B.

- THERMAL DESIGN AND RATING OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger typically includes the determination of heat transfer
area, number of tubes, tube length and diameter, tube layout, number of shell and tube passes, type of
heat exchanger (fixed tube sheet, removable tube bundle etc.), tube pitch, number of baffles, its type and
size, shell and tube side pressure drop. The optimum thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger
involves the consideration of many interacting design parameters which can be summarized as follows:
- PROCESS
1. Process fluid assignments to shell side or tube side.
2. Selection of stream temperature specifications.
3. Setting shell side and tube side pressure drop design limits.
4. Setting shell side and tube side velocity limits.
5. Selection of heat transfer models and fouling coefficients for shell side and tube side.
- MECHANICAL
1. Selection of heat exchanger layout and number of passes.
2. Specification of tube parameters - size, layout, pitch and material.
3. Setting upper and lower design limits on tube length.
4. Specification of shell side parameters – materials, baffles cut, and baffles spacing

BASIC THEORY
The heat-transfer rate between a hot and a cold fluid can be written as:
Q = U.A.ΔTLMTD = mh .cph (Thi − Tho) = mc. cpc (Tco − Tci ) (1)
Q = Ch (Thi − Tho) = Cc (Tco − Tci)
Where: - Q = heat transferred per unit time (J/s)
U = the overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2oC) (is assumed to be constant over the whole surface
area of the heat exchanger)
A = heat-transfer area (m2)
ΔTLMTD = log mean temperature difference (LMTD) (oC)
cph = hot fluid specific heat (J/kgºk)
cpc = cold fluid specific heat (J/kgºk)
Ch = mhCph = hot fluid heat capacity rate (W/ok)
Cc = mcCpc = cold fluid heat capacity rate (W/ok)
mh = hot fluid mass flow rate (kg/s)
mc = cold fluid mass flow rate (kg/s)
Thi = hot fluid inlet temperature (oC)
Tho = hot fluid outlet temperature (oC)
Tci = cold fluid inlet temperature (oC)
Tco = cold fluid outlet temperature (oC)
ΔTLMTD = (ΔT1 –ΔT2)/ln (ΔT1/ΔT2) (2)
Where ΔT1 and ΔT2 are temperature differences between two fluids at each end of a Counter-flow or
parallel-flow exchanger.
For a counter flow exchanger, ΔT1 = Thi - Tco and ΔT2 = Tho - Tci
For a parallel-flow exchanger, ΔT1= Thi – Tci and ΔT2 = Tho - Tco
 ΔT1
ΔT2

ΔT1

ΔT2

The total thermal resistance to heat transfer between fluid streams in the heat exchanger =1/UA =ΣR
(oC/W)
Q = ΔTLMTD / ΣR (3)
Consider the simple case of heat transfer inside a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, where a hot fluid at Th
is flowing inside a steel tube with inside diameter,Di and outside diameter Do. The cold fluid at Tc is
flowing in the shell side over the steel tube, where the convection heat-transfer coefficient between the
cold fluid and the exterior of steel tube is ho. For this case, the total resistance to heat transfer can be
written as
ΣR = (1/ (hi.Ai) +Rfi /Ai+ ln(Do/Di )/2πk.L+ Rfo /Ao+1/(ho.Ao ) (4)
Where
L = the length of the heat exchanger,(m)
Ai =tube inner surface area (π.Di.L)
Ao = tube outer surface area (π.Do.L)
k = the thermal conductivity of steel tube,(W/moC)
hi and ho =convection heat-transfer coefficients of the inner/outer tube sides, (W/m2oC)
Rfi and Rfo = the fouling resistances on the inner/outer tube sides,(m2.oC/W)
- For thin tub, Ai=Ao=AS ,then, ln(Do/Di) = 0
1/U.AS =ΣR = 1/hi.AS + Rfi /AS+ Rfo /AS+1/ho.AS
1/U = 1/hi + Rfi + Rfo+1/ho (5)
Therefore, the numerical value of U will depend on the area selected; however, it is always true that Ui
.Ai = Uo .Ao. (6)
1/Uo.Ao =1/Ui.Ai = ΣR = (1/ (hi.Ai) +Rfi /Ai+ ln(Do/Di )/2πk.L+ Rfo /Ao+1/(ho.Ao)
1/Uo = (ro/ri ) (1/hi +Rfi )+ro [ln(Do/Di )/k]+(Rfo +1/ho) (7)

