PENGENALAN TEKNIK TELEKOMUNIKASI

CLO : 01
Konversi Sinyal Analog - Digital

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

BANDUNG, 2018
 What is Signal ?
 A signal is defined as a fluctuating quantity or impulse whose
variations represent information. The amplitude or frequency
of voltage, current, electric field strength, light, and sound can
be varied as signals representing information.

 A signal can be simply defined as a function that conveys

information.

 Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or

more independent variables.

 Examples: voltage, current, electric field strength, light,

sound, etc.
 Signal Examples
• Electrical signals --- voltages and currents in a circuit
• Acoustic signals --- audio or speech signals (analog
or digital)
• Video signals --- intensity variations in an image
(e.g. a CAT scan)
• Biological signals --- sequence of bases in a gene
• Noise: unwanted signal
:
 Basic Signals
 Continuous time (CT) and discrete time (DT) signals
CT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent
variable that ranges over the real numbers and are denoted as x(t).

DT signals take on real or complex values as a function of an independent

variable that ranges over the integers and are denoted as x[n].

Note the subtle use of parentheses and square brackets to distinguish

between CT and DT signals.
 Data and Signals
• Data are entities that convey meaning within a
computer or computer system
• Signals are the electric or electromagnetic
impulses used to encode and transmit data
 Did Yo Know?
• Voltage – the force which moves an electrical current against
resistance

• Waveform – the shape of the signal (previous slide is a sine

wave) derived from its amplitude and frequency over a fixed
time (other waveform is the square wave)

• Amplitude – the maximum value of a signal, measured from its

average state

• Frequency (pitch) – the number of cycles produced in a second

– Hertz (Hz). Relate this to the speed of a processor eg
1.4GigaHertz or 1.4 billion cycles per second
 Fundamentals of Signals
• All signals have three components:
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase
 Fundamentals of Signals
• Amplitude
– The height of the wave above or below a given
reference point
– Amplitude is usually measured in volts
 Fundamentals of Signals
• Frequency
– The number of times a signal makes a complete cycle
within a given time frame; frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second (period = 1 / frequency)
– Spectrum – Range of frequencies that a signal spans
from minimum to maximum
– Bandwidth – Absolute value of the difference between
the lowest and highest frequencies of a signal
– For example, consider an average voice
• The average voice has a frequency range of roughly 300 Hz to
3100 Hz
• The spectrum would be 300 – 3100 Hz
• The bandwidth would be 2800 Hz
Fundamentals of Signal
 Fundamentals of Signals
• Phase
– The position of the waveform relative to a given
moment of time or relative to time zero
– A change in phase can be any number of angles
between 0 and 360 degrees
– Phase changes often occur on common angles,
such as 45, 90, 135, etc.
Fundamentals of Signals
 Fundamentals of Signals
• Phase
– If a signal can experience two different phase
angles, then 1 bit can be transmitted with each
signal change (each baud)
– If a signal can experience four different phase
angles, then 2 bits can be transmitted with each
signal change (each baud)
– Note: number of bits transmitted with each signal
change = log2 (number of different phase angles)
– You ca eplace phase a gles ith a plitude
le els o f e ue cy le els
 Loss of Signal Strength
• All signals experience loss (attenuation)
• Attenuation is denoted as a decibel (dB) loss
• Decibel losses (and gains) are additive
Loss of Signal Strength
 Loss of Signal Strength
• Formula for decibel (dB):

dB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)

where P1 is the beginning power level and P2 is the

ending power level
Loss of Signal Strength (continued)

• So if a signal loses 3 dB, is that a lot?

• What if a signal starts at 100 watts and ends at
50 watts? What is dB loss?
dB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)
dB = 10 x log10 (50 / 100)
dB = 10 x log10 (0.5)
dB = 10 x -0.3
dB = -3.0
• So a 3.0 decibel loss losses half of its power
 Analog Signals
• Human Voice – best example
• Ear recognises sounds 20KHz or less
• AM Radio – 535KHz to 1605KHz
• FM Radio – 88MHz to 108MHz
 Examples of Analog Signal

ANALOG SIGNAL

ANALOG SIGNAL WITH NOISE

 Digital signals
• Represented by Square Wave
• All data represented by binary values
• Single Binary Digit – Bit
• Transmission of contiguous group of bits is a
bit stream
• Not all decimal values can be represented by
binary
 Examples of Digital Signal

DIGITAL SIGNAL

DIGITAL SIGNAL WITH NOISE

 Analog or Digital
• Analog Message: continuous in amplitude and over time
– AM, FM for voice sound
– Traditional TV for analog video
– First generation cellular phone (analog mode)
– Record player
• Digital message: 0 or 1, or discrete value
– VCD, DVD
– 2G/3G cellular phone
– Data on your disk
– Your grade
• Digital age: why digital communication will prevail
 Analog vs. Digital
Analogue Advantages
Best suited for audio and video
Consume less bandwidth
Available world wide
Less susceptible to noise

Digital Advantages
Best for computer data
Can be easily compressed
Can be encrypted
Equipment is more common and less expensive
Can provide better clarity
 Analog vs. Digital
• Data and signals can be either analog or digital

