APPGEO-02645; No of Pages 11

Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Applied Geophysics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jappgeo

Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project

for artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador
Mario Zarroca a,⁎, Rogelio Linares a, Patricio C. Velásquez-López b, Carles Roqué c, Roberto Rodríguez d
a
Geology Department, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona E-08193, Spain
b
Instituto Nacional de Investigación Geológico Minero Metalúrgico, Las Malvas E15-142 y De Los Perales, Quito, Ecuador
c
Àrea de Geodinàmica Externa i Geomorfologia, Universitat de Girona, Girona E-17071, Spain
d
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Ríos Rosas, 23, Madrid E-28003, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Thanks to advances in geoelectrical resistivity method over the past two decades, researchers can now gather
Received 11 March 2014 massive geophysical data sets encompassing long distances and depths, at reasonable cost. The enhanced resolu-
Accepted 24 November 2014 tion and spatial coverage of these techniques make them, now, very attractive for use in geological engineering
Available online xxxx
applications, an area for which they were previously charged to be unsuitable. The study shows the capability of
electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to identify key subsoil features that might affect a future tailings dam slated for
Keywords:
Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI)
construction at the Zaruma-Portovelo Mining District, Ecuador. The ERI profiles were gathered and processed
Tailings dam with the aim of obtaining resistivity images of a sufficiently resolution for geotechnical use. A geophysical
Artisanal gold mining model was created based on these images. The resistivity images were calibrated according to geomorphological,
Weathered granitic massif hydrogeological and geotechnical data in order to translate geophysical information into rational geological in-
Zaruma-Portovelo Mining District formation. The ERI results, supported by the geomorphological and geotechnical work, suggested that the rock
massif is composed of weathering horizons of different rock qualities, slopes are affected by sliding surfaces
and these features exert a control on the groundwater flow. These results indicated that the original site selected
to construct the dam dike was susceptible to land sliding and an alternative construction site was suggested.
Based on the same results, a geomorphological–hydrogeological conceptual model for layered weathered granitic
massif in mountainous areas was also proposed.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Socioeconomic progress in emerging countries such as Ecuador re-
lies heavily on hydrocarbons and mining resources. This circumstance
has created a pressing need for strategic infrastructure constructing,
which is often a critical issue for their sustainable development. These
major construction projects require, in turn, large tracts of territory to
be rapidly explored to obtain rigorous geotechnical data. Mining indus-
try is extremely sensitive to changes in financial markets and, for exam-
ple, due to the recent surge in demand for metallic minerals, mining
sites that were closed 50 years ago are now being reopened. This is
the case of the Zaruma-Portovelo Mining District), in El Oro Province,
Ecuador (ZPMD) (Fig. 1), where artisanal and small-scale gold mining
has grown tremendously over the past decade (Adler-Miserendino
et al., 2013). The production capacity of processing centers located
along the Calera and Amarillo rivers has thus increased, and more
than 90 processing centers now produce nearly 5,000 tons of tailings
(Velásquez-López et al., 2011). The current scale of this artisanal mining
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mario.zarroca.hernandez@uab.cat (M. Zarroca).
industry, and the predictions for its future growth, caused that a tailings
dam must be constructed in order to minimize the impact of mining
waste on the Amarillo River waters to make the industry more sustain-
able (Fig. 1b) (Appleton et al., 2001; Tarras-Wahlberg, 2002;
Tarras-Wahlberg et al., 2001; Veiga et al., 2014; Velásquez-López et al.,
2010). Additionally, the volatility of the ore market advices that the
dam must be commissioned quickly in order to ensure the repayment
of its construction costs. These circumstances force the tailing dam to
be projected and executed in a short term, which leaves little time for
subsurface recognition of the site planned for its construction. Given
the spatial scope that the planned dam will occupy and the antecedent
of landslides in the area, the viability of the selected site must be
assessed, requiring an extensive subsurface exploration campaign. The
topographical roughness and the lack of suitable tracks to provide
access for drilling rigs hindered drilling tasks. Despite these logistical
constraints, high-quality data for geotechnical requests are essential
for gauging a proper construction location, even more for a dam that
retains mining passives whose malfunction might cause environmental
severe impacts (Grangeia et al., 2011). Aside other geomechanical and
dynamic–seismic considerations, the main geomorphological–
hydrogeological aspects to be considered during the assessment of the
viability of the site are as follows: (1) groundwater flow pattern,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
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Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
2 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. Geo-environmental framework of the Zaruma-Portovelo Mining District, in El Oro province, Ecuador. (a) Simplified geostructural sketch and location of the main mining and mineral-
processing activities. Northward of the Piñas fault (7) outcrops Tertiary volcanics, and southward outcrops the igneous-metamorphic Paleozoic basement of the El Oro metamorphic complex.
The base map is a hill-shaded elevation model (Map data credits: ©2014 Google). (1) Major concentrations of gold veins (after Bain, 2006; Spencer et al., 2002; Van Thournout et al., 1996).
(2) Location of the main mineral-processing plants along the Amarillo and Puyango rivers. (3) Normal faults with a ring-type structure related to a dacitic/rhyolitic volcanic intrusion; probable
Caldera structure (according to Tunningley and Wilson, 2008). (4) Gravitational faults. (5) Current direction of displacement of the slopes, as large deep-seated landslides. (6) The observer lo-
cation of the photograph is depicted in panel b. (7) Strike-slip Piñas faults. (b) Detail of the mineral-treatment plants and tailings ponds on the alluvial plain of the Yellow River. June-2012.

