs to be greater than 2 fH.

i.e. Fs>2fH

Let us say our voice signals are band limited to 4 KHz and let sampling frequency be 8
KHz.

Time period of sampling Ts = 1 sec

8000

or Ts = 125 micro seconds

In a 30 channel PCM system. TS i.e. 125 microseconds are divided into 32 parts. That is 30
time slots are used for 30 speech signals, one time slot for signalling of all the 30
chls, and one time slot for synchronization between Transmitter & Receiver. The
signals on the common medium (also called the common highway)
of a TDM system will consist of a series of pulses,

20
the amplitudes of which are proportional to the amplitudes of the individual channels at
their respective sampling instants. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.3

Fig 4.3: PAM Output Signals

4.3.2 Quantization:

In FDM systems we convey the speech signals in their analogue electrical form. But
in PCM, we convey the speech in discrete form. The sampler selects a number of points on
the analogue speech signal (by sampling process) and measures their instant values.

The transmission of PAM signal will require linear amplifiers at trans and receive ends to
recover distortion less signals. Therefore, in PCM systems, PAM signals are converted
into digital form by using Quantization Principles.

The process of measuring the numerical values of the samples and giving them a table
value in a suitable scale is called "Quantizing". Of course, the scales and the number of
points should be so chosen that the signal could be effectively reconstructed after
demodulation.

21
Quantizing, in other words, can be defined as a process of breaking down a continuous
amplitude range into a finite number of amplitude values or steps.

A sampled signal exists only at discrete times but its amplitude is drawn from a continuous
range of amplitudes of an analogue signal. On this basis, an infinite number of
amplitude values are possible. A suitable finite number of discrete values can be used to
get an. approximation of the infinite set. The discrete value of a sample is measured
by comparing it with a scale having a finite number of intervals and identifying the
interval in which the sample falls.

Quantizing Process:

Suppose we have a signal as shown in Fig. 4.4 which is sampled at instants a, b, c, d

and e. For the sake of explanation, let us suppose that the signal has maximum amplitude
of 7 volts.In order to quantize these five samples taken of the signal, let us say the total
amplitude is divided into eight ranges or intervals as shown in Fig. 4.4.

Sample (a) lies in the 5th range. Accordingly, the quantizing process will assign a binary
code corresponding to this i.e. 101, Similarly codes are assigned for other samples
also. Here the quantizing intervals are of the same size. This is called Linear
Quantizing.

Fig. 4.4: Quantizing-positive signal

22
Assigning an interval of 5 for sample 1, 7 for 2 etc. is the quantizing
process. Giving, the assigned levels of samples, the binary code are
called coding of the quantized samples.

Relation between Binary Codes and Number of levels:

Because the quantized samples are coded in binary form, the quantization intervals
will be in powers of 2. If we have a 4 bit code, then we can have 2" = 16 levels. Practical
PCM systems use an eight bit code with the first bit as sign bit. It means we can have 2"
= 256 (128 levels in the positive direction and 128 levels in the negative direction)
intervals for quantizing.

4.3.3 Encoding:

Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding. To represent

256 steps, 8 level code is required. The eight bit code is also called an eight bit "word".
The 8 bit word appears in the form

P ABC WXYZ

Polarity bit ‘1’ Segment Code Linear encoding

for + ve 'O' for - ve. in the segment

The first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. Next 3 bits gives the segment
number. There are 8 segments for the positive voltages and 8 for negative voltages.

Last 4 bits give the position in the segment. Each segment contains 16 positions.
Referring to Fig. 4.6, voltage Vc will be encoded as 1 1 1 1 0101. The quantization and
encoding are done by a circuit called coder. The coder converts PAM signals (i.e. after
sampling) into an 8 bit binary signal. The coding is done as per Fig. 9 which shows a
relationship between voltage V to be coded and equivalent binary number N. The function
N = f(v) is not linear.

23
Concept of Frame:

Since Ts is much larger as compared to St. a number of channels can be sampled each
for a duration of St within the time Ts. The first sample of the first channel is taken by
pulse 'a', encoded and is passed on the combiner.