Example.1
Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo and ui based on the outer and the inner surface
respectively. Steel pipe (k=54 W/mok) with inner diameter of Di=2.5 cm and outer diameter of
Do=3.34cm for the following flow and fouling conditions:-
hi=1800W/m2ok ,ho=1250W/m2ok and Rfi=Rfo=0.00018m2k/W
Solution
Q =Uo.Ao.ΔT = Ui.Ai .ΔT = ΔT/Rtot
Uo.Ao = Ui.Ai = 1/Rtot
Uo / Ui =Di /Do
Equ.7
1/Uo= (3.34/2.5) (1/1800 +0.00018) +0.0167ln(3.34/2.5)/54 +0.00018+1/1250
Uo =487.26 W/m2.k
Ui= 651 W/m2.k
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Example.2
Engine oil is to be cooled from 80oC to 50oC by using single –pass, counter –flow-concentric heat
exchanger with cooling water available at 20oC, water flows inside a thin tube with an inner diameter of
2.5 cm at a rate of 0.08kg/s and oil flows through the annulus at a rate of 0.16 kg/s.The heat transfer
coefficients for the water side and oil side are 1000W/m2k and 80W/m2k.The fouling factors on the
water and oil sides are the same and equal to 0.00018m2ok/W.
Calculate the rate of heat flow,the outlet temperature of cooling water and the overall heat transfer
coefficient(take cpw=4180 j/kg.k and cpo =2090 j/kg.k)
Solution
Q = moil.cpo(Ti -To)oil = mw.cpw(To –Ti)water
= 0.16 x 2090(80-50) =10032 W
10032=0.08x4180(To -20)water
Towater =50oC
Thin tube
1/U = 1/hi + Rfi + Rfo+1/ho = (1/1000) + 0.00018+0.00018+ (1/80) = 0.01386
U= 72.15W/m2.k
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HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS AND HEAT CAPACITY RATE
The inlet temperature difference (ITD) is the difference between inlet temperatures of the hot and cold
fluids and is designated as ΔT max = Thi - Tci ,is also sometimes referred to as the temperature span or
temperature head in a heat exchanger.
The temperature ranges for hot and cold fluids in the exchangers are
ΔTh= Thi - Tho and ΔTc =Tco- Tci , respectively.
The temperature approach for exchangers with single-phase fluids is defined as the difference between
outlet fluid temperatures Tho- Tco
HEAT CAPACITY RATE
Q = mh.cph(Thi -Tho)= mc.cpc (Tco -Tci ) = Ch(Thi-Tho)= Cc (Tco-Tci ) (8)
Ch= mh.cph ,hot fluid heat capacity (W/oC)
Cc= mc.cpc ,cold fluid heat capacity (9)

HEAT CAPACITY RATE RATIO ( C*)

C* = Cmin / Cmax (10)
If,Ch <Cc , then C* = Ch/CC and if Ch > Cc , then C* =Cc /Ch
 HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS, ε
The heat-exchanger effectiveness, ε is defined as the ratio between the actual heat-transfer rate and the
maximum possible rate of heat that thermodynamically can be exchanged between the two fluid
streams.
To obtain the maximum heat-transfer rate, one can assume a counter-flow heat exchanger with infinite
surface area, where one fluid undergoes a temperature change equal to the maximum temperature-
difference available,
ΔTmax = Thi – Tci . (11)
The calculation of Qmax is based on the fluid having the smaller capacity rate,Cmin. Effectiveness, ε is a
measure of thermal performance of a heat exchanger. It is defined for a given heat exchanger of any
flow arrangement as a ratio of the actual heat transfer rate from the hot fluid to the cold fluid to the
maximum possible heat transfer rate
ε = (Q/Qmax ) (12)
Consider a counter-flow heat exchanger having infinite surface area
- Ch < Cc ,then (Thi -Tho) > (Tco -Tci)
Tho will approach Tci over the infinite length, and therefore, Tho = Tci
Qmax = Ch (Thi –Tci ) = Ch ΔTmax
- Ch > Cc ,then (Tco -Tci) > (Thi -Tho)
Tco will approach Thi over the infinite length, and therefore Tco= Thi
Qmax =Cc(Thi –Tci)= Cc ΔTmax
Then Qmax =Cmin (Thi –Tci) = Cmin. ΔTmax (13)
The actual rate of heat transfer, Q = ε. Cmin(Thi -Tci) (14)

