Epistemology — branch of philosophy that deals with what knowledge is, how we come to accept some

things as true, and how we justify that acceptance.

Empiricism — set of philosophical approaches to building knowledge that emphasizes the importance
of observableevidence from the natural world.

Induction — method of reasoning in which a generalization is argued to be true based on individual

examples that seem to fit with that generalization. For example, after observing that trees, bacteria, sea
anemones, fruit flies, and humans have cells, one might inductively infer that all organisms have cells.

Deduction — method of reasoning in which a conclusion is logically reached from premises. For example,
if we know the current relative positions of the moon, sun, and Earth, as well as exactly how these move
with respect to one another, we can deduce the date and location of the next solar eclipse.

Parsimony/Occam's razor — idea that, all other things being equal, we should prefer a simpler
explanation over a more complex one.

Demarcation problem — the problem of reliably distinguishing science from non-science. Modern
philosophers of science largely agree that there is no single, simple criterion that can be used to
demarcate the boundaries of science.

Falsification — the view, associated with philosopher Karl Popper, that evidence can only be used to rule
out ideas, not to support them. Popper proposed that scientific ideas can only
be tested through falsification, never through a search for supporting evidence.

Paradigm shifts and scientific revolutions — a view of science, associated with philosopher Thomas
Kuhn, which suggests that the history of science can be divided up into times of normal science (when
scientists add to, elaborate on, and work with a central, accepted scientific theory) and briefer periods of
revolutionary science. Kuhn asserted that during times of revolutionary science, anomalies refuting the
accepted theory have built up to such a point that the old theory is broken down and a new one is built
to take its place in a so-called "paradigm shift."
Who's who in the philosophy of science

If you're interested in learning more about the philosophy of science, you might want to begin your
investigation with some of the big names in the field:

Aristotle (384-322 BC) — Arguably the founder of both science and philosophy of science. He wrote
extensively about the topics we now call physics, astronomy, psychology, biology, and chemistry, as well
as logic, mathematics, and epistemology.

Francis Bacon (1561�1626) — Promoted a scientific method in which scientists gather many facts from
observations and experiments, and then make inductive inferences about patterns in nature.

Rene Descartes (1596�1650) — Mathematician, scientist, and philosopher who promoted a scientific
method that emphasized deduction from first principles. These ideas, as well as his mathematics,
influenced Newton and other figures of the Scientific Revolution.

Piere Duhem (1861�1916) — Physicist and philosopher who defended an extreme form of empiricism.
He argued that we cannot draw conclusions about the existence of unobservable entities conjectured by
our theories such as atoms and molecules.

Carl Hempel (1905-1997) — Developed influential theories of scientific explanation and theory
confirmation. He argued that a phenomenon is "explained" when we can see that it is the logical
consequence of a law of nature. He championed a hypothetico-deductive account of confirmation,
similar to the way we characterize "making a scientific argument" in this website.

Karl Popper (1924-1994) — Argued that falsifiability is both the hallmark of scientific theories and the
proper methodology for scientists to employ. He believed that scientists should always regard their
theories with a skeptical eye, seeking every opportunity to try to falsify them.

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) — Historian and philosopher who argued that the picture of science
developed by logical empiricists such as Popper didn't resemble the history of science. Kuhn famously
distinguished between normal science, where scientists solve puzzles within a particular framework or
paradigm, and revolutionary science, when the paradigm gets overturned.
Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994) — A rebel within the philosophy of science. He argued that there is no
scientific method or, in his words, "anything goes." Without regard to rational guidelines, scientists do
whatever they need to in order to come up with new ideas and persuade others to accept them.

Evelyn Fox Keller (1936-) — Physicist, historian, and one of the pioneers of feminist philosophy of
science, exemplified in her study of Barbara McClintock and the history of genetics in the 20th century.

Elliott Sober — Known for his work on parsimony and the conceptual foundations of evolutionary
biology. He is also an important contributor to the biological theory of group selection.

Nancy Cartwright (1944-) — Philosopher of physics known for her claim that the laws of physics "lie" —
i.e., that the laws of physics only apply in highly idealized circumstances. She has also worked on
causation, interpretations of probability and quantum mechanics, and the metaphysical foundations of
modern science.

Republic Act No. 1425

House Bill No. 5561

Senate Bill No. 438

An Act to Include in the Curricula of All Public and Private Schools, Colleges and Universities courses on
the Life Works and Writings of JOSE RIZAL, particularly his novels NOLI ME TANGERE and EL
FILIBUSTERISMO, Authorizing the Printing and Distribution Thereof, and for Other Purposes.

Whereas, today, more than other period of our history, there is a need for a re-dedication to the ideals of
freedom and nationalism for which our heroes lived and died.

Whereas, it is meet that in honoring them, particularly the national hero and patriot, Jose Rizal, we
remember with special fondness and devotion their lives and works that have shaped the national
character;
Whereas, the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal particularly his novels Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo, are a constant and inspiring source of patriotism with which the minds of the youth,
especially during their formative and decisive years in school, should be suffused.

Whereas, all educational institutions are under the supervision of, and subject to regulation by the State,
and all schools are enjoined to develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and to
teach the duties of citizenship; Now therefore,

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled

SEC.1

Courses on the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal, particularly his novels Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo, shall be included in the curricula of all schools, colleges and universities, public or private;
Provided, That in the collegiate courses, the original or unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere
and El Filibusterismo or their English translations shall be used as basic texts.

The Board of National Education is hereby authorized and directed to adopt forthwith measures to
implement and carry out the provisions of this Section, including the writing and printing of appropriate
primers, readers and textbooks. The Board shall, within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this Act
promulgate rules and regulations, including those of a disciplinary nature, to carry out and enforce the
regulations of this Act. The Board shall promulgate rules and regulations providing for the exemption of
students for reason of religious belief stated in a sworn written statement, from the requirement of the
provision contained in the second part of the first paragraph of this section; but not from taking the
course provided for in the first part of said paragraph. Said rules and regulations shall take effect thirty
(30) days after their publication in the Official Gazette.

SEC.2

It shall be obligatory on all schools, colleges and universities to keep in their libraries an adequate
number of copies of the original and expurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, as
well as Rizal’s other works and biography. The said unexpurgated editions of the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo or their translations in English as well as other writings of Rizal shall be included in the list
of approved books for required reading in all public or private schools, colleges and universities.
The Board of National Education shall determine the adequacy of the number of books, depending upon
the enrollment of the school, college or university.

SEC.3

The Board of National education shall cause the translation of the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo,
as well as other writings of Jose Rizal into English, Tagalog and the principal Philippine dialects; cause
them to be printed in cheap, popular editions; and cause them to be distributed, free of charge, to
persons desiring to read them, through the Purok organizations and the Barrio Councils throughout the
country.

SEC.4

Nothing in this Act shall be construed as amending or repealing section nine hundred twenty-seven of
the Administrative Code, prohibiting the discussion of religious doctrines by public school teachers and
other persons engaged in any public school.

SEC.5

The sum of three hundred thousand pesos is hereby authorized to be appropriated out of any fund not
otherwise appropriated in the National Treasury to carry out the purposes of this Act.

SEC.6

This Act shall take effect upon its approval.