Then the first sample of the second channel is taken by pulse 'b' which is also encoded and
passed on to the combiner, Likewise the remaining channels are also sampled sequentially
and are encoded before being fed to the combiner. For a 30 chl PCM system, we have 32
time slots. Thus the time available per channel would be 3.9 microsecs.

Thus for a 30 chl PCM system,

Frame = 125 microseconds

Time slot per channel = 3.9 microseconds.

Structure of Frame:

A frame of 125 microseconds duration has 32 time slots. These slots are numbered Ts 0
to Ts 31. Information for providing synchronization between trans and receive ends is
passed through a separate time slot. Usually the slot Ts 0 carries the synchronization
signals. This slot is also called Frame alignment word (FAW). The signaling information is
transmitted through time slot Ts 16. Ts 1 to Ts 15 are utilized for voltage signal of
channels 1 to 15 respectively. Ts 17 to Ts 31 are utilized for voltage signal of channels
16 to 30 respectively.

4.4 Synchronization:

The output of a PCM terminal will be a continuous stream of bits. At the receiving end,
the receiver has to receive the incoming stream of bits and discriminate between
frames and separate channels from these. That is, the receiver has to recognize the
start of each frame correctly.

24
This operation is called frame alignment or Synchronization and is achieved by
inserting a fixed digital pattern called a "Frame Alignment Word (FAW)" into the
transmitted bit stream at regular intervals. The receiver looks for FAW and once it is
detected, it knows that in next time slot, information for channel one will be there and
so on.

The FAW is transmitted in the Ts O of every alternate frame.Frame which do not

contain the FAW, are used for transmitting supervisory and alarm signals. To
distinguish the Ts 0 of frame carrying supervisory/alarm signals from those carrying the
FAW, the B2 bit position of the former are fixed at T. The FAW and alarm signals are
transmitted alternatively.

4.5 Signalling in PCM Systems:

In a telephone network,-the signaling information is used for proper routing of a

call between two subscribers, for providing certain status information like dial tone,
busy tone, ring back. NU tone, metering pulses, trunk offering signal etc. All these
functions are grouped under the general terms "signaling" in PCM systems.
The signaling information can be transmitted in the form of DC pulses (as in step by
step exchange) or multi-frequency pulses (as in cross bar systems) etc.

Fig. 4.5: 2.048 Mb/s PCM Multi-frame

25
4.6 Multi-frame Structure:

In the time slot 16 of FO, the first four bits (positions 1 to 4) contain the multi-frame
alignment signal which enables the receiver to identify a multi-frame. The other four bits
(no. 5 to 8) are spare. These may be used for carrying alarm signals. Time slots 16 of
frames F1 to FT5 are used for carrying the signaling information. Each frame carries
signaling, data for two VF channels. For instance, time slot Ts 16 of frame F1 carries the
signal data for VF channel 1 in the first four bits. The next four bits are used for carrying
signaling information for channel 16. Similarly, time slot Ts16 of F2 carries signalling data
of chls 2 and 17.

26
 CHAPTER-5

FIBER OPTICS COMMUNICATION

5.1 Fiber-Optic Applications:

The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging
from global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice,
data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of
a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.

Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need
secure, reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to
the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable
television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services. The
high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband
signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. Intelligent transportation
systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and
changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.

5.2 Advantages of OFC:

Fiber Optics has the following advantages :

i) SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabit

ii) BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity

iii) DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be

"refreshed" or strengthened.

iv) RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios,

motors or other nearby cables.

27
5.3 Fiber Optic System:

Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted
through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence
give below:

i) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.

ii) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.

iii) Light Travels down the Fiber.

iv) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

Fig. 5.1: Principle of Fiber optic transmission system

5.4 Principle of Operation – Theory:

 Total Internal Reflection - The Reflection that Occurs when a Light Ray
Travelling in One Material Hits a Different Material and Reflects Back into
the Original Material without any Loss of Light.

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as space.
Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light travelling from
one material to another changes speed, which results in light changing its direction of
travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction.

