Ultrasonic Testing

Part 1
 Course Layout
• Duration : 9.5 Days (Mon – Fri)
• Start : 8:30 am
• Coffee Break : 10:00 – 10:30 am
• Lunch : 12:30 – 1:30 pm
• Tea Break : 3:00 – 3:15 pm
• Day End : 4:30 pm
• Course Objective: To train and prepare
participants to obtain required skill and
knowledge in Ultrasonic Testing and to meet the
examination schemes requirements.
 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Examination of materials and components in
such a way that allows material to be
examinated without changing or destroying
their usefulness
 NDT
Most common NDT methods:
Penetrant Testing (PT)
Mainly used for
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) surface testing
Eddy Current Testing (ET)

Radiographic Testing (RT)

Mainly used for
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) Internal Testing
 NDT
• Which NDT method is
the best ?
Depends on many
factors and conditions
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic
Testing
• To understand and
appreciate the
capability and
limitation of UT
 History of Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• First came ‘sonic’ testing
• The piezo-electric effect discovered in
1880/81
• Marine ‘echo sounding’ developed from 1912
• In 1929 Sokolov used vibrations in metals to
find flaws
• Cathode ray tubes developed in the 1930’s
• Sproule made the first flaw detector in 1942
 Ultrasonic Inspection
 Sub-surface detection
 This detection method uses high frequency sound
waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
 A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal
to transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
 The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface
and back
 An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect
 For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
 Ultrasonic Inspection
Pulse echo UT Set, Digital
signals
A scan Display

Compression probe Thickness checking the material

 Ultrasonic Inspection

defect Back wall

initial pulse echo echo

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector
The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance

Signal from the backwall

Bottom / Backwall
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of
the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material

The BWE signal

Defect signal

Defect
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

60 mm

The depth of the defect can be read with reference

to the marker on the screen
 Thickness / depth measurement
The closer the reflector
to the surface, the signal
will be more to the left of
C B A
the screen

30 46 68
The thickness is read from the screen

The THINNER the material

C the less distance the sound
travel
B

A
 Ultrasonic Inspection
UT Set
A Scan
Display

Angle Probe
 Ultrasonic Inspection

initial pulse defect echo

Surface distance

defect

sound path
0 10 20 30 40 50

Angle Probe CRT Display

 Ultrasonic Inspection
 Advantages  Disadvantages
 Rapid results  Trained and skilled

 Sub-surface detection
operator required
 Requires high operator
 Safe
skill
 Can detect planar defect
 Good surface finish
 Capable of measuring the
required
depth of defects  Difficulty on detecting
 May be battery powered
volumetric defect
 Portable  Couplant may

contaminate
 No permanent record
Ultrasonic Testing

Principles of Sound
 What is Sound ?
• A mechanical vibration
• The vibrations create Pressure Waves
• Sound travels faster in more ‘elastic’
materials
• Number of pressure waves per second is
the ‘Frequency’
• Speed of travel is the ‘Sound velocity’
 Sound
• Wavelength :
The distance required to complete a cycle
– Measured in Meter or mm
• Frequency :
The number of cycles per unit time
– Measured in Hertz (Hz) or Cycles per second (cps)
• Velocity :
How quick the sound travels
Distance per unit time
– Measured in meter / second (m / sec)
Wavelength Velocity

V
λ=
f

Frequency
 Sound Waves
Sound waves are the vibration of particles in solids liquids or gases

Particles vibrate about a mean position

In order to vibrate they require mass and resistance to change

One cycle
 Properties of a sound wave
• Sound cannot travel
in vacuum
• Sound energy to be
transmitted /
transferred from one
particle to another

SOLID LIQUID GAS

 Velocity
• The velocity of sound in a particular material is CONSTANT
• It is the product of DENSITY and ELASTICITY of the
material
• It will NOT change if frequency changes
• Only the wavelength changes
• Examples:
V Compression in steel : 5960 m/s
V Compression in water : 1470 m/s
V Compression in air : 330 m/s

5 M Hz

STEEL WATER AIR

Sound travelling through a material
• Velocity varies according to the material

Compression waves Shear waves

• Steel 5960m/sec • Steel 3245m/sec

• Water 1470m/sec • Water NA

• Air 344m/sec • Air NA

• Copper 4700m/sec • Copper 2330m/sec

 Ultrasonic
• Sound : mechanical vibration

What is Ultrasonic?
Very High Frequency sound – above 20 KHz
20,000 cps
 Acoustic Spectrum
Sonic / Audible
Ultrasonic
Human
> 20kHz = 20,000Hz
16Hz - 20kHz

0 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 100m

Ultrasonic Testing
0.5MHz - 50MHz
Ultrasonic : Sound with frequency above 20 KHz
 Frequency
• Frequency : Number of cycles per
second

1 second 1 second 1 second

1 cycle per 1 second = 3 cycle per 1 second = 18 cycle per 1 second

1 Hertz 3 Hertz = 18 Hertz

THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY THE SMALLER THE

WAVELENGTH
 Pg 21

Frequency
• 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
• 1 Kilohertz = 1 KHz = 1000Hz
• 1 Megahertz = 1 MHz = 1000 000Hz

20 KHz = 20 000 Hz
5 M Hz = 5 000 000 Hz
 ULTRASONIC TESTING
Very High Frequency
5 M Hz

Glass
High Frequency
5 K Hz

DRUM BEAT
Low Frequency Sound
40 Hz
 Wavelength and frequency
• The higher the frequency the smaller the
wavelength
• The smaller the wavelength the higher the
sensitivity
• Sensitivity : The smallest detectable
flaw by the system or
technique
• In UT the smallest detectable flaw is ½ λ
(half the wavelength)
 High Frequency Sound
V
λ=
f
5MHz compression
wave probe in steel

5,900,000
λ= = 1.18mm
5,000,000
 Frequency

1 M Hz 5 M Hz 10 M Hz 25 M Hz

LONGEST SMALLEST
λ=v/f

F λ F λ
Which probe has the smallest wavelength?