NUMBER OF TRANSFER UNITS (,NTU)

The number of transfer units NTU is defined as a ratio of the overall thermal conductance to the
smaller heat capacity rate. NTU designates the non-dimensional heat transfer size or thermal size of
the exchanger, and therefore it is a design parameter.NTU is the ratio of the heat-transfer rate per
degree of mean temperature-difference between the fluids, to the heat-transfer rate per degree of
temperature change for the fluid of minimum heat-capacity rate.
NTU is a measure of the physical size of the heat exchanger: the larger the value of the NTU, the closer
the heat exchanger approaches its thermodynamic limit.
NTU = UA /Cmin (15)
Cmin represents the smaller of the two capacity rates Cc and Ch.
The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat
exchangers (especially counter current exchangers) when there is insufficient information to calculate
(LMTD).
CALCULATION OF HEAT EXCHANGER OUTLET TEMPERATURES
Heat-exchanger designers usually use the effectiveness-NTU (ε- NTU) methods for calculating the heat-
transfer rate between fluid streams
In this method, the capacity rates of both hot and cold fluids are used to analyze the heat-exchanger
performance.
ε = Q/Qmax =Cc(Tco -Tci)/Cmin(Thi -Tci) = Ch(Thi -Tho)/Cmin(Th i-Tci) (16)
To determine, ε, we need to determine C*and NTU .
(a)Counter flow Exchanger
εcf = [1 -e-NTU(1-C*)]/[1 - C* e-NTU(1-C*)] (17)
(b) Parallel flow Exchanger
εpf = [1 -e-NTU(1+C*)]/[1 + C*] (18)
The limiting cases of interest of Eq. (17) are C* = 0.

For the special case of C* = 0 (an evaporator or a condenser)

C* = 0, the temperature of the Cmax fluid remains constant throughout the exchanger, the exchanger
effectiveness, Eq. (17), (18), reduces to
ε =1 -e-NTU (19)
NTU= -ln (1- ε) (20)
Eq. (19), (20) are valid for all flow arrangements when C* = 0.
• For Counter flow Exchanger all 0 < C* < 1; the values of εcf, are shown in Fig. 1.
• For Parallel-flow exchanger all 0 < C* <1.0, the values of εpf are shown in Fig. 2.
• One-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, - tube passes, the value of ε is shown in Fig. 3.
• Two-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, tube passes, the value of ε is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 1.The effectiveness, εcf as a function of NTU and C*, Counter flow exchanger

Fig. 2. The effectiveness, εpf as a function of NTU and C*, Parallel-flow exchanger
 Fig. 3. One-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, … tube passes

Fig. 4. Two-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, … tube passes

The ΔTLMTD CORRECTION FACTOR (F)

The ΔTLMTD expression does not hold for more complex flow configurations such as cross flow or multi-
pass flows. F correction factor depends on the geometry of the heat exchanger and the inlet and outlet
temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams.
A correction factor is defined as
F= ΔTLMTD /ΔTmcf (21)
ΔTmcf is calculated for a counter-flow configuration.
F for common cross-flow and shell-and-tube heat exchanger configurations is given in the figure versus
two temperature ratios P and R defined as
R = the ratio of the capacity rates of the tube and shell streams
= (m.cp )tube /(m.cp)shell = ΔT (shell side)/ ΔT (tube side)
P = the temperature effectiveness of the cold stream
= ΔT(tube) / ΔTmax
Q = U.A.F. ΔTmc f (22)
F = 1 for a condenser or boiler
The ΔTLMTD correction factor, (F) for One-shell pass and 2, 4, 6, tube passes, and Two-shell pass and 2, 4,
6, tube passes, and cross flows are shown in Fig. 5
 Fig.5. ΔTLMTD correction factor,F

