Module 02: Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis, Part 2

1
 Lesson 8
Series Circuit Analysis with KVL

2
 Lesson 8: Series Circuit Analysis with KVL

The same rules of DC circuits apply for AC circuits, but with the additional detail to imaginary numbers. Let’s see the following
example:

Example 8a

a) Given

Consider the series circuit with all its information expressed in the time domain:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the current i(t).

c) Solution

Step 1: Find all the Impedances of the Circuit

ZR = 90Ω
ZL = j — 5000 — .032 = j160Ω
ZC = (- j / [5000 · .000005]) = - j40Ω

3
Step 2: Find the Equivalent Impedance and Current IF

Figure: J. Riollano

Therefore,

Zeq = 90 + j160 - j40 = (90 + j120)Ω

Also,

IF = (Vs / Zeq) = [(750∠300) / (90 + j120)] = (5.00∠-23.130) A.

Step 3: Express the Solution in the Time Domain

In the time domain the result is:

i(t) = 5 cos (5000 t - 23.130) A.

4
 Lesson 9
Series Resonance

5
 Lesson 9: Series Resonance

Going back to the previous we notice that:

Zeq = (90 + j120)Ω

It is originally conformed by three elements, but also could be formed by a 90Ω resistive impedance in series with a 120Ω
inductive reactance. Now consider evaluating the equivalent impedance with a new frequency:

ω = 2500 r/s.

Then,

ZR = 90Ω
ZL = j — 2500 — .032 = j80Ω
ZC = (- j / [2500 · .000005]) = - j80Ω

The new value becomes:

Zeq = (90 + j80 - j80) = 90Ω, A real number !!

The answer to this statement is that the circuit is in a condition called series resonance. Both capacitive and inductive
reactance behave differently at different frequencies:

For example;

If ω → 0, XL → 0, or a short circuit. If ω → ∞, XL → ∞, or an open circuit.

If ω → 0, XC → - ∞, or an open circuit. If ω → ∞, XC → - 0, or a short circuit.

6
It is clear that the behavior of XL and XC is complementary as frequency changes. The negative sign for XC enforces the fact
that when XC = - XL, the equivalent impedance is exclusively resistive. This is the characteristic of the series resonance. Let’s
find the resonant frequency by analysis:

Figure: J. Riollano

Zeq = R + j[ωL - (1/ωC)]

Let ω = ωo such that:

[(ωoL - (1/ωoC)] = 0.

Solving: ωo2 = (1/LC) → ωo = (1/√LC), which is the resonant frequency.

Note that for our example:

ωo = 1/√(.032)·(000005) = 2500 r/s.

Also notice that

ZL = j √(L/C) = j80Ω, ZC = - j √(L/C) = - j80Ω.

7
The direct effect of the negative sign in ZC, with respect to ZL is that voltages become cancelled. Therefore, at resonance, the
equivalent impedance is completely resistive.

8
 Lesson 10
Parallel Circuit Analysis with KCL

9
 Lesson 10: Parallel Circuit Analysis with KCL

The same rules of DC circuits apply for AC circuits, but with the additional detail to imaginary numbers. Special care is required
in the management of imaginary numbers. Let’s see the following example:

Example 10a

a) Given

Consider the parallel circuit with all its information expressed in the time domain:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the current v(t), and i(t).

c) Solution

Step 1: Find all the Impedances of the Circuit

ZL = j — 200000 — .00004 = j8Ω

ZC = (- j / [200000 · .000001]) = - j5Ω

10
Step 2: Find the Equivalent Admittance and Voltage VF

Figure: J. Riollano

Therefore,

Y1 = (1/10) = 0.1S,
Y2 = [1/(6+8j)] = [(6 - 8j)/100] = (0.06 - j0.08)S,
Y3 = [1/(-5j)] = j0.2S.

Therefore,

Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = (0.16 + j0.12)S.

