Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

AicE-Bs 2012 Cairo

ASIA Pacific International Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies
Mercure Le Sphinx Cairo Hotel, Giza, Egypt, 31 October 2 November 2012
-Cultural and

Lean Construction: Towards enhancing sustainable

construction in Malaysia
Mohd Arif Marhani*, Aini Jaapar, Nor Azmi Ahmad Bari
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam 40450, Malaysia

Abstract

Lean Construction (LC) is aimed at reducing waste, increasing productivity and health and safety in fulfilling the
of the construction industry. This paper provided the fundamental knowledge of LC and
highlighted its implementation in the construction industry. It was discovered that the knowledge of stakeholders are
reasonably significant as the principles of LC is widely implemented in the work field. However, the stakeholders are
indifferent in their understanding on the basic terminologies of LC hence unable to reap its full potential. It was
proven that by implementing LC, the construction industry benefits by maximising value and improved sustainability.

©
© 2012
2012 The Authors.
Published byPublished by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd. Open
Ltd.and
Selection access under
peer-review CC BY-NC-ND
under license.
responsibility of the Centre for Environment-
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies (cE-Bs),
Behaviour Studies (cE-Bs), Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA,Faculty of
Malaysia.
Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
Keywords: Lean construction; health and safety; sustainable construction; Malaysian construction industry

1. Introduction

Egan (1998) proposed the United Kingdom construction industry to improve its capabilities and
efficiency in modernising the industry and increasing user satisfaction. As a result of the statement, LC
is a way forward to design production systems in minimising waste of materials, time and effort which
leads to possible generation of maximum amount of value. Koskela and Howell (2002), insisted that the
various parties involved in the industry such as the construction firms, non-profit organisations, and
overseeing administrative bodies to have greater efforts towards sustainability and greener environment
for better sustainable construction leading to the better future of the country.The Construction Industry
Master Plan 2006-2015 (CIMP, 2006) highlighted one of the challenges facing by the Malaysian

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +6-03-55444376; fax: +6-03-55444353.
E-mail address: arif2713@salam.uitm.edu.my.

1877-0428 © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies (cE-Bs), Faculty of Architecture,
Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.12.209
88 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

construction industry is the availability of cheap foreign labour which encourages labour intensive
construction methods over the use of more innovative methods. This hampers
increase productivity and quality in the long run. Accordingly, the CIMP has recommended the industry
to extend the use of modern construction methods and information technology. Specifically, the use of
Industialised Building System (IBS) related systems may help to ease the pressures of labour
requirements whilst boosting quality and productivity. The wider adoption of IBS is also encouraged as a
means to overcome environmental issues associated with conventional methods.
From the reviews of the literatures, LC is able to overcome the challenges highlighted previously.
Womack and Jones (1996) suggested that lean production is able to reduce the overall cost especially the
indirect cost while still maintaining the quality standards and reducing manufacturing cycle time. Ballard
and Howell (1998) added that LC is different from other construction management due to its clear set of
objectives. Its aimed for the delivery process, concurrent product design and process, and production
control throughout the life of the project. Black (2008) stated that LC extends from the objectives of a
lean production system, which are maximising value and minimising waste; to specific techniques and
applies them in a new project delivery process.
Having said that, Lim (2008) concluded that the Malaysian construction level of
knowledge on LC were high. However, they are unable to fully understand the terminology of LC even
though its principles is applied in their work field. This scenario was proven from the preliminary
investigation done earlier on tw sation. LC principles are claimed being applied in the
construction process, yet the technical methodology of LC was not fully utilised in the production
process. The main objective of this paper is to provide a basis of fundamental knowledge and
understanding on LC for Malaysia construction stakeholders. An extensive literature review was
conducted in order to achieve the objectives of this paper. This paper is also aimed at highlighting on how
to incorporate the LC concept in the construction industry to promote sustainable construction.