under natural conditions and when altered by the deposition of mining
tails; and (2) susceptibility of the area to landslides.
The work reported here was aimed at demonstrating the utility of
electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) in subsoil explorations supporting
geo-engineering projects, such as the planned tailings dam slated for
construction in the ZPMD. The main targets for the ERI surveying were
identifying key geotechnical features encompassing: the thickness of
the topsoil and surficial quaternary deposits, weathered and highly frac-
tured horizons affecting the rock massif, fractures related to landslide
scars, faults, high-permeability pathways for groundwater flow and
the groundwater flow pattern. Resistivity DC methods had frequently
been considered to offer poor resolution and to generate major uncer-
tainties (Loke et al., 2013). Consequently, these methods were rarely
used in geological engineering projects, which often require accurate
quantitative models of the subsoil. However, fundamental advances in
resistivity methods over the past two decades, fostered by the develop-
ment of modern multichannel and multi-electrode surveying systems,
and the advent of low-cost PCs and improvements in resistivity inver-
sion routines, have led to a major increase in resolution. Large data
sets encompassing thousands of apparent resistivity records, and
covering distances of kilometers and depths of several hundred meters
(e.g., Gélis et al., 2010; Le Roux et al., 2011), can now be collected within
a few hours at reasonable cost. Regarding the purported uncertainties
derived from use of ERI, these can be minimized or even eliminated
by combining multiple surveying techniques and by calibrating geo-
physical data sets according to reliable geological information and bore-
hole reports (e.g., Carbonel et al., 2013a, 2013b; Zarroca et al., 2014).
These enhancements have prompted that actually multidimensional
(2D, 3D and 4D) ERI surveys (Griffiths and Barker, 1993) are being
used more widely in geotechnical, hydrological, environmental and
mining applications (Loke et al., 2013). Despite its capabilities, ERI re-
mains almost to a some extent restricted to specific geotechnical appli-
cations such as determining the depth to bedrock, exploration of buried
cavities or assessment of karstic subsidence hazard (e.g., Carbonel et al.,
2013a, 2014; Carrière et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2011), landslide research
(e.g., Jongmans et al., 2009; Zarroca et al., 2014) and identification and
monitoring of pollution plumes (e.g., De Carlo et al., 2013; Grangeia
et al., 2011). These applications involve very near-surface explorations
and usually do not approach essential parts of geological engineering
projects. Moreover, the utility of ERI for geo-engineering projects of sin-
gular interest has been scarcely covered in the literature (e.g., Bellmunt
et al., 2012; Rucker et al., 2009, 2011). It should be noted that subsoil
exploration is perhaps the task that consumes greater budget in the
phase of design of large-scale infrastructures. Although the use of ERI
does not obviate drilling of exploration boreholes, they do allow
streamlining drilling programs, which aids to significant cost reduc-
tions. Accordingly, ERI was shown as an attractive exploration tool, as
it may provide information of key subsoil features at a resolution suit-
able for many geo-engineering applications and capable to agreeing
the logistical, schedule and economic constraints.
2. Geological and geomorphological context
ZPMD is located at the Cordillera Occidental, in the forearc of the
Andean active margin in SW Ecuador. The main structural element in
the area is the NW-trending Piñas regional fault (PF), which has been
dated to the late Jurassic to early Cretaceos (Aspden et al., 1995;
Litherland et al., 1994) (Figs.1a and 2). The PF cuts through the Tertiary
volcanics northward and the Precambrian metamorphic-igneous base-
ment southward (Fig. 1a). The Tertiary volcanic sequence unconform-
ably overlies metamorphic rocks of continental origin (Dunkley and
Gaibor, 1997; Spencer et al., 2002). N to S compression stress caused
the hanging wall of the PF to bulge, forming the WNW–ESE trending
Cangrejos Antiform (Coward, 2001). A splay system of NW-trending
dextral-thrust en echelon faults occurred at the hinge of this antiform.
Early Miocene magmatic pulses intruded into this stress field, yielding