28
 Angle of incidence
Angle of
ø1 ø1 reflection
ø1 ø2
n1 n1 n1
n2 n2 n2
ø2 ø2

Light is bent away Light does not enter

from normal second material

Fig. 5.2: Transmission of light between 2 mediums

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90 o to the normal.
The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 90 o is the critical angle. If the
angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally reflected
back into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle of
incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.

5.5 Propagation of light through fiber:

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner
core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive
index that allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the
cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a
core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber manufacturers control
this difference to obtain desired optical fiber characteristics. Most fibers have an
additional coating around the cladding. The light will continue zigzagging down the
length of the fiber. Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation
through a optical fiber. This analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass
through the fiber axis each time, they are reflected.

29
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many factors,
including

i) The size of the fiber.

ii) The composition of the fiber.

iii) The light injected into the fiber.

Jacket Jacket

Cladding
Core

Cladding (n2) Cladding

Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than Angle of Angle of
critical angle is
incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection

Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

Fig. 5.3: Propagation of light through fiber

5.6 Geometry of Fiber:

A hair-thin fiber consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and
the cladding, which are enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. 5.4. Light rays
modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves along the core
without penetrating the cladding.

Fig. 5.4: Geometry of fiber

30
The light stays confined to the core becausethe cladding has a lower refractive index—a
measure of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the
development of new lasers and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic
networks to carry trillions of bits of data per second.

Fiber sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding
size. Thus 50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125m.

5.7 Fiber types:

The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the indices of the core and
cladding. Two main relationships exist:

i) Step Index

ii) Graded Index

The step index fiber has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp
step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-
uniform core. The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it matches
with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in indices between the core and the
cladding.

By this classification there are three types of fibers:

i) Multimode Step Index fiber (Step Index fiber)

ii)Multimode graded Index fiber (Graded Index fiber)

iii) Single- Mode Step Index fiber (Single Mode Fiber)

5.7.1 Step Index Multimode Fiber:- has a large core, up to 100 microns in diameter. As
a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital pulse may travel a direct route,
whereas others zigzag as they bounce off the cladding.

31
These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of light rays, referred to as
modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point..

Fig. 5.5: Step-Index Multimode Fiber

5.7.2 Graded Index Multimode Fiber:- contains a core in which the refractive index
diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding. The higher refractive
index at the center makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than
those near the cladding. Also, rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core
curves helically because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance.

Fig.5.6: Graded index multimode fiber

5.7.3 Single Mode Fiber:- has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the index of
refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it does for multimode
fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Telephone
and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

Fig. 5.7: Single Mode Fiber

 32

CHAPTER-6

GSM

The Global System for Mobile communications is a digital cellular communications

system. It was developed in order to create a common European mobile telephone
standard but it has been rapidly accepted worldwide. GSM was designed to be compatible
with ISDN services.

6.1 The Cellular Structure:

In a cellular system, the covering area of an operator is divided into cells. A cell
corresponds to the covering area of one transmitter or a small collection of transmitters.
The size of a cell is determined by the transmitter's power. The frequency band allocated
to a cellular mobile radio system is distributed over a group of cells and this distribution
is repeated in all the covering area of an operator. The whole number of radio channels
available can then be used in each group of cells that form the covering area of an
operator. Frequencies used in a cell will be reused several cells away. The distance
between the cells using the same frequency must be sufficient to avoid interference. The
frequency reuse will increase considerably the capacity in number of users.

6.2 Cluster:

The cells are grouped into clusters. The number of cells in a cluster must be determined
so that the cluster can be repeated continuously within the covering area of an operator.
The typical clusters contain 4, 7, 12 or 21 cells. The number of cells in each cluster is
very important. The smaller the number of cells per cluster is, the bigger the number of
channels per cell will be. The capacity of each cell will be therefore increased.

33
6.3 ARCHITECTURE OF THE GSM NETWORK:

The GSM technical specifications define the different entities that form the GSM network
by defining their functions and interface requirements. The GSM network can be divided
into four main parts:

The architecture of the GSM network is presented in figure 6.1.