2. The Historical of Lean Construction

Basically, LC is a big scale of adaptation from the Japanese manufacturing principles and the concept
is implemented to the construction process (Bertelsen, 2004). Cullen et al. (2005) stated that the
principles of LC, which arose from adapting the concepts of lean production had been developed by

leadership of Taiichi Ohno. Starting from efforts to reduce machine set up time and influenced by total
quality management, he developed a simple set of objectives for the design of the production system,
which is to produce a car to the requirements of a specific customer, deliver it instantly, and maintain no
inventories or intermediate stores (Lim, 2008). Lean production methods have been applied in the
Japanese car industry as a key to success from
According to Murman et al. (2002), lean production or manufacturing concept comprises a variety of
production systems that share certain principles, including waste minimisation, responsiveness to change,
just-in-time, effective relationships within the value stream, continuous improvement, and quality from
the beginning. This concept continues to evolve but the basic outline is clear, which designs a production
system that will deliver a custom product instantly in order but maintain no intermediate inventories
(Howell, 1999).
 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98 89

3. The Evolution of Lean Construction

3.1. Global evolution

LC has been introduced as a new management approach to the construction industry by Koskela and
Howell (2002). It is hoped the successful adaptation of this concept will not only be beneficial to the
clients but also to the communities and environment itself. According to Howell (1999), there were many
barriers in implementing lean concepts in the construction fields. This point of view is affirmed by
Senaratne and Wijesiri (2008), which stated that if a company successfully implements the concept of LC,
it would be able to gain significant cost advantage by eliminating cost-consuming flow activities and
become a cost leader.
Furthermore, based on Johansen and Walter (2007), construction industries all over the world such as
Australia, Brazil, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, Peru, Singapore, United Kingdom, United States of
America and Venezuela have implemented the lean concepts within the industry and have reaped its
benefits. Moreover, according to Salem et al. (2005) the LC approach is different from the normal
practices as LC is based on production management principles and it gained better results in complex,
uncertain and quick projects. In addition, Jorgensen and Emmitt (2008) said common elements as
tself have expressively shown focus on specific aspects which are
proven to be capable of bringing benefits.

3.2. The current evolution of lean construction in Malaysia

needs
without compromising the opportunity and ability for future generation needs (WCED, 1987). In
materialising this effort, the construction industry is urged to move from traditional, labour consuming,
energy inefficient and waste generated method of construction to more environmentally friendly, energy
efficient and less waste generation of the construction environment. Pratt (2000) stated that Malaysian
projects in the last decade, especially the magnificent monuments were not cost and function effective.
On certain construction projects, the budgets were overstepped, longer construction period and quality of
the end products were poor (Ibrahim et al., 2010). Furthermore, due to health and safety issues, according
to the statistics reported by the Social Security Organisation (SOCSO) the numbers of fatality cases in the
construction industry are among the highest in the 10 categorised industries in Malaysia (SOCSO 2004).
The fatality rate of cases in the Malaysia construction industry was more than 3 times of other workplace
with 3.3% as compared to 1.1% for other workplaces such as manufacturing and mining and quarrying
(SOCSO, 2000).
In Malaysia other than Lim (2008), among other pioneer researches on LC was conducted by Abdullah
et al. (2009). The study concluded that the application of LC is limited due to the nature of the
construction industry, which is very unique, high risks and one-off. Lim (2008) added earlier that its
knowledge has been widely accepted by the stakeholders. From the literature research, it was indicated
that there is a need for more holistic approaches such as incorporating the other important aspects to the
LC key concepts towards sustainable and better future environment. According to Bashir et al. (2011),
health and safety has been considered in the implementation of lean principles. Through proper health and
safety assessment implemented on construction project, it will assist a construction company in dealing
and assuring their health and safety risks and improving their performance e.g. Occupational Health and
Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS) 18001. By implementing OHSAS 18001, which is for health and
safety management systems, it will provide improvement in worker safety consciousness and morale,
90 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

reductions in accidents, claims and lost work days, and better prepare for regulatory inspections (National
Quality Assurance USA, 2012).