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
Fig. 2. Geological framework. Enlargement of the area within the white rectangle in Fig. 1.
Undifferentiated volcanic and intrusive rocks, Tertiary to recent. (2) Granodiorites,
gneisses and migmatites, La Bocana Unit, Moromoro Complex, high metamorphism. (3)
Mafic amphibolites, Quebrada de la Plata Unit, Piedras Mafic Complex. (4) Schists,
phyllites and gneisses, La Victoria Unit, Tahuin Complex, low metamorphism. (5) Strike
and dip of bedding. (6) Fault. (7) Inferred fault. (8) Main fault (After BGS-CODIGEM,
1994). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
the ore veins of the ZPMD (Spencer et al., 2002). At the footwall of the PF
(Fig. 2), the El Oro Metamorphic Complex comprises several tectono-
metamorphic units. The studied area (El Tablón) is located on the La
Bocana Unit, which is part of the continental sequence of the El Oro
paired metamorphic belt (Aspden et al., 1995; Riel et al., 2013). This
unit predominantly comprises granitoids, gneisses and migmatites.
In terms of geomorphology, the studied area runs close to the water-
shed between the Amarillo River (to the N) and the Pindo River (to the S),
at the Upper Puyango-Tumbes Basin (Figs. 1a and 2). The highest local
peak is Cerro de Arcos (3,810 m asl), which is located ca. 25 km to the
NE, at the Chilla Range. Steep slopes (30–45°) prevail to the NW, creating
a landscape of irregular slopes dissected by short-haul streams, which
converge into the Amarillo River alluvial plane. To the SE the slopes are
more shallow (20–35°) and are dissected by intermittent tributary
streams of the El Salado Stream.
The site planned for the construction of the dam occupies an area of
ca. 200,000 m2 at the southern edge of the ZPMD and is drained west-
ward by the Tablón Stream, tributary to the El Salado Stream (Figs. 2
and 3). The dam is expected to receive 500 tons/day of waste and to
operate for 15 years. It was originally planned to be an earth structure,
whose crowning would be located at an elevation of 725 m asl,
65–70 m above the current stream thalweg. The climate is considered
to be equatorial mesothermal semi-humid to humid, with temperatures
ranging from 18 to 30 °C (average: 24 °C) and annual precipitation of
500–2,000 mm (average: 1,300 mm). Rainfall is distributed in two
rainy seasons: from February to May, and from October to November.
3. Methods
3.1. Geophysical survey
ERI is a DC technique aimed to imaging the resistivity pattern of the
subsurface using multi-electrode systems (Griffiths and Barker, 1993).
The distribution of the bulk resistivity is mainly related to intrinsic rock
properties as the porosity, fluid content and fluid hydrochemistry. Since
ERI is particularly sensitive to these features, it can be valuable for
Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
3
delineating weathered and highly fractured zones, sliding surfaces or
faults that affect the rock massif. All of these elements can provide hy-
draulic conductivity high above the low-permeability rock mass, serving
as preferential groundwater flow pathways. Consequently, weathering
zones and open fracture structures circulated by low-resistivity fluids—
mineralized groundwater—should be easily recognizable targets in resis-
tivity images (e.g., Roqué et al., 2013; Zarroca et al., 2014, 2014).
The ERI survey was conducted in June 2012. The apparent resistivity
records were acquired along several profiles in order to check the most
suitable array configuration; two of these profiles are presented here
(see Figs. 3 and 4, Table 1). The first profile (ERI01) was collected on
the site preliminary chosen for the dam dike axis, and the second profile
(ERI02) 160 m westward. Resistivity records were gathered using an
8-channel SuperSting R8 IP earth resistivity meter (Advanced
Geosciences, Inc.) and 112 electrodes, with an inter-electrode space of
5 m. The dipole–dipole (DDP) array was chosen since it enables gather-
ing of a dense mesh of data points to establish a high horizontal resolu-
tion (Dahlin and Zhou, 2004; Loke, 2013), which facilitates solving of
vertical structures considered to be probable in the area. It should be
noted that the DDP array has a lower signal-to-noise ratio than do
other arrays. Although the cultural noise in this area was expected to be
low due to its remoteness, some negative resistivity values might be re-
corded. Negative resistivity is usually measured when self-potential (SP)
during the recording is much higher than the received signal (Rx). The
transmitter signal (Tx) strength attenuates due a poor galvanic coupling
between electrodes and ground, dry soil condition or long distances be-
tween current electrodes. The signal strength was enhanced to overcome
its weakening by lowering the contact resistance between the ground and
the electrodes, through addition of a salt–water–bentonite mix. The
SuperSting instrument may also avoid punctual negative values by com-
puting the measurement average during the stacking process. Additional-
ly, long injection periods (1.2 s) and record stacking of a minimum 3
cycles were used also to deal with SP cancellation. In order to use the
rule of reciprocity, as a further control on data quality, reverse arrays
were also collected. The reciprocity lies on the principle that a measure-
ment made with current and potential electrodes, replacing each other,
will be theoretically the same as the original measurement. This time-
cost penalization was aimed at ensuring low noise and high resolution
in the data set, which encompassed ca. 3,000 records per profile. Records
suspected of containing bad data points were removed after the inversion.
The following types of data points were flagged as “bad”: residual nega-
tive resistivity records, those exceeding a maximum reciprocal error of
10 and those exceeding a root-mean-square standard error (RMS) for
model residuals of 20–25% after a preliminary inversion.
The apparent resistivity measurements were inverted using
EarthImager2D software (Advanced Geosciences, Inc.). The inversion
algorithm is based on the least-square smoothness-damping
constrained method (Occam's inversion). It solves the nonlinear
inversion problem by using the complete Gauss–Newton method,
recalculating the sensitivity matrix at every iteration (Constable et al.,
1987; LaBrecque et al., 1996; Loke, 2011). A homogeneous half-space
with a resistivity value equal to the average of all apparent resistivity
values was set as starting model. Due to the rough topographic terrain
curvature, a topographic correction was made by applying the damped-
mesh transform method. By this, the finite-element mesh is distorted to
match the local topography, which become part of the mesh and incorpo-
rates into the inversion model (Loke, 2013). Vertical node shift is gradual-
ly reduced from the ground surface to the bottom of mesh, according to
an exponential function. This approach weighs up the effect of the topog-
raphy on the resistivity distribution of different depth levels, being higher
for shallower than deeper depth levels, which is expected to be more re-
alistic assumption for rough terrain. Topographic data were collected
using a 3D terrestrial laser scanner (Riegl Vz-400) and complemented
by measurements with a total station within the laser scanner shadows.
On the other hand, after any interpretation of inverted resistivity
images, the quality of the geophysical model must be evaluated.
4 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 3. Hydrologic and geomorphologic local framework and location of electrical resistivity profiles. Enlargement of the area within the white rectangle in Fig. 2. (a) Drainage network of
the hydrographic catchment of La Hacienda el Tablón. Aerial photograph (2000). The white arrows depict examples of semicircular and parabolic theater-headed valleys in platform.
(b) Oblique photograph (June 2012) of the landscape of the site originally proposed for construction of the tailings dam dike (observer location in Fig. 3a). (c) Interpretative geomorpho-
logical sketch of the landscape depicted in (c). Dome-shape hills developed over weathering mantles. The landscape is shaped mainly by weathering-erosion processes and by superficial
landslides. (1) Scarp of shallow landslide-debris flow. (2) Inferred scarp of shallow landslide-debris flow. (3) Inferred header scarp of a deeper-seated landslide. (4) Stream downcutting
scarp. (5) Inferred fault trace. (6) Debris-flow deposit. (7) Streams network. (8) Groundwater table of the unconfined aquifer, inferred from seepage–spring and the proliferation of veg-
etation. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Standardized errors, such as RMS or L2-norm defined as the sum of the
squared weighted data errors, provide insight on the model misfit.
Additionally, the relative sensitivity of the model and the depth of inves-
tigation (DOI index) (Oldenburg and Li, 1999) enable identification of
poorly constrained areas of the resistivity image, thereby offering infor-
mation of greater confidence.
3.2. Drilling program
In June 2013, six boreholes were drilled to characterize the
geomechanical and hydrogeological parameters of the rock massif to a
depths ranging 10–30 m (Fig. 4). An HQ wall pipe and a NQ double-
tube core barrel with diamond core bit were used to drill the cores.
The drilling and sampling were complemented with Lefranc and Lugeon
hydraulic conductivity tests, performed at the borehole bottom using a
Bimbar 11 single inflatable packer. It should be noted that the working
platform for the drilling was placed on a constructed embankment
that elevated the ground surface several meters above the natural
surface, where the ERI profiles ran in 2012. Despite that the cores did
not reach the investigation depth modeled by ERI, they provided infor-
mation on the rock quality at shallowest levels, where most variation
was expected to occur.