Which probe has the longest wavelength?

• Which of the following compressional
probe has the highest sensitivity?
• 1 MHz
• 2 MHz
• 5 MHz
• 10 MHz

10 MHz
What is the velocity difference in steel compared with in
water?
4 times

If the frequency remain constant, in what material does

sound has the highest velocity, steel, water, or air?
Steel
If the frequency remain constant, in what material does
sound has the shortest wavelength, steel, water, or air?
Air
Remember the formula
λ=v/f
 Sound Waveforms
Sound travels in different waveforms in
different conditions

•Compression wave
•Shear wave
•Surface wave
•Lamb wave
 Compression / Longitudinal
• Vibration and propagation in the same
direction / parallel
• Travel in solids, liquids and gases

Particle vibration

Propagation
 Shear / Transverse
• Vibration at right angles / perpendicular to
direction of propagation
• Travel in solids only
• Velocity ≈ 1/2 compression (same material)

Particle vibration

Propagation
 Compression v Shear
Frequency Compression Shear
• 0.5MHz • 11.8 • 6.5
• 1 MHz • 5.9 • 3.2
• 2MHz • 2.95 • 1.6
• 4MHz • 1.48 • 0.8
• 6MHZ • 0.98 • 0.54

The smaller the wavelength the better the

sensitivity
Sound travelling through a material
• Velocity varies according to the material

Compression waves Shear waves

• Steel 5960m/sec • Steel 3245m/sec

• Water 1470m/sec • Water NA

• Air 344m/sec • Air NA

• Copper 4700m/sec • Copper 2330m/sec

 Surface Wave
• Elliptical vibration
• Velocity 8% less than shear
• Penetrate one wavelength deep

Easily dampened by heavy grease or wet finger

Follows curves but reflected by sharp corners or

surface cracks
 Lamb / Plate Wave
• Produced by the manipulation of surface
waves and others
• Used mainly to test very thin materials /
plates
• Velocity varies with plate thickness and
frequencies

SYMETRIC ASSYMETRIC
Ultrasonic Testing
Part 2
 The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
 Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large • Sizing of all defects
defects only
Near zone length as small as
possible balanced against
acceptable minimum
detectable defect size
 The Sound Beam

NZ FZ Main
Beam

Intensity
varies

Exponential Decay

Distance
 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may
give different amplitudes of
signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest
intensity of sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main

beam will reflect the high
amount of energy
Main Beam
 Near Zone

2
D
Near Zone =
4λ
V
λ=
f
2
D f
Near Zone =
4V
 Near Zone
• What is the near zone length of a 5MHz
compression probe with a crystal diameter
of 10mm in steel?
2
D f
Near Zone =
4V
2
10 × 5,000,000
=
4 × 5,920,000
= 21.1mm
 Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone = =
4λ 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the
near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the
near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near
zone
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
 Beam Spread
• In the far zone sound pulses spread out
as they move away from the crystal

θ/2
θ

θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
 Beam Spread
θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis
or Main Beam
 Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?

θ KV
Sine =
2 Df
1.08 × 5920
=
5000 × 10
o
= 0.1278 = 7.35
Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam
Spread ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
 Beam Spread
θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the
beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller
the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
 Ultrasonic Pulse
• A short pulse of electricity is applied to a
piezo-electric crystal
• The crystal begins to vibration increases
to maximum amplitude and then decays
Maximum

10% of
Maximum

Pulse length
• Pulse Length
 Pulse Length
• The longer the pulse, the more
penetrating the sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the
sensitivity and resolution

Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles

• Pulse Length
Ideal Pulse Length

5 cycles for weld testing

 Resolution
RESOLUTION in Pulse Echo Testing is the ability to
separate echoes from two or more closely spaced
reflectors.
RESOLUTION is strongly affected by Pulse Length:

Short Pulse Length - GOOD RESOLUTION

Long Pulse Length - POOR RESOLUTION

RESOLUTION is an extremely important property in

WELD TESTING because the ability to separate ROOT
GEOMETRY echoes from ROOT CRACK or LACK OF
ROOT FUSION echoes largely determines the
effectiveness of Pulse Echo UT in the testing of single
sided welds.
 Resolution

Good resolution
 Resolution

Poor resolution
 Sound travelling through a material
Loses intensity
due to

Beam Spread Attenuation

• Sound beam comparable • Energy losses due to
to a torch beam material
•Reduction differs for small •Made up of absorption
and large reflectors and scatter
 Scatter
• The bigger the grain
size the worse the
problem
• The higher the
frequency of the
probe the worse the
problem

1 MHz 5 MHz
Beam Spread

The sound beam

spread out and the
intensity decreases
 Beam spread and Attenuation
combined