4. Definitions and Concept of Lean Construction

4.1. The Definitions

From the literature reviews conducted, many definitions of LC have been discovered indicating the
positive evolution of lean methodology as well as its diversity. The definitions stated below would best
describe the methodology and application of LC:-
Koskela (1992)
Advantages of the new production philosophy in terms of productivity, quality, and indicators were
solid enough in practice in order to enhance the rapid diffusion of the new principles
Howell (1999)
Lean construction is much like the current practice as the goal of better meeting customer needs while
using less of everything
Lukowski (2010)
Lean construction is the practical application of lean manufacturing principles, or lean thinking, to the
building environment
Yahya and Mohamad (2011)
Lean construction is about managing and improving the construction process to profitability deliver
what the customer needs by eliminating waste in the construction flow by using the right principle,
resources and measure to deliver things right first time
The first definition can be considered a concise definition of LC which acknowledges the key
essentials of LC. The second and third definition by Howell (1999) and Lukowski (2010) reflected the
first definition, as well as it provides a linkage between them. The fourth definition by Malaysian
researchers (Yahya and Mohamad, 2011) emphasised on the key features of LC which is eliminating
construction waste. The evolution of the LC definitions is elaborated further by the Lean Construction
is a production management-based approach to project delivery - a new
way to design and build capital facilities. Lean production management has caused a revolution in
manufacturing design, supply and assembly. LC extends from the objectives of a lean production system -
maximise value and minimise waste - to specific techniques and applies them in a new project delivery
A
in Malaysia would be:
LC is a concurrent and continuous improvement to the construction project by reducing waste of
resources and at the same time able to increase productivity and secure a better health and safety

greener environment.

4.2. The concept of lean construction

The core concept behind lean production is to enable the flow of value creating work steps while
eliminating non-value steps e.g. waste by focusing on fast cycle times. When waste is removed from the
production process, cycle times drop until physical limits are reached. Value-adding activities are
however, first improved through internal continuous improvement and fine-tuning of existing machinery.
Only after these improvement potentials are realised, major involvements in new technology are
 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98 91

Japanese term for the activity that is to avoid waste of time, money, equipment etc. (Shingo, 1992).
LC accepts Ohno's production system design criteria (Cullen et al., 2005) as a standard of perfection
(Howell, 1999). Waste is defined by the performance criteria for the production system and failure to
oskela,
1992). Waste in construction and manufacturing arises from the same activity centered thinking.
However, Howell (1999), argues that there is a need to maintain pressure on every activity to ensure
continuous improvement through the reduction of cost and duration of each activity. Lean theory,
principles and techniques, taken together, provide the foundation for a new form of project management.
LC recommends the simultaneous consideration of product and process development. According to
Howell (1999), managing construction under lean is different from typical contemporary practice because
it has a clear set of objectives in the delivery process, which is aimed at maximising the performance for
the end user at the project level. By implementing the lean concept, production control should be done
throughout the life of the project.
Walter and Johansen (2007) described the application of the lean concept in the construction industry
was still restricted and sluggish. In addition, many ideas from manufacturing have been rejected by the
stakeholders because of the belief that both industries were not alike (Howell, 1999). The uniqueness of
the construction project with deficiency of repetition and doubt in the environment (Koskela, 1992) under
great time and schedule pressure was fundamentally in contrast to manufacturing industry (Ballard and
Howell, 1998).
From the discussion, the authors highly suggested LC concept to be applied extensively in order to
manage and enhance the process of construction not only to cater with the client s need but beneficial to
the environment and communities. This is in accordance to Howell (1999), which emphasised continuous
improvement should be carried concurrently in the construction process and the participation of all
stakeholders will influence whether a construction project is successful or not in implementing the
concept.