Other
G
MSCs
OMC VLR
VLRs
B
D
BSS
A C
MS BTS BSC MSC HLR AUC

Un Abis
E F

Other Other
MSCs Networks
EIR

Fig. 6.1: Architecture of the GSM network

6.3.1 Mobile Station:

A Mobile Station consists of two main elements:

The Terminal: There are different types of terminals distinguished principally by their

power and application:

i) The `fixed' terminals are the ones installed in cars. Their maximum allowed
output power is 20 W.

ii) The GSM portable terminals can also be installed in vehicles. Their maximum
allowed output power is 8W.

34
 iii) The handheld terminals have experienced the biggest success thanks to the
weight and volume, which are continuously decreasing. These terminals can
emit up to 2 W. The evolution of technologies allows decreasing the maximum
allowed power to 0.8 W.

6.3.2 The SIM:

The SIM is a smart card that identifies the terminal. By inserting the SIM card into the
terminal, the user can have access to all the subscribed services. Without the SIM card,
the terminal is not operational.

The SIM card is protected by a four-digit Personal Identification Number (PIN). In order
to identify the subscriber to the system, the SIM card contains some parameters of the
user such as its International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

Another advantage of the SIM card is the mobility of the users. In fact, the only element
that personalizes a terminal is the SIM card. Therefore, the user can have access to its
subscribed services in any terminal using its SIM card.

6.3.3 The Base Station Subsystem:

The BSS connects the Mobile Station and the NSS. It is in charge of the transmission and
reception. The BSS can be divided into two parts:

The Base Transceiver Station: The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas
used in each cell of the network. A BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell.
Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each BTS has between one
and sixteen transceivers depending on the density of users in the cell.

35
The Base Station Controller: The BSC controls a group of BTS and manages their radio
resources. A BSC is principally in charge of handovers, frequency hopping,
exchange functions and control of the radio frequency power levels of the
BTS.

6.3.4 The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS):

The OSS is connected to the different components of the NSS and to the BSC, in order to
control and monitor the GSM system. It is also in charge of controlling the traffic load of
the BSS.

However, the increasing number of base stations, due to the development of cellular radio
networks, has provoked that some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS.
This transfer decreases considerably the costs of the maintenance of the system.

6.4 THE GSM FUNCTIONS:

In this paragraph, the description of the GSM network is focused on the different
functions to fulfill by the network and not on its physical components. In GSM, five main
functions can be defined:

Transmission: The transmission function includes two sub-functions:

i) The first one is related to the means needed for the transmission of user
information.

ii) The second one is related to the means needed for the transmission of signaling
information.

Not all the components of the GSM network are strongly related with the transmission
functions.

36
The MS, the BTS and the BSC, among others, are deeply concerned with transmission.
But other components, such as the registers HLR, VLR or EIR, are only concerned with
the transmission for their signaling needs with other components of the GSM network.
Some of the most important aspects of the transmission are described.

Radio Resources management (RR): The role of the RR function is to establish, maintain
and release communication links between mobile stations and the MSC. The
elements that are mainly concerned with the RR function are the mobile station
and the base station. However, as the RR function is also in charge of
maintaining a connection even if the user moves from one cell to another, the
MSC, in charge of handovers, is also concerned with the RR functions.

Some of the main RR procedures that assure its responsibilities are:

i) Channel assignment, change and release.

ii) Handover.

iii) Frequency hopping.

iv) Power-level control.

v) Discontinuous transmission and reception.

vi) Timing advance.

Some of these procedures are described. In this paragraph only the handover, which
represents one of the most important responsibilities of the RR, is described.

6.5 Operation, Administration and Maintenance (OAM):

The OAM function allows the operator to monitor and control the system as well as to
modify the configuration of the elements of the system.

37
Not only the OSS is part of the OAM, also the BSS and NSS participate in its functions
as it is shown in the following examples:

i) The components of the BSS and NSS provide the operator with all the
information it needs. This information is then passed to the OSS which is in
charge of analyzing it and control the network.

ii) The self test tasks, usually incorporated in the components of the BSS and NSS,
also contribute to the OAM functions.

iii) The BSC, in charge of controlling several BTSs, is another example of an OAM
function performed outside the OSS.