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 5

Fig. 4. Electrical resistivity profiles and core drilling layout. Base map is an aerial photograph taken in November 2013 during the earthworks for constructing the tailings dam, 1 year after
the geophysical surveying (credits: Image ©2014 Digital Globe). Interpretative geomechanical cross sections generated by interpolation of the borehole results.

4. Results
4.1. Geomorphological and hydrogeological features
The landscape is dominated by dome-shaped hills that form a dense
and near-orthogonally aligned drainage network. The slopes are moder-
ate (25–35°) (Fig. 3). The local relief (measured as the height between
crests and thalwegs) ranges from 50 to 100 m, whereas the absolute
elevations are ca. 600–800 m asl. The main course in the area is the El
Salado Stream, which is tributary to the Amarillo River at the upper
Puyango River catchment (Fig. 3a).
Aerial photographs revealed the drainage network arranges according
to a complex pattern, with a structural control restricted to the main
water course (Fig. 3a). The main channels distribute along a rectangular
network—i.e., an orthogonal network, which main streams join at right
angles, while tributaries do not. Secondary courses follow a dendritic pat-
tern, suggesting a predominance of homogeneous and low-resistance,
surficial weathered rocks. The lower section of the El Tablón Stream ex-
hibits a stepped longitudinal profile interrupted by knickpoints. These
structures might record various downcutting phases and/or differential
erosion processes due to the existence of rocks of different hardness.
Most of the valleys have a flat bottom and a U-shape transversal section,
semicircular or parabolic theater-headed in platform and with channels
much smaller than the valley that they occupy (Fig. 3a). The transversal
section depicts changes in slope where the water table lies above the
current thalweg due to seepage erosion (see the topographic profiles in
Figs. 5 and 6). These features suggest that groundwater flow has been crit-
ical to the performance of the drainage system (e.g., Abrams et al., 2009).
The local lithology comprises granodiorite/gneiss bedrock character-
ized by varying levels of metamorphism. Fractures and centimeter-thick
quartz veins, related to fluid migration, are common. Well-developed
arenaceous weathering mantles of decametric thickness were recog-
nized in the study area. The top of these—Grus weathering mantles,
according to Migón and Thomas (2002), is cut by a planation surface
sloping to the west (Fig. 3b). Volcanic dikes of meter thickness and dip-
ping sub-vertically are intruded in the host rock. Some geomechanical
parameters were analyzed in selected geomechanical stations. Accord-
ing to the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) classification system (Bieniawski,
1989), the quality of the rock massif is between fair and poor; however,
in terms of rock quality, the weathering mantles should be classified as
poor, or even as a dense sandy soil. A standard N-type Schmidt hammer
was used to characterize the degree of weathering of outcropping rocks
(Aydin and Basu, 2005). The test performed on fresh-rock outcrops
yielded mean R-values ranging from 26.5 to 41.5, whereas the test on
the weathered surfaces gave values lower than 10.
Regarding the local hydrology, up to eight small valleys converge
into the main El Tablón valley, which drains to the west. The water ca-
pacity of the drainage system was assessed infield yielding a runoff
flow of ca. 1 m3s−1. It should be noted that the assessment was done
in a dry season (June–July of 2012). Hence, recharging of the stream