Using Ohm’s Law:

VF = (I/Yeq) = (8∠00) / (0.16 + j0.12) = (8∠00) / (.2∠36.870),

VF = (40∠- 36.870).

Step 3: Find the Capacitor Current IF

The current through the capacitor is:

11
 IF = VF · YC = (40∠- 36.870) · (.2∠900) = (8∠53.130)A.

Also current division can be applied:

 8∠0 0 (j0.2 )
 Y3   

IF = IS ⋅   = =  8∠53.13 0  A.
 Y1 + Y2 + Y3  (0.16 + j0.12 )  

Step 4: Express the Solutions in the Time Domain

In the time domain the result for v(t) is:

v(t) = 40 cos (200000 t - 36.870) V.

In the time domain the result for i(t) is:

i(t) = 8 cos (200000 t + 53.130) A.

12
 Lesson 11
Parallel Resonance

13
 Lesson 11: Parallel Resonance

Consider the circuit:

Figure: J. Riollano

Yeq = G + j[ωC - (1/ωL)]

Let ω = ωo such that:

[(ωoC - (1/ωoL)] = 0.

Solving: ωo2 = (1/LC) → ωo = (1/√LC), which is the resonant frequency.

Let’s consider a parallel circuit composed the same elements of the series circuit of Topic 07. These are:

R = 90Ω, L = 32mH, C = 5µF.

The resonance frequency is the same:

ωo = 1/√(.032)·(000005) = 2500 r/s.

Also the admittances, are the reciprocals of the impedances:

14
 YL = - j √(C/L) = - j0.0125S, YC = j √(C/L) = j0.0125S.

The direct effect of the negative sign in YL, with respect to YC is that currents become cancelled. Therefore, at resonance, the
equivalent admittance is completely resistive, as a conductance. In reality the “imaginary current” confined between the two
reactive elements, as a “flywheel”. This current cannot be seen from the exterior terminals, unless resonance is broken. In this
case:

Yeq = (1/90)S.

15
 Lesson 12
Node-Voltage Method in AC Circuits

16
 Lesson 12: Node-Voltage Method in AC Circuits

The Node-Voltage Method for AC circuits provides the same a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as
the circuit variables, like in DC circuits.

Example 12a

a) Given

For the circuit:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the two node voltages of this circuit. Also find the values of the voltage VF and the current IF.

c) Solution

Step 1: Define the Node-Voltages

Information of IF and VF will not be included. Find the two node “live” voltages and the ground node of this circuit. These
voltages will be called node voltages V1 and V2, and will be measured with respect to the ground node, as seen:

17
 Figure: J. Riollano

Each voltage will represent a variable, therefore:

Number of Node Voltage Equations, or N = 2.

Step 2: Type of Circuit Equations (KCL or KVL)

Let’s count:

Number of Voltage Sources, or V = 1,

Number of Current Sources, or C = 1.

Summarized:

Number of KVL Equations, or V = 1,

Number of KCL Equations, or N - V = 2 - 1 = 1.

There will be one KCL equation, and one KVL equation.

Step 3: Direct Circuit Equations

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- Node 1 (KVL)

We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 1. As an exception, we assign the node between the voltage source
and resistor (only two wires). The sketch looks like:

Figure: J. Riollano

The voltage source will define the node voltage V1 as:

V1 = 5∠00.

This is already one of the solutions.

- Node 2 (KCL)

We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Node 2. Voltage V2 will be dominant. It will fix all currents going outside all
resistors in contact with it. The sketch looks like:

19
 Figure: J. Riollano

The KCL equation starts with currents from left to right of the dominant node, marked with a red square. The equation
becomes:

[(V2 - V1) / 10] + [V2 / 4j] + j2 = 0,

or,

[0.1 · (V2 - V1)] - [j0.25 · V2] + j2 = 0,

or,

- 0.1 · V1 + (0.1 - j0.25) · V2 = - j2.