6.6 Frequency hopping:

The propagation conditions and therefore the multipath fading depend on the radio
frequency. In order to avoid important differences in the quality of the channels, the slow
frequency hopping is introduced. The slow frequency hopping changes the frequency
with every TDMA frame. A fast frequency hopping changes the frequency many times
per frame but it is not used in GSM. The frequency hopping also reduces the effects of
co-channel interference. There are different types of frequency hopping algorithms. The
algorithm selected is sent through the Broadcast Control Channels.

6.7 Base Station System (BSS):

BSS comprises of BTS (Base Transceiver Station) and BSC (Base Station Controller).

Characteristics of the Base Station System (BSS) are:

i) The BSS is responsible for communicating with mobile stations in cell areas
ii) One BSC controls one or more BTSs and can perform inter-BTS and intra- BTS
handover.
38
iii) The BTS serves one or more cells in the cellular network and contains one or more
TRXs (Transceivers or radio units).

Fig. 6.2: BSS Configuration

BSS types are differentiated by the following characteristics:

The BSS can be an integrated (Intg) BSS or a distributed (Dist) BSS. An integrated BSS
is a BSS, which has the BSC, and BTS functionality located in the same physical unit. In
a distributed BSS, the BTS and BSC are physically separated.
The BSS can have internally (Int) or externally (Ext) located speech transcoding. Speech
transcoding to 64 kbit/s takes place either in the BSC for BSS types 1, 4 and 5, or
external to the BSS (i.e. the transcoder is co-located with the MSC) for BSS types 2, 6
and 7. For BSS type 3 transcoding takes place in the BTS. The Abis interface uses
multiplexing (Mult) or rate adaptation (RA) on its links.

39
6.8 Mobile Evolution:

6.8.1 First Generation:

In the early 1980s the First Generation were the Worlds first public mobile telephone
services such as AMPS (US), TACS (UK) and NMT (Scandinavia). These systems
were analogue, provided national coverage (though from complete in most cases)
and offered limited services.

6.8.2 Second Generation:

GSM is by far the World’s primary Second-Generation system. Designed by a joint effort
from manufacturers, regulators and service suppliers from many (European) countries,
GSM became a European and then a global standard. CDMA systems now under the
collective term of cdmaOne are the other major Second-Generation technology. Globally,
arguments about which was superior became largely academic because GSM was
deployed first (early 1990s) and rapidly gained universal acceptance (with the exception
of the US and Japan). CDMA has been launched more recently (mid 1990s) and has
shown remarkable uptake and growth. In late 1998 there are an estimated 12 million
CDMA users and over a 100 million GSM users.

Second Generation Systems offer:

i) Open standards (arguable for CDMA)
ii) Digital technology
iii) (near) National coverage and roaming
iv) Voice and data (limited rates)
v) Supplementary Services

6.8.3 Third Generation:

The World’s leading telecommunication authorities such as the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU), ETSI and others are formulating specifications for the

40
next generation of mobile telecommunication devices and networks. Within ETSI this
network is known as the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System – UMTS and is
data focused.

6.9 Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE):

Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) is a proposed modification to the
modulation scheme utilized by GSM (i.e. Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying). This change
will drastically increase the bit rates available to end users for the purpose of data
transfer. It is envisaged that the enhanced modulation techniques will make it possible to
maintain a good quality link by automatically adapting to the radio interference
conditions and thereby provide the highest possible rate. The exact implementation and
technical details are still being discussed in various ETSI feasibility studies but there are
certain factors that one can almost assume to be near completion.

Wherever possible, EDGE adopts the GSM standards so as to minimize the changes
required by manufactures and operators who wish to support this new technology. This
includes maintaining the same frequency plan, meaning that 200kHz will still separate
carriers. The feasibility study carried out by ETSI on EDGE proposes that it will be able
to support both circuit switched services: transparent and non–transparent in addition to
the packet based GPRS. These three new services will be called:

ECSD T Enhanced Circuit Switched Data – Transparent.

ECSD NT Enhanced Circuit Switched Data – Non–transparent.

EGPRS Enhanced General Packet Radio Service.