Table 1
Features of electrical resistivity imaging profiles collected in June 2012, and quality assessment of the raw data.

Profile Spacing (m)1 Length (m)2 Depth levels3 Collected data points Rejected data points4 Cutoff5 Inverted data points6 RMS (%)7 L2-norm (%)8

ERI01 5 510 42 2,994 12.1% 20% 2,631 6.13 4.17

ERI02 5 488 42 3.004 3.1% 25% 2,758 5.69 3.59
1
Inter-electrode spacing.
2
Horizontal length according to real surface distances.
3
Number of pseudodepth levels comprising pseudosections.
4
Negative resistivity values, records exceeding maximum reciprocal error of 10%, and data points with root-mean-square (RMS) exceeding model residual cutoff threshold.
5
Threshold for putative erroneous data points based on the model residuals of a preliminary inversion.
6
Final data points used for inversion.
7
Root-mean-square (RMS) error between measured and calculated pseudosections at the end of the inversion process.
8
Sum of the squared weighted data errors.

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
6 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 5. Profile ERI01; layout matching the planned location for the longitudinal axis of the tailings dam dike (Fig. 3a). (a) Inverted resistivity image with topographic correction.
(b) Tentative of geotechnical interpretation of inverted resistivity image, depicting a low-activity complex landslide affecting the slope located at the northern margin of the Tablón
Stream; and the inferred groundwater flow pattern. (1) Geo-mechanic contact. (2) Sliding surface (the slid mass comprises the weathering mantle, patterned in dark grey, and rocks, pat-
terned in light gray). (3) Tectonic fault. (4) Local flow. (5) Intermediate flow. (6) Seepage–spring. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

seems to be related to groundwater flows. This hypothesis was corrob-
orated by identification of seeps and springs several meters above the
thalwegs during fieldwork (Fig. 3c).
4.2. Geophysical features
The resistivity images indicate that the subsoil has a background re-
sistivity signature of 200–800 Ωm (Figs. 5 and 6). From the surface,
there is a stream-dipping sheet of lower-resistivity (50–300 Ωm). The
thickness is greatest (15–20 m) at the top of the hills and progressively
diminishes toward the stream, disappearing at 10–15 m above its
thalweg. Resistivity image ERI02 clearly reveals a high-resistivity
electro-layer that apparently dips 20° to the SW and has a thickness of
25–30 m. A high-resistivity body is also shown at the bottom of image
ERI01; however, based on its geometry, it does not appear to coincide
with that depicted in ERI02. Vertical anomalies in resistivity are also ob-
servable. The most pronounced are located in the NE sector of ERI01—
affecting the low-resistivity sheet and part of the medium-resistivity back-
ground, and below the stream valley—affecting the medium-resistivity
background in ERI01 and the high-resistivity body in ERI02. Less-
pronounced anomalies, present in the SW sector of both profiles, affect
the low-permeability sheets. Some noticeable inversion artifacts—nodes
of anomalous very high-resistivity sometimes adjacent to very low-
resistivity ones—are seen in both profiles. Additional low-resistivity
anomalies also are common in the low-resistivity sheet of both profiles.
5. Discussion
Given the close correlation between hydrogeological and geoelectrical
parameters, ERI was expected to be, a priori, suitable for meeting the
goals of the research (e.g., Chandra et al., 2008). Evaluating the quality
of the inverted model entailed identifying those parts of the resistivity
images that contained reliable data. The relative data misfit between
pseudosections—measured vs calculated—also indicated those data
points that were likely to be erroneous and, therefore, candidates to dis-
tort the resistivity images (Fig. 7a). According to the data misfit, the SW
edge and the bottom levels exhibited the highest misfit (RMS b 30%),
whereas surficial features showed the lowest. The relative sensitivity
plots aided identifying poorly constrained areas located at the lateral
and bottom edges of the resistivity images (Fig. 6b). The relative sensitiv-
ity of each area was classified as follows: low (sr b 10−5), medium
(10−3 b sr b 10−5) and high (sr N 10−3). Additionally, the quality control
was also approached by computing the DOI index for reference starting
models of 25 and 2500 Ωm (Fig. 6c). The joint observation of both sensi-
tivity and DOI index sections allowed identifying, beyond the most reli-
able investigated depth, some areas where the inversion process was
awkwardly solved and suspicious to create inversion artifacts. As an ex-
ample, in ERI-01, the areas where the information was considered of
low confidence—low sensitivity and DOI index above 0.1–0.2
(Oldenburg and Li, 1999)—were located at the shallower electro-layer,
underneath the stream channel, and sharply affecting the hill sectors
(Fig. 7b and c). These anomalous areas are proposed to be delineating
fracture zones, where sharp contrast of resistivity is expected and
where smoothness inversion may yield such artifacts. These areas could
be related with (1) a fault of tectonic origin that governed the stream
course and (2) presumable deep-seated sliding surfaces affecting the
hill located at the northern margin of the stream. Other critical issue is
the rough topographic terrain curvature. Although topographic correc-
tion was incorporated into the inversion model, the final resistivity
image varies depending on how this correction is applied. Damped-