Before leaving this step, multiply by 100. Then fix the equations for the next step:

Node 1 (KVL): 1 · V1 + 0 · V2 = 5,
Node 2 (KCL): - 10 · V1 + (10 - j25) · V2 = - j200.

Step 4: Solution

Substitute the KVL equation into the KCL equation, therefore:

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 - 10 · 5 + (10 - j25) · V2 = - j200.

Finally,

- j200 + 50 880 - j120 

V2 = VF = = =  7.65 ∠ - 7.77 0  V.
10 - j25 116  
Also,

V1 - V2 - 30 + j12 
IF = = =  .279∠158.20  A.
10 116  

21
 Lesson 13
Mesh-Current Method in AC Circuits

22
 Lesson 13: Mesh-Current Method in AC Circuits

The Mesh-Current Method for AC circuits provides the same a general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh currents as
the circuit variables, like in DC circuits.

Example 13a

a) Given

For the circuit:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the two mesh currents of this circuit. Also find the value of the current IF and the voltage VF.

c) Solution

Step 1: Define the Mesh-Currents

Define two clockwise currents that circulate thru each loop. These currents will be called mesh currents I1 and I2, as seen:

23
 Figure: J. Riollano

Each current will represent a variable, therefore:

Number of Mesh Current Equations, or M = 2.

Step 2: Type of Circuit Equations (KVL or KCL)

Let’s count:

Number of Current Sources, or C = 1,

Number of Voltage Sources, or V = 1.

Summarized:

Number of KCL Equations, or C = 1,

Number of KVL Equations, or M - C = 2 - 1 = 1.

There will be one KVL equation, and one KCL equation.

Step 3: Direct Circuit Equations

- Mesh 1 (KVL)

24
We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 1. Current I1 will be dominant. It will fix a “+” sign in all resistors along
the mesh. The voltage of each resistor in the KVL equation will be given by an Ohm’s Law equation. The sketch looks like:

Figure: J. Riollano

The KVL equation will start with a clockwise movement from left-to-right starting at the left bottom side of the circuit, marked
with a red “X”. The equation becomes:

- 5 + [10· I1] + [j4 · (I1 - I2)] = 0.

- Mesh 2 (KCL)

We represent the circuit from the point-of-view of Mesh 2. The sketch looks like:

Figure: J. Riollano

The current source will define the mesh current I2 as:

25
 I2 = j2.

This is already one of the solutions. Before leaving this step, we fix the equations for the next step:

Mesh 1 (KVL): (10 + j4) · I1 - j4 · I2 = 5,

Mesh 2 (KCL): 0 · I1 + 1 · I2 = j2.

Step 4: Solution

Substitute the KCL equation into the KVL equation, therefore:

(10 + j4) · I1 - j4 · j2 = 5,

or,

-3 - 30 + j12 
I1 = = =  .279 ∠158.2 0  A.
10 + j4 116  

also,

880 - j120 
V = (I1 - I2) ⋅ j4 = =  7.65∠ - 7.770  V.
116  

The values of IF and VF are the same ones obtained in Example 55a, but using the Node-Voltage method.

26
 Lesson 14
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent AC Circuits

27
 Lesson 14: Thevenin and Norton Equivalent AC Circuits

The measurements required to obtain the Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits for AC circuits follows the same rules as
those applied for DC circuits. We will discuss an example involving source transformation. The case involving the
measurements of Voc and Isc will be left as an exercise.