41
 CHAPTER - 7

GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS)

7.1 INTRODUCTION:

General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) has been specified to optimize the way data is
carried over GSM networks with new requirements for features, network capacity and
bearer services.

This chapter gives an overview of a General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) network and
other Data Networks in Europe and throughout the world. This section also lists the
history of GPRS. The services provided and the main benefits.

7.2 WHAT IS GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS)?

GPRS is a data service for GSM, the European standard digital cellular service. It is a
packet-switched mobile data service, a wireless packet based network. GPRS, further
enhancing GSM networks to carry data, is also an important component in the GSM
evolution entitled GSM+. High-speed mobile data usage is enabled with GPRS. IF GPRS
is compared to GSM data services, the following applies:

In GSM all the data that has to be sent, is sent via a circuit switched connection. This
means, that a link has to be established and is used and maintained from setup until
release. The data is sent via one physical timeslot and has a maximum data rate of 9.6
kbps. In GPRS all the data that has to be sent, is split into several smaller data packets
first. Those packets are then sent individually across the GPRS network and each of those
packets can travel on a different route.

The packets arrive at the right destination address and could be reassembled in the right
order, because every single packet contains the destination address and information about
the sequencing of the different packets.

42
In GPRS, one user can occupy more than one timeslot or more than one user can be on a
single timeslot.

Depending on different aspects, a maximum data rate of 171.2 kbps could be achieved.
For GPRS the ETSI Standard introduces two new elements, the Serving GPRS Support
Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) (Shown in the diagram
below as shadowed objects) is introduced to create an end-to-end packet transfer mode.

The HLR is enhanced with GPRS subscriber data and routing information. Two services
are provided;

i) Point -To-Point (PTP)

ii) Point-To-Multipoint (PTM) (not yet specified by the Standards)

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has specified GPRS as an

overlay to the existing GSM network to provide packet data services. In order to operate
a GPRS service over a GSM network, new functionality has to be introduced into
existing GSM network elements and new network elements have to be integrated into the
existing operators GSM networks. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) of GSM has to be
upgraded to support GPRS. The BSS works with the GPRS Support Node (GSN) to
provide GPRS service in a similar manner to its interaction with the Switching subsystem
for the circuit switched services.

A new logical network node called the GPRS Support Node (GSN) supports independent
packet routing and transfer within the Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN). The
Gateway GPRS support Node (GGSN) acts as a logical interface to external packet data
networks. The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) is responsible for the delivery of
packets to the MSs within its service area. Within the GPRS network, Protocol Data Units
(PDUs) are encapsulated at the originating GSN and decapsulated at the destination GSN,
In between the originating GSN, Internet Protocol (IP) is used as the backbone to transfer
PDUs.

43
 CHAPTER-8

PRESENT & FUTURE GENERATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY (3G/4G)

8.1 3G Communication:

The emergence of the Third Generation Mobile Technology (Commonly known as 3G),
has been the latest innovation in the field of communication. In fact, in the European
market few years back the operators have taken license to operate 3G services at quite
high cost. After initial teething troubles, the technology is finally taking shape. The
architecture and the specification are in place. The products and the network roll outs
have started and customer base is growing. This can give the customers Internet access at
2 Mbps, while he/she is on the move. Although practically, the bit rate is likely to be
lower at least in the initial phase.

3G is the next generation of wireless network technology that provides high speed
bandwidth (high data transfer rates) to handheld devices. The high data transfer rates will
allow 3G networks to offer multimedia services combining voice and data. Specifically,
3G wireless networks support the following maximum data transfer rates:

i) 2.05 Mbits/second to stationary devices.

ii) 384 Kbits/ second for slowly moving devices, such as a handset carried by a
walking user.
iii) 128 Kbits/second for fast moving devices, such as handset in moving vehicles.
These data rates are the absolute maximum numbers. For example, in the stationary case,
the 2.05 Mb/second rate is for one user hogging the entire capacity of the base station.
This data rate will be far lower if there is voice traffic (the actual data rate would depend
upon the number of calls in progress). The maximum data rate of 128 Kbits/second for
moving devices is about ten times faster than that available with the current 2G wireless
networks. Unlike 3G networks, 2G networks were designed to carry voice but not data.
3G wireless networks have the bandwidth to provide converged voice and data services.