INFLUENCE OF FOULING ON THE THERMAL PERFORMANCE

The influence of fouling on exchanger heat transfer performance can be evaluated in terms of either
(1) Required increased surface area for the same Q and ΔTLMTD
(2) Required increased mean temperature difference for the same Q and A
(3) Reduced heat transfer rate for the same A and ΔTLMTD.
We now determine expressions for Af /Ac , ΔTm f /ΔTmc and Qf /Qc
1-In the first two cases, the heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger, Q under clean and fouled conditions
are the same. Hence,
Q = Uc.Ac. ΔTLMTD = Uf .Af . ΔTLMTD for constant ΔTLMTD
Rf =fouling factor or unit thermal resistance (fouling resistance),(m2k/W)
Rf = 1/Uf – 1/Uc
Therefore,
Af /Ac= Uc /Uf and 1/Uf =Rf +(1/Uc)
Then Af /Ac = Uc.Rf +1
2-When Q and A are the same and ΔTLMTD is different for clean and fouled exchangers, we have Q = Uc.Ac
.ΔTmc = Uf .Af .ΔTmf , for constant A
ΔTmf / ΔTmc = Uc /Uf = Uc.Rf +1
3-Finally, if one assumes that heat transfer area and mean temperature differences are fixed, heat
transfer rates for the same heat exchanger under fouled and clean conditions are given by Qf = Uf .A.ΔTm
and
Qc = Uc .A.ΔTm, respectively, then Qc / Qf = Uc.Rf +1
It is clear that fouling has a significant impact on the exchanger performance for high values of R f
and/or Uc.
The cleanliness factor CF is related to the fouling resistance Rf as:
CF = Uf /Uc = 1/(Rf.Uc+1))

Example
Determine how much will change the required heat transfer area of an exchanger under fouling
conditions if the fouling resistance changes from 10-4 m2 k/W to 10-3 m2 k/W. The heat transfer rate and
mean temperature difference remain the same and Uc= 1000W/m2 k. Consider no extended surface on
either fluid side of the exchanger.
Analysis:
The following data are given:
Uc = 1000 W/m2 k, Rf 1 = 10-4 m2k/W and Rf2= 10-3 m2k/W
Qc = Qf , ΔTmc=ΔTmf
The heat transfer rate and mean temperature differences in this exchanger under clean and fouled
conditions are the same.
Af /Ac = Uc.Rf + 1
Af1 /Ac = Uc.Rf1 +1 =1000x10-4 +1=1.1
And Af2 /Ac = Uc.Rf2 + 1=1000x10-3 +1=2
Then Af2 / Af1 = 2/1.1=1.82

WALL TEMPERATURE AT EACH ENDS OF THE HEAT EXCHANGER

Th

Rh
Tfh
Rfh
Tube outside fouling
Twh
Rw
Tube wall thickness
Twc Rfc
Tube inside fouling
Tfc
RC

Tc

q = ΔT/R = (Th-Tfh)/Rh= (Tfh –Twh)/Rfh = (Twh –Twc)/Rw= (Twc -Tfc)/Rfc = (Tfc -Tc)/Rc
Then, (Th-Twh)/(Rh+Rfh)=(Twc-Tc)/(Rfc+Rc)
If Rfh=Rfc =0
Then,(Th-Twh)/Rh=(Twc -Tc ) / Rc
When Rw is negligible, Twh = Twc = Tw
(Th-Tw)/Rh = (Tw -Tc ) / Rc
Tw = (Th.Rc+Tc.Rh)/(Rh+Rc)= (Th+ σ.Tc )/( σ +1) (23)
σ =Rh /Rc = The ratio of convection thermal resistances