Example 14a

a) Given

Consider the circuit below:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits seen from terminals “a” and “b”:

c) Solution

1) The first step will be to make a transformation of the circuit of the extreme left side from one with voltage source to one with
current source:

28
 Figure: J. Riollano

Now change the circuit from a Norton to a Thevenin Equivalent Circuit,

Figure: J. Riollano

and connect again to the original circuit:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) The second step will be to simplify the circuit consisting in two series voltage sources and two series impedances:

29
 Figure: J. Riollano

c) Then break the circuit at the left, find the Norton Equivalent Circuit,

Figure: J. Riollano

and connect again, leaving:

Figure: J. Riollano

Notice that,

30
 Z th =
(1 + j2 )(- j2.5 ) = 5 Ω. Notice the presence of a resonance.
(1 - j0.5)

Finally,
Isc =
(j5 ) = (2 + j) =  2.23 ∠ 26.57 0  A .
(1 + j2)  

d) The equivalent circuits are:

Figure: J. Riollano

31
 Lesson 15
Magnetically Coupled Circuits (Optional)

32
 Lesson 15: Magnetically Coupled Circuits (Optional)

Consider two coupled coils bounded by a ferromagnetic material:

Figure: J. Riollano

This material sustains within itself a magnetic flux described by the Faraday’s Law. The induced voltage in a coil is proportional
to the time rate of change of flux and the number of turns, N1, in the coil 1, and N2, in the coil 2. The mathematical description
is:

Coil 1: v1(t) = N1 dφ1/dt

Coil 2: v2(t) = N2 dφ2/dt

If there is coupling (which is true), we have to consider that the magnetic flux in coil 1 (φ1) is caused by the flux of coil 1 (φ11)
and coil 2 (φ12). The same thing happens with the magnetic flux in coil 2 (φ2) with respect to coil 1 (φ21) and coil 2 (φ22). The
equations are:

φ1 = φ11 + φ12
φ2 = φ21 + φ22

using Faraday’s Law therefore:

v1(t) = N1 (dφ11/dt + dφ12/dt)

33
 v2(t) = N2 (dφ21/dt + dφ22/dt)

from physics we have a relationship between each of the currents and the magnetic fluxes:

φ11 = N1i1P11
φ12 = N2i2P12
φ21 = N1i1P21
φ22 = N2i2P22

leading to:

v1(t) = N12P11 di1/dt + N1N2P12 di2/dt

to be called the primary terminal circuit, and:

v2(t) = N2N1P21 di1/dt + N22P22 di2/dt

to be called the secondary terminal circuit, where the P’s are constants (permeances) that depend on the magnetic paths taken
by the flux components. If the medium through which the magnetic flux passes is linear, then P12 = P21. The constants:

N12P11 = L11 = self-inductance of coil 1

N22P22 = L22 = self-inductance of coil 2
N1N2P12 = N2N1P21 = M = mutual inductance

34
Also:

L11 = L1 and L22 = L2

The inductance unit is the henry (H). We can set the equations as:

v1(t) = L1 di1/dt + M di2/dt

v2(t) = M di1/dt + L2 di2/dt

It is important to note that in the previous equation we consider each of the terminal voltages v1(t) and v2(t) both to have a
positive contribution due to coupling effects. The sign of M is positive. The illustration and circuit model follows:

Illustration Circuit Model

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

When the dots are in the upper position in the circuit model then the sign of M becomes positive. Notice that currents i1(t) and
i2(t) go inside the circuit. This situation will be treated in future examples. If the voltages v1(t) and v2(t) are described in terms of
a negative contribution due to coupling effects, then sign of M is negative, seen below:

35
 Illustration Circuit Model
Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

The equation model becomes:

v1(t) = L1 di1/dt - M di2/dt

v2(t) = - M di1/dt + L2 di2/dt

As can be seen, the dots are in opposite positions, represent the negative sign of M.

36
 Lesson 16
Coupled Coils in AC Circuit Analysis (Optional)

37
 Lesson 16: Coupled Coils in AC Circuit Analysis (Optional)

The voltage-current relationships for coupled inductors, when applied to AC circuit analysis will be given in the phasor domain.
It resembles a combination KVL and Ohm’s Law:

V1 = jωL1I1 ± jωMI2
V2 = ± jωMI1 + jωL2I2

the circuit models are:

Positive M Circuit Model Negative M Circuit Model

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

Both circuits can be adapted for doing circuit analysis a more systematic way, like for example, the application of the Mesh
Analysis method. These two models are:

Positive M Circuit Model Negative M Circuit Model

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

38
where:

I1’ = I1 and I2’ = - I2.