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 7

Fig. 6. Profile ERI02; layout matching the proposed alternative location for longitudinal axis of the tailings dam dike (Fig. 3a). (a) Photograph (June 2012) of the profile site, depicting pro-
liferation of flora due to the seepages, which occur several meters above the stream thalweg. (b) Inverted resistivity image with topographic correction. (c) Tentative geotechnical inter-
pretation of inverted resistivity image; and the inferred groundwater flow pattern. (1) Note the lack of any observable landslides that could affect the slopes on which the dam would
settle. Geo-mechanic contact. (2) Intrusive contact. (3) Sliding surface the slid mass comprises the weathering mantle, patterned in dark grey, and rocks, patterned in light gray). (4) Frac-
ture. (5) Tectonic fault. (6) Local flow. (7) Seepage–spring. The boreholes RCT1 and RCT3 are projected on the profile trace; their location is depicted in Fig. 4. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

mesh transformation usually yields more reliable results than the uni-
form shift of mesh nodes for rugged terrain. However, the thickness of
the layers near surface may be bulged where topography curves upward
and thinned where it curves downward (Loke, 2013). This weakness
penalizes the quantitative appraisal of geometries of shallowest layers,
although much less for the deeper ones.
On the other hand, even if ERI achieves a geophysical model of rea-
sonable quality, it must still be calibrated. Indeed, accurate calibration
is probably the most important issue for translating geophysical data
into reliable geological information and might be even more critical
for geotechnical projects. A geophysical model can be calibrated by
constraining with geomorphological information and borehole logs;
thus, any geological interpretation of the model must be robustly com-
patible with these other data sets. The calibration of resistivity images
circumvents the non-uniqueness problem and gives semi-quantitative
information on the geometry of the imaged targets.
After calibrating the geophysical model with the geomorphological
information, the irregularities in the electrical contacts between the
electro-layers pointed to a layered sequence of weathering horizons
developed over a granitic rock massif. The low-resistivity sheets are
interpreted as an arenaceous weathering mantle. The medium-
resistivity background is interpreted as comprising highly fractured
zones that affect the rock massif. The deeper high-resistivity area,
depicted in image ERI01, is interpreted as the fresh granitic bedrock.
Similar resistivity behavior has been reported in the literature
(e.g Beauvais et al., 2007; Dewandel et al., 2006; Roqué et al.,
2013). The high-resistivity body shown in ERI02 is interpreted as
a volcanic/subvolcanic dike. The anomalous resistivity areas in the resis-
tivity images are interpreted as fracture zones, which might be also sup-
ported by the depicted inversion artifacts. These features can occur in
areas with extremely resistivity contrast (e.g., faults or sliding surfaces)
and in which the smoothness inversion yields model deficiencies
(Fazzito et al., 2009; Suski et al., 2010; Zarroca et al., 2012, 2014). Lastly,
low-resistivity anomalies are interpreted as preferential pathways for
groundwater flow (e.g., Roqué et al., 2013; Zarroca et al., 2014).
The results obtained by the drilling program aided, a posteriori,
better calibrating of the geophysical data set. Overall, these results con-
firmed the preliminary findings arisen from the geophysical survey
(Figs. 4–6). The rock massif is covered by an arenaceous weathering
mantle (AWM) whose local thickness exceeds 25 m. As expected, the
thickness is highest at the hilltops. Underneath, the boreholes drilled in-
tensely fractured granodiorite (IFG). It should be noted that the drilling
results did not provide much additional information to those obtained
by the geophysical survey, aside geotechnical parameters that would
be sensitive to the subsequent phases of construction. However, there
seems to be some misfit between the thickness of the different
morpho-stratigraphic units in the resistivity images and in the core dril-
ling register. Although only boreholes RCT1 and RCT3 felt reasonably
close to ERI02 (Fig. 4), the thickness of the AWM reported by the core
drilling seems to be somewhat greater (ca. 10–20%) than was inferred
from the resistivity images. This circumstance does not invalidate the
ERI results but shows its weakness for accurate quantitative analysis
of geometrical features. The misfit may be due to different circum-
stances: (1) the modeled depths for successive depth levels arise from
supposed pseudodepths that are calculated according to a particular
measurement array but does not account for the different penetrating
depths of current signals due to differences in soil conductivity;
(2) the incorporating of the topography into the inversion model is car-
ried out by distorting the finite-element mesh according to an algo-
rithm, which yields results that may be more or less artificial. In the