44
 i) Always-on connectivity. 3G networks use IP connectivity, which is packet based.
ii) Multi-media service with streaming audio and video.
iii) Email with full-fledged attachments such as Power Point files.
iv) Instant messaging with video/audio clips.
v) Fast downloads of large files such as faxes and Power Point files.
vi) Access to corporate applications.

8.2 Advantages of 3G:

3G networks offer the users advantages such as:

i) New radio spectrum to relieve overcrowding in existing systems.

ii) More bandwidth, security and reliability.
iii) Asymmetric data rates.
iv) Backward compatibility of devices with existing networks.
v) Always-online devices, 3G will use IP connectivity. IP is packet based (not circuit
based).
vi) Rich multimedia services.

8.3 Disadvantages of 3G:

There are some issues in deploying 3G:

i) The cost of upgrading base station and cellular infrastructure to 3G is likely to be

very high.
ii) Requires different handsets and there is the issue of handset availability. 3G
handsets will be a complex product. Roaming and making both data/voice works
has not yet been fully and seamlessly operational.

45
8.4 Potential Killer Applications:

Not withstanding the disadvantage mentioned above, telecom industry still perceive that
there a big potential market for 3G services, Perhaps that is the reason that many
operators, specially in Europe have paid heavy license fee to acquire 3G licenses. The
high bandwidth of 3G networks will lead to the creation of new services, some of which
we have no idea at this time. The big question is what services will be big revenue
markets for the wireless service providers. In 2G networks, the big winners have been
short text messaging in GSM networks (In Europe and countries other that USA) and
image downloads. Some of the services likely to be big winners in 3G networks are:

i) video conferencing
ii) video messaging
iii) Mobile Games

The first application is more form business application. The other two are targeted
towards the younger generation. MMS (Multi Media Services) are likely to grow very
fast. Similarly, as per some estimation, it is felt that gaming industry could be as big as
$20-25 billion in near future. In fact, the optimist predict that it will be bigger than
Hollywood box office collection. The trend is not restricted to US but is likely to be
followed by Asian countries. Presently India and China are perceived as bid market for
Mobile Growth (Including 3G).

8.5 3G Network:

UMTS (universal Mobile Telecommunication System) is amalgamations of both packet

are circuit switched technologies. It has simultaneously been designed to have the
upgradeability features of earlier mobile systems such as GSM and GPRS. In addition, it
is expected that, IP multimedia will be and integral part of the UMTS standards.

46
 Signaling
Signaling & User Data

IP Multimedia
WLAN

Evolved GPRS IP Network

EDGE
Iu Backbone
Evolved GSM
WCDMA PSTN
Backbone

Fig 8.1: The UMTS networks and domains

The circles to the left show three different radio access networks, which are attached to
the backbone networks in the middle via the Iu interface. A Wireless LAN (WLAN) need
not be connected to the GPRS backbone but could also be linked directly to an IP
Network. The upper circle to the right depicts the SIP based and access independent IP
Multimedia subsystem. To the far right are legacy PSTNs and an external IP network
(e.g. the Internet).

8.6 Future Trends (3G to 4G Onwards):

New data services, interactive TV and evolving Internet behavior will influence mobile
data usage. Long sessions in always-on mode will force a re-think of radio access
technology to achieve the required but not easy to attain capacity (Gbit/s/km) at low
cost. The ideas presented in this article can increase capacity by a factor of 500 with
regard to expected cellular deployments. Coverage will be based on large umbrella cells
(3G, WiMAX) and numerous Pico cells interconnected to provide the user with seamless
high data rate (several Mbs) sessions. Scalable and progressive deployments are possible
while protecting the operator’s long-term investment. The 4G infrastructure operator will
mix several technologies, each of which has its optimal usage.

47
The connection to one of them will result in a real-time trade-off which will offer the user
the best possible service. Some tools that genuinely improve the user’s multimedia
quality of experience (availability, response time, definition, etc) are also presented in
this article.