Example 16a

a) Given

Consider the circuit, where Vs(t) = 100 cos (200t) V:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the values if i1(t), i2(t) and v2(t).

c) Solution

Step # 1: Change to Phasor Domain

39
We will change the circuit to the phasor domain and use the equivalent network corresponding to the dots in the upper position.
It is left as an exercise to go thru the intermediate steps to get the following circuit:

Figure: J. Riollano

Step # 2: Apply Mesh Analysis

The process will be omitted. The results are:

I1’ = 10.8∠-77.50 A = - I1
I2’ = 4.9∠-14.00 A = I2
V2 = 49∠-14.00 V

Step # 3: Find Final Time Expressions

The final time expressions are:

i1(t) = 10.8 cos (200t - 77.50) A,

i2(t) = 4.9 cos (200t + 166.00) A,
v2(t) = 49 cos (200t - 14.00) V.

40
Example 16b

a) Given

Consider the circuit, where Vs(t) = 100 cos (200t) V:

Figure: J. Riollano

b) Determine

Find the values if i1(t), i2(t) and v2(t).

c) Solution

Notice that the dot in the secondary circuit is in the lower position, therefore the value of the mutual inductance M is negative. It
is left as an exercise to go thru the process to verify that the answers to this problem are:

i1(t) = 10.8 cos (200t - 77.50) A,

i2(t) = 4.9 cos (200t - 14.00) A,
v2(t) = 49 cos (200t + 166.00) V.

41
 Lesson 17
The Ideal Transformer (Optional)

42
 Lesson 17: The Ideal Transformer (Optional)

The total energy at any time stored in a magnetically coupled circuit is given by:

w(t) = ½L1[i1(t)]2 + ½L2[i2(t)]2 ± Mi1(t)i2(t),

or simplified:

w(t) = ½L1i12 + ½L2i22 ± Mi1i2.

The energy must be nonnegative. Add and subtract the term ½(M2/L2)i12 and rearrange the equation:

w(t) = ½(L1 - (M2/L2))i12 + ½L2(i2 + (M/L2)i1)2.

From this expression we recognize that the instantaneous energy stored will be nonnegative if:

M ≤ (L1L2)1/2.

This equation specifies the upper limit on the value of the mutual inductance. We then define the coefficient of coupling (k)
between the two inductors L1 and L2 as:

k = (M / (L1L2)1/2),

it has a constraint:

0 ≤ k ≤ 1.

Also, it has the following implications:

43
 k = 0 implies that coils are not coupled,
k < ½ implies coils are loosely coupled,
k > ½ implies coils are tightly coupled,
k = 1 implies that coils are fully coupled.

Notice that the value of the mutual inductance is confined to the range:

0 ≤ M ≤ (L1L2)1/2.

The upper limit is the geometric mean of the inductances L1 and L2. For the case when k = 1 the coupled inductor circuit
changes to an ideal transformer. From the previous discussion, there are certain particular characteristics of this network:

1. The coupling coefficient is unity (k = 1)

2. The self-inductance of each coil is infinite.
3. The coils losses, due to parasitic resistance, are negligible. There are no internal power losses (electrical and magnetic).

The circuit models representations for this network are described in terms of their dot positions. When the positive sign of the
coil voltages v1(t) and v2(t) coincides with terminal dots, all related equations will have a positive sign. If the dots are in opposite
directions, the equations will have a negative sign. The networks are:

Positive Reference Negative Reference

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

44
The circuit model looks like:

Positive Reference Negative Reference

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

N1 and N2 represent the coil turns. Note that the current at the secondary terminal goes outside the coil. This makes possible
to the equations to have the same sign (either positive or negative). Now consider the circuit with “positive reference”. Note
that because the magnetic flux is perfectly contained within each of the coils we can say that:

φ1 = φ2 = φ

From the Faraday’s Law:

v1 = N1(dφ/dt) and v2 = N2(dφ/dt),

which gives:

(v2/v1) = (N2/N1).