5. The Lean Construction Principles

From the literature research, in order to implement the LC, Koskela (1992) identified eleven LC
principles to be implemented to the total flow process and its sub process in the construction industry (see
Table 1). The principles are to reduce the share of non value-adding activities, increase output value
through systematic consideration of customer requirements, reduce variability, reduce cycle time,
minimise the number of steps, parts and linkages, increase output flexibility, increase process
transparency, focus control on the complete process, build continuous improvement into the process,
balance flow improvement with conversion improvement and benchmarking.
On the other hand, Womack and Jones (1996) discovered there were five principles of lean
construction, which are specify
value-creating flow, achieving customer pull at the right time and pursue perfection for continuous
improvement. In addition, Lim (2008), Lean Enterprise Institute (2009) and Bashir et al. (2011) have the
same point of view with Womack and Jones, but Lean Enterprise Institute used different keywords:
(see Fig. 1).
Meanwhile, Cain (2004) described six principles of construction best practice on LC (see Table 2).
The principles are delighted end users, end users benefitting from the lowest optimum cost of ownership,
elimination of inefficiency and waste in the use of labour and materials, the involvement of specialist
suppliers to achieve integration and buildability, a single point of contact for the most effective co-
ordination and clarity of responsibility and establishment of current performance and improvement
92 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

achievements by measurement. On the other hand, Salem and Zimmer (2005) suggested the five lean
principles that applicable in the construction industry are customer focus, culture/people, workplaces
standardisation, waste elimination and continuous improvement/built-in quality.

Table 1. Lean construction principles

Authors LC Principles
Koskela (1992) Reduce non value-adding activities
Increase output value
Reduce variability
Reduce cycle time
Minimise the number of steps, parts and linkages
Increase output flexibility
Increase process transparency
Focus control on the complete process
Build continuous improvement into the process
Balance flow improvement with conversion improvement
Benchmarking
Womack and Specify value
Jones (1996),
Identify the value stream
Lim (2008) and
Bashir et al. Flow
(2011) Pull
Pursue perfection
Lean Enterprise Identify value
Institute (2009) Map the value stream
Create flow
Establish pull
Seek perfection

Table 2. Lean construction principles in construction

Authors LC Principles in Construction

Cain (2004) 1. Delighted end users
2. End users benefitting from the lowest optimum cost
3. Elimination of inefficiency and waste
4. The involvement of suppliers to achieve integration and buildability
5. A single point of contact for the most effective coordination and clarity of
responsibility
6. Establishment of current performance and improvement achievements by
measurement
Salem and 1. Customer focus
Zimmer (2005) 2. Culture/people
3. Workplaces standardisation
4. Waste elimination
5. Continuous improvement/built-in quality
 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98 93

1. Identify value
2. Map the value stream

5. Seek perfection 3. Create flow

4. Establish

Fig. 1. Lean construction principles. source: lean enterprise institute (2009)

From the discussion, the authors agree with Womack and Jones (1996), Lim (2008), Lean Enterprise
Institute (2009) and Bashir et al. (2011) on the five principles of LC but believe that LC as stated by
Koskela (1992) should be focused on value rather than on cost only and as well as seeks to remove all
non-value adding components and processes. Lean principles can only be applied fully and effectively in
the construction industry by focusing on improving the whole process, integration among the stakeholders
of a project and increase transparency especially on health and safety issues. With continuous
improvement (Japanese: Kaizen) done and with waste eliminated along the flow process, perfection is the
ultimate sweet reward that companies can achieve (Womack and Jones, 1996).