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
8 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

Fig. 7. Quality assessment of the resistivity image ERI01. (a) Data misfit pseudosection depicting model residuals, defined as relative data error between the calculated and the measured
apparent resistivity records. (b) Relative sensitivity plot for the model based on the inverted resistivity image, iteration 5 computed by EarthImager 2D. (c) Depth of investigation (DOI
index) plot calculated over two inversions with different half-space reference models of ρ1 = 25 Ωm and ρ2 = 2500 Ωm.

case of the El Tablón survey, both circumstances must be taken into ac-
count. By one hand, the AWM is considered a low-resistivity body with-
in which signal current likely tends to reach penetration depths less
than assumed during the inversion process. Where a low-resistivity
layer overlies a high-resistivity layer, the signal current tends to remain
to some extend trapped within the overlain layer limiting the informa-
tion about the underlain one (Loke, 2013). On the other hand, the topo-
graphic curvature of the profiles reaches ca. 80% of their assumed
investigation depths. Although damped-mesh transformation was used
for the topographic correction, the geometries of the top layers may be
especially disturbed. Regarding the hydrogeological features, the hy-
draulic conductivity at the AWM averaged 4 × 10−5 ms−1, whereas
the Lugeon tests yielded values averaging 45 L (l min−1 m−1), at the
IFG horizon. According to Fell et al. (2005), these Lugeon values might
correspond to hydraulic conductivity of ca. 6 × 10−6 ms−1. These results
suggest that the AWM is a permeable terrain that allows infiltration of
the precipitation runoff. The IFG horizon also enables moderate-to-high
groundwater flow. However, during rain episodes, the lower hydraulic
conductivity of the IFG horizon—–which can exceed two orders of mag-
nitude—might favor sub-horizontal groundwater flow through the
AWM.
A hard-rock massif, subjected to deep and surficial weathering
processes, might lead to a layered morpho-hydrogeological system
(e.g., Borrelli et al., 2014; Dewandel et al., 2006). The subsoil features im-
aged by ERI enabled creation of a conceptual morpho-hydrogeological
model, encompassing the different stratigraphic units that could consti-
tute a layered weathered granitic massif in mountainous areas (Fig. 8).
The AWM could be developed, at a thickness of a few tens of meters,
over a fractured rock horizon. Fractured rocks might extend to a much
greater depth to reach the fresh-rock basement. Eroding processes regu-
larize the relief performing planation surfaces. The subsequent fluvial
erosion carves the hydrographic network, controlled by structural fea-
tures as well as by rock hardness. Another geomorphological agent is
groundwater flow, which can shape the slopes and valleys due to seep-
age erosion processes. The steeped slopes generated by hydric erosion
may be also affected by landslides. There are several factors that condi-
tion the geometry and dynamics of landslides. The most obvious are
the evolution of the thalweg encasement and the hydrological/
hydrogeological pattern. The extent of slope failure is governed by the
thickness of the weathering horizons. Shallow and rapid debris flows
are common in roughly steeped slopes with thinner weathered
horizons; whereas deeper-seated and slow-moving rotational slides

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx 9

Fig. 8. Conceptual geomorphological–hydrogeological model created by integrating the resistivity images and the geomorphological information. (1) Geo-mechanic contact. (2) Sliding
surface. (3) Tectonic fault. (4) Local flow. (5) Intermediate flow. (6) Groundwater table for the unconfined aquifer. (7) Seepage–spring.