For the current relationship use the Ampere’s Law:

45
 ∫ H ⋅dl = N i - N i = 0,
11 22

where H is the magnetic field intensity and the integral is over the path traveled by the flux around the transformer core. For the
ideal core material, its permeability (µ) is infinite. This leads us to the relation:

(i1/i2) = (N2/N1).

The relations for the circuit with “negative reference” are:

(v1/v2) = - (N1/N2) and (i1/i2) = - (N2/N1).

Consider now that these networks are used in AC circuits. Both voltages and currents can be expressed as phasors and the
circuit elements as impedances. We then show two circuit models with a load in the secondary terminal for analysis purposes.
These are:

Positive Reference Negative Reference

Figure: J. Riollano Figure: J. Riollano

For the circuit with “positive reference” both relations hold:

(V2/V1) = (N2/N1) and (I2/I1) = (N1/N2).

46
For the circuit with “negative reference” both relations hold:

(V2/V1) = - (N2/N1) and (I2/I1) = - (N1/N2).

We can find the relationship (V1/I1) = Zin. This impedance, seen thru the primary circuit terminals, can be expressed in terms of
the value of the impedance seen thru the secondary circuit terminals. It is left as an exercise to show that the value becomes:

Zin = (N2/N1)2ZL,

which is not dependent upon the dot positions. The next example will bring light about how to measure the input impedance.

Example 17a

a) Given

Consider the ideal transformer circuit:

47
 Vs = 100∠00V, ZL = (50 + j37.5)Ω

b) Determine

1) The value of Zin

2) The value of I1
3) The value of I2
4) The value of IL
5) The value of V2
6) The value of VL

c) Solution

Step 1: First we find the value of Zin:

Zin = (1/5)2 (2/1)2 ZL = (8 + j6)Ω,

Step 2: We find the value of I1:

I1 = (V1 / Zin) = (10∠- 36.870) A,

Step 3: We find the value of I2:

I2 = I1 (1/5) = (2∠- 36.870) A,

Step 4: We find the value of IL:

IL = - I2 (2/1) = (4∠143.130) A,

48
Step 5: We find the value of V2:

V2 = Vs (5/1) = (500∠00) V,

Step 6: We find the value of VL:

VL = - V2 (1/2) = (250∠1800) V,

Verifying the value of VL:

VL = ZLIL = (4∠143.130) · (50 + j37.5) = (4∠143.130) · (62.5∠36.870) = (250∠1800) V.

49
Problem Solving Workshop 02 Practice

50
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Problem # 8 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the electrical networks:

Find their resonant frequencies.

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Problem # 9 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the electric power circuit:

Determine:

a) The frequency-domain (phasor-domain) equivalent circuit.

b) The equivalent impedance seen by the source.
c) The value of the inductor current “i” and the voltage “v” in the phasor-domain.

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Problem # 10 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the circuit:

If Vs = (141.4 ∡ 45º) V, find Zeq, I, Ix, and Vab as complex number values.

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Problem # 11 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the circuit:

Use KVL, KCL and Ohm’s Law to find Z and Io.

Solution: Z = (1.48 + 1.23j) Ω, Io = (17.89 ∡ 26.57º) A

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Problem # 12 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the circuit:

If Ix(t) = 2 cos (16t + 30º) Amps, find I(t), Vab(t) and Vs(t).
Also find the value of Zeq as a complex number value.

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Problem # 13 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

For the circuit:

Find Vo by using the Mesh-Current Analysis.

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Problem # 14 (Problem Solving Workshop 02)

Repeat the Problem # 13 but now using the Node-Voltage Analysis.

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