6. Incorporating Lean Construction in Construction Process

It is important for the stakeholders to incorporate LC in the construction process. Koskela (1992)
expressed lots of benefits when implementing LC in construction projects. The greater benefit is
construction companies can reduce the construction cost by using precise materials and fewer waste. In
addition, by having a proper strategic planning, the construction period will be shortened. There were
many of key concepts of LC that can be implemented by the stakeholders. Alinaitwe (2009) described the
concepts included Just-In-Time (JIT), Total Quality Management (TQM), Business Process Re-
engineering (BPR), Concurrent Engineering (CE) and Last Planner System (LPS); Teamwork and Value
Based Management (VBM) (Harris and McCaffer, 1997); and OHSAS 18001. The authors believe that
most of these concepts are interconnected and it is important to understand all the key concepts of LC,
which may improve performance while minimising construction waste. (see Table 3)
The authors suggest OHSAS 18001 as one of the key concept of LC that can be implemented in the
construction process. OHSAS 18001 is a series of Occupation Health and Safety Assessment Series for
health and safety management systems, which is intended to help a construction company to manage their
occupational health and safety risks (OHSAS 18001, 2012). Although OHSAS 18001 is not a legal
requirement, it is proven and internationally recognised. In addition, OHSAS 18001 is a combination of
the management organisational systems that can improve health and safety performance by having
planning and review, the consultative arrangements and the specific program elements (Biggs et al.,
2005).
94 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

Table 3. Key concepts of lean construction

Key concepts Essential Factors Authors

Just-In-Time Three methods linked with JIT: optimise inventories according to backward Salem et al.
(JIT) requests (Japanese: Kanban), construction leveling and decreasing the (2006)
number of setup activities.

Related to the waste concept. Koskela (1992)

Continuous improvement of procedures, equipment and processes in order
to eliminate waste.
Total Quality As an integrated management thinking and actions encouraged an Small et al. (2011)
Management organisation-wide focus on quality.
(TQM)
An George and Jones
quality of goods and services. (2008)
Effective organisations needed an accurate understanding of customers' Summers (2005)
expectation.
Business Improvement through rapid and substantial gains in organisational Small et al. (2011)
Process Re- performance by starting from scratch in designing or redesigning the
engineering foundation business development.
(BPR)
Business process involved any activity that was fundamental for fast George and Jones
delivery of goods and services to customers, or that promotes high quality (2008)
and low cost.
Concurrent Deal primarily with product design base, incorporating the constraints of Koskela (1992)
Engineering subsequent phases into the conceptual phase and tightening of change
(CE) control towards the end of the design process
Last Planner To achieve lean goals of reducing waste, increasing productivity and Seppanen et al.
System decreasing unpredictability mainly throughout a social process, by trying to (2010)
(LPS) make planning mutual attempt and by increasing the reliability of
commitments of team members
In construction, LPS was a method that forms workflow and deal with Salem et al.(2005)
project variability.
Teamwork Teamwork was complementary skills groups of people with who were Excellence (2004)
committed to a common purpose and hold themselves mutually accountable
for its achievement, in which they develop a different identity and work
together in a co-ordinated and mutually supportive way
Value Based Value based management approach in which indicate that product value for Bertelsen (2004)
Management the customers is considered product value while value for the workers and
(VBM) project participants was termed process value.
OHSAS Steps taken to improve existing features, or the consistency of their Mohd Yunus
18001 application and elimination in frequency if particular undesired incidents (2006)

By having an efficient implementation in construction projects, OHSAS 18001 will provide a safe and
conducive working environment at workplaces and all workers will feel secure and comfortable (Khalid
1996). As a key concept of LC, fewer accidents will occur and it will increase the rate of safety in
workplaces. Hence, it will increase the productivity, profit and job satisfaction of the client due to the
commitment of all workers.
 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98 95

Table 4. Key concepts of lean construction in construction process

Authors Just-In- Total Business Concurrent Last Teamwork Value Based OHSAS
Time (JIT) Quality Process Engineering Planner Management 18001
Management Re- (CE) System (VBM)
(TQM) engineering (LPS)
(BPR)
Small et Pre-construction Design
al. (2011)
Construction Pre-
construction

Construction

Seppanen Construction
et al.
(2010)
George Pre-construction Pre-
and Jones Construction
construction
(2008)
Construction