• Analog is a continuous waveform, with

examples such as (naturally occurring) music
and voice
• It is harder to separate noise from an analog
signal than it is to separate noise from a digital
signal (see the following two slides)
 Analog vs. Digital
• Digital is a discrete or non-continuous
waveform
• Something about the signal makes it obvious
that the signal can only appear in a fixed
number of forms (see next slide)
• Noise in digital signal
– You can still discern a high voltage from a low
voltage
– Too much noise – you cannot discern a high
voltage from a low voltage
 A/D and D/A
• Analog to Digital conversion; Digital to Analog
conversion
– Gateway from the communication device to the
channel
• Nyquist Sampling theorem
– From time domain: If the highest frequency in the
signal is B Hz, the signal can be reconstructed
from its samples, taken at a rate not less than 2B
samples per second
Four combinations of data and signals
Just what does an A/D converter DO?
• Converts analog signals into binary
words
Analog  Digital Conversion e-Step Process:
• Sampling – reduction of a continuous time
signal to a discrete time signal
• Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a
set of finite states
• Encoding - assigning a digital word or number
to each state and matching it to the input
signal
 Sampling
• Signal sampling representation. The
continuous signal is represented with a green
colored line while the discrete samples are
indicated by the blue vertical lines.
 Quantizing
• Quantization, in mathematics and digital signal
processing, is the process of mapping a large set of
input values to a (countable) smaller set.
• Rounding and truncation are typical examples of
quantization processes.
 Quantizing
The number of possible states that the converter
can output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the AD converter

Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8.

Analog quantization size:

Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V
Encoding Outpu Output Binary
t Equivalent
• Here we assign the States
digital value (binary 0 000
number) to each state 1 001
for the computer to
2 010
read.
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
 Accuracy of A/D Conversion
There are two ways to best improve accuracy of
A/D conversion:

• increasing the resolution which improves the

accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the
analog signal.

• increasing the sampling rate which increases

the maximum frequency that can be
measured.
 Resolution
• Resolution (number of discrete values the converter can
produce) = Analog Quantization size (Q)
(Q) = Vrange / 2^n, where Vrange is the range of analog voltages
which can be represented

• limited by signal-to-noise ratio (should be around 6dB)

• In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high resolution. A

lower resolution would be if we used a 2-bit converter, then the
resolution would be 10/2^2 = 2.50V.
 Media Transmisi
- Getaran sinyal pembawa itu harus disampaikan
kepada penerima
- Proses penyampaian ini harus dilakukan melalui
suatu media
- Analogi dengan pembawa truk maka maka jalan
rayanya disebut media transmisi
- Proses perambatan sinyal gelombang pembawa
dari satu tempat ketempat lain disebut propagasi.
- Didalam media, carrier dalam bentuk gelombang
pembawa. ( carrier wave ).
Sinyal Continous dan Sinyal Discrete

Continous/ analog

‘t  Time

Discrete / digital

‘t  Time
 Tegangan

Transmisi digital Analog

digital

• Bentuk tegangan pada analog sesuai dengan perubahan informasi

• Bentuk tegangan pada digital adalah bit ( tegangan tinggi “1” atau teg
rendah “0”)
• Lebih mudah mengirim digital karena :
1. Untuk deteksi “on” dan “OFF” mudah
2. Pembuatan rangkaian digital lebih mudah. (Menggunakan IC VLSI)
3. Dengan sistem koding, maka error yang terjadi selama perjalanan
pada sinyal digital dapat diperbaiki.
4. Sinyal digital dapat compress walau dengan mengorbankan kwalitas
5. Sistem digital dapat diproses terpadu dengan sistem komputer.
( misalnya Video CD, dll)
6. Transmisi digital lebih handal dibandingkan transmisi analog.
7. Sinyal digital jauh lebih mudah digabungkan ( Multiplexing ) dengan
sinyal dari berbagai – bagai sumber maupun tujuan dan sangat flexibel
 Merubah analog menjadi digital

• Sistem transmisi digital Continous/ analog

menyalurkan informasi digital.
• Proses sampling ‘t  Time

• Proses kwantisasi Discrete / digital

• Out put adalah sinyal digital.

‘t  Time
Jumlah sampling ~ 2 x 4000 bh/s
Jumlah bit kwantisasi = 8 / Sampling kwantisasi
sampling
Maka jumlah bit perdetik adalah PAM bit stream

2 x 4000x 8 = 64.000 bit /det.

6 9 7 4 sampling
0110 1001 0111 0100 kwantisasi
/pengkodean
 Sampling dan Kwantisasi

Sampling Kwantisasi

PAM bit stream

6 9 7 4 Sampling

0110 1001 0111 0100 Kwantisasi atau pengkodean

 Proses Kwantisasi Sinyal

+128 kwantisasi
max

total 28=256
-128
 Masalah dan feature dalam transmisi digital

– Masalah pengkodean.  BW menjadi lebih

besar
– Error dalam kwantisasi karena yang dikodekan
hanya sampling
– Noise / derau di sepanjang jalan
– Features digital
– Perbaikan kesalahan di penerima
– Kompresi
– Pemaketan / relay