8.7 OPERATIONAL EXCELLENCE:

Voice was the driver for second generation mobile and has been a considerable success.
Today, video and TV services are driving forward third generation (3G) deployment and
in the future, low cost, high speed data will drive forward the fourth generation (4G) as
short-range communication emerges. Service and application ubiquity, with a high degree
of personalization and synchronization between various user appliances, will be another
driver. At the same time, it is probable that the radio access network will evolve from a
centralized architecture to a distributed one.

8.8 SERVICE EVOLUTION:

The evolution from 3G to 4G will be driven by services that offer better quality (e.g.
video and sound) thanks to greater bandwidth, more sophistication in the association of a
large quantity of information, and improved personalization. Convergence with other
network (enterprise, fixed) services will come about through the high session data rate. It
will require an always-on connection and a revenue model based on a fixed monthly fee.
The impact on network capacity is expected to be significant. Machine-to-machine
transmission will involve two basic equipment types: sensors (which measure
parameters) and tags (which are generally read/write equipment). It is expected that users
will require high data rates, similar to those on fixed networks, for data and streaming
applications. Mobile terminal usage (laptops, Personal digital assistants, hand-held) is
expected to grow rapidly as they become more user friendly.

48
Fluid high quality video and network reactivity are important user requirements. Key
infrastructure design requirements include: fast response, high session rate, high capacity,
low user charges, rapid return on investment for operators, investment that is in line with
the growth in demand, and simple autonomous terminals. The infrastructure will be much
more distributed than in current deployments, facilitating the introduction of a new
source of local traffic: machine-to-machine.

8.9 MULTI-TECHNOLOGY APPROACH:

Many technologies are competing on the road to 4G, as can be seen in Figure 3. Three
paths are possible, even if they are more or less specialized. The first is the 3G-centric
path, in which Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) will be progressively pushed to
the point at which terminal manufacturers will give up. When this point is reached,
another technology will be needed to realize the requi-red increases in capacity and data
rates. The second path is the radio LAN one. Wide-spread deployment of WiFi is
expected to start in 2005 for PCs, laptops and PDAs. In enterprises, voice may start to be
carried by Voice over Wireless LAN (Vo WLAN). However, it is not clear what the next
successful technology will be. Reaching a consensus on a 200 Mb it/s (and more)
technology will be a lengthy task, with too many proprietary solutions on offer. A third
path is IEEE 802.16e and 802.20, which are simpler than 3G for the equivalent
performance. A core network evolution towards a broadband Next Generation Network
(NGN) will facilitate the introduction of new access network technologies through
standard access gateways, based on ETSI-TISPAN, ITU-T, 3GPP, China Communication
Standards Association (CCSA) and other standards. How can an operator provide a large
number of users with high session data rates using its existing infrastructure?

49
At least two technologies are needed. The first (called “parent coverage”) is dedicated to
large coverage and real-time services. Legacy technologies, such as 2G/3G and their
evolutions will be complemented by WiFi and WiMAX. A second set of technologies is
needed to increase capacity, and can be designed without any constraints on coverage
continuity. This is known as picocell coverage. Only the use of both technologies can
achieve both targets. Handover between parent coverage and pico cell coverage is
different from a classical roaming process, but similar to classical handover. Parent
coverage can also be used as a back-up when service delivery in the pico cell becomes
too difficult.

50
 ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS DESCRIPTION

GSM Global System For mobile

GPRS General Packet Radio Service

EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution

LAI Location Area Identifier

ME Mobile Equipment

BSS Base Station Subsystem

BTC Base Transceiver Station

BSC Base Switching Center

MSC Mobile Switching Center

PLMN Public Land Mobile Network

PUK Pin Unblocking Key

EIR Equipment Identity Register

IMEI International Mobile Equipment Identity

PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network

PIN Personal Identification Number

51
 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.3ginindia.com/index.php/2010/01/11/benefits-of-3g-to-
information-technology.

[2] GSM Networks: Protocols, Terminology ,and Implementation by

Gunnar Hein

[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Speed_Packet_Access

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G

[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BSNL_Logo.svg

52