Salem et Construction Construction

al. (2006)
Mohd Construction
Yunus
(2006)
Summers Pre-construction
(2005)
Construction

Use

Excellence Construction
(2004)
Bertelsen Construction
(2004)
Koskela Construction Design Construction
(1992)
Pre- Use
construction

Construction

Table 4 explains the interaction of key concepts of LC in regards to the construction process.
Construction process included preparation: appraisal and design brief design: concept, design
development and technical design pre-construction: product information, tender documentation and
tender action construction: mobilisation and construction to practical completion use: post practical
completion (RIBA Plan of Work, 2012). The researchers such as Koskela (1992), Salem et al. (2006),
George and Jones (2008), Small et al. (2011), Summers (2005), Excellence (2004), Seppanen et al.
(2010), Bertelsen (2004) and Mohd Yunus (2006) described how to incorporate the key concepts of LC in
the construction process.
The majority of the researchers suggested pre-construction and construction are the best time to
synergise the LC concepts. Both of these stages are crucial due to determination of material, equipment
and labour during pre-construction (Koskela, 1992) and elimination of construction waste during
construction (Yahya and Mohamad, 2011). The authors agree with the researchers but believe that some
96 Mohd Arif Marhani et al. / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 68 (2012) 87 – 98

of the key concepts of LC should be introduced at the earliest stage e.g. JIT, teamwork, LPS and OHSAS
18001. By doing so, competent workers and project team can identify the waste and diminish volatility as
well as able to control health and safety risk of construction project. In addition, the authors suggest that
the end requirements should be taken into consideration (Jorgensen and Emmitt, 2008) and their
involvement should be throughout the whole construction process starting from the preparation until use
stage.

7. Discussion and Conclusion

Based on the literature review, it can be concluded that the current application and implementation of
LC in the Malaysian construction industry is still in its infancy or in a very early stage even though it is
known to provide a good platform for the stakeholders to achieve value for money for their projects. Its
full implementation in the Malaysian construction industry in particular is not an easy task as it will need
more effort from all related parties such as the education system, the practitioners, related authorities as
well as the clients of the industry. By incorporating health and safety in LC principles, the chances of
success in achieving maximum value in construction projects will be very high.
From the above discussion, it was clearly shown that LC as well as the process safety and health
shared the same perspective, which is safer and conducive working environment will increase workers'
performance at workplaces. Hence, it will increase the productivity of the project. LC principles have
been applied by local construction players such as SSE Enterprise Sdn. Bhd. and PLB-KH Bina Sdn. Bhd.
From the investigation, it was found that the understanding of lean is merely an academic knowledge
even though lean approaches can be applied in the construction process.
More information on how LC to be implemented to construction project should be provided in order to
improve the lean practices among construction players. It is suggested that the government of Malaysia
should initiate an official website to facilitate this LC concept. Besides, in order to make the LC concept
to be more popular, the Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia (CIDB) should provide more
opportunity for industrial training sessions to the practitioners.
Moreover, lots of alternatives shown to the stakeholders on how to implement the LC in the
construction project. Key concepts of implementing LC such as JIT, teamwork, LPS and OHSAS 18001
should be adapted, through research and further analysis as to familiarise the methods inclusively to the
construction process. On the other hand, this area is believed to have potential for further research since
many aspects can still be explored. The process of maximising value in the construction process from
start to finish of the project must be observed. Moreover, there is a need for an indicator to measure LC
performance. The indicator is prudent for continuous improvement.
It is hoped that by having the process of LC to be implemented in the local construction management
processes e.g. design process, material process and work process, it will be able to assist the industry to
move away from the traditional construction and method of doing things, which is beneficial to
stakeholders towards a more synergistic, sustainable and greener future hence resulted to a better value of
future construction project. Future research in similar area, will be conducted on companies that have
implemented LC concept by observing their practices on site.

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