appear to affect areas in which the thickness of the weathered horizon is
greater. Additionally, intrusive bodies such as volcanic/subvolcanic dikes
may also exert a morphologic control. Volcanic dikes usually exhibit
greater mechanical strength than does the host rock. This kind of struc-
ture could better support the relief, limiting the development of the
weathering horizon and the erosion process. The existence of a dike
structure, inferred from ERI02, would explain the abruptness and higher
elevations of the hills at the northern margin of the stream. The distribu-
tion of the different weathering horizons, the development of sliding
surfaces and the existence of intrusive bodies all rule the groundwater
flow pattern. This pattern encompasses: (1) local flows—unconfined
aquifers—through the AWM and through sliding surfaces of high hy-
draulic conductivity; (2) local and intermediate flows—semiconfined
aquifers—though the fractured rock horizon and through deep-seated
sliding surfaces; and (3) regional flows—aquifuges—within the fresh-
rock basement. Although tectonic faults also can constitute preferential
pathways for groundwater flow, depending on the hydraulic conductiv-
ity, the resistivity images do not confirm that feature of the local faults.
Among the ERI-imaged features (Figs. 5 and 6) considered in the
conceptual model (Fig. 8), those with the greatest influence on the tail-
ings dam project are as follows: (1) weathered and highly fractured
zones, due their low bearing capacity and high hydraulic conductivity;
(2) landslides that affect large volumes of rock mass; and (3) the
groundwater flow pattern. The shallowest low-resistivity areas,
depicted in the resistivity images, correspond to AWM. The vertical
anomalies, affecting low-resistivity and medium-resistivity areas, locat-
ed at the NE and SW sector of ERI01, suggest the existence of sliding sur-
faces seated at significant depths. These features are located in a high to
medium relative sensitivity areas (Fig. 8), and accordingly, the inferred
information seems to be reliable. Additionally, some identified scarps
affecting the slopes of ERI01 might be geomorphic indicators of large
landslides, which are widespread in the basin. They affect the most
weathered horizons and develop in those areas in which their thickness
is significant, such as the hills surveyed by ERI01. The sliding surfaces
usually develop in the contact area with the fractured rock horizon or
very close to it. The location of the landslides foot, arranged at staggered
heights, depends on the age and activity rate of the movement. This is
consistent with the occurrence of several engagement stages of the
hydrographic network. The different reactivation phases might corre-
late to the different stages of the fluvial downcutting.
Based on the aforementioned findings, the location initially planned
to construct the tailings dam—i.e., whose axis was over the trace of the
profile ERI01 (Figs. 3a and 4)—did not seem suitable for it. The hill
located at the N margin of Tablón Stream has been affected by a deep-
seated landslide that might be reactivated. Consequently, an alternative
site was proposed (profile ERI02) that appeared to be less susceptible to
such landslides (Figs. 3a and 4). It should be highlighted that this as-
sumption has been confirmed, with hindsight, during the execution of
the constructive phase. The earthworks carried out at the foot of such
hill triggered the reactivation of the old landslide in two main fronts
(L1 and L2 in Fig. 4), mobilizing up to 150,000–200,000 m3 of rock
mass. However, the earthworks on the foot of the hill located toward
western did not affect the slope stability, at least in the short term.
Installation of suitable instruments for monitoring potential landslide
activity may shed light on this regard.
The change in construction site would imply a loss in the possible
maximum height for the dam (40 m instead of 70 m). Nevertheless, a
40-m-high dam constructed upstream could achieve the same waste stor-
age as the originally planned project. The main water inputs are expected
to be the stream runoffs and the groundwater. The low-resistivity anom-
alies identified in the resistivity images and fieldwork suggest that the
groundwater flows through the surficial weathering sheet are recharging
the streams by seeps and springs located at several meters above their
thalwegs. Furthermore, these images suggest that groundwater also
flows within the slid masses, using the sliding fractures as preferential
pathways. This should be accounted for when designing and maintaining
the drainage system and also be subject of monitoring.
6. Conclusions
ERI has been employed to assess the suitability of a site chosen for
construction of a tailings dam in Zaruma-Portovelo Mining District, in El
Oro province, Ecuador. Integration of geomorphological, hydrogeological
and geophysical information allowed proposing a morpho-
hydrogeological model and identification of critical subsoil features that
might affect the planned dam. These features comprise weathered and
intensely fracture horizons affecting the rock massif, sliding surfaces
seated at significant depth affecting slopes and groundwater flows
through weathered horizons and sliding surfaces, which act as preferen-
tial pathways. The results indicate that the slopes in ERI01 area, the site
originally planned for the dam, are affected by complex landslides that
might be reactivated. Conversely, an alternative site, located only about
100 m downstream, does seem suitable for place the dam. The resistivity
images also revealed other geological features that strongly influence the
local landscape, such as a dike-like structure, presumably of volcanic ori-
gin, and a putative tectonic fault following the valley axis. Sampling and

Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022
10 M. Zarroca et al. / Journal of Applied Geophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
testing done during the subsequent drilling confirmed the geophysical
results, but did not provide any new significant information.
The findings reported here illustrate the utility of ERI for supporting
geological research, even for geotechnical purposes. This technique now
enables researchers to cover broad areas, gathering of large data sets
that encompass thousands of apparent resistivity records, at a reason-
able cost. The application of a rigorous inversion process to geophysical
data sets, according to QA/QC criteria and based on robust model cali-
bration, yields resistivity images that meet geotechnical requirements.
ERI survey may complement subsoil explorations without increasing
its budget and even reducing it, and instead, it may provide valuable in-
formation rarely achievable only through boreholes. Therefore, albeit
moderate resolution methods such as ERI cannot replace drilling pro-
grams in geological engineering projects, they aid to rationalize
drilling costs.
Acknowledgements
The authors are very grateful to the staff of the Instituto Nacional
Geológico y Minero Metalúrgico del Ecuador INIGEMM for their
assistance in the field work. This research was partially funded by the
Spanish national project CGL2010-16775 (Ministerio de Ciencia e
Innovación and FEDER) and CGL2013-40867-P (Ministerio de Economía
y Competitividad). We are very grateful to anonymous reviewers for
their constructive comments and suggestions.
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Please cite this article as: Zarroca, M., et al., Application of electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to a tailings dam project for artisanal and small-scale
gold mining in Zaruma-Portovelo, Ecuador, Journal of Applied Geophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jappgeo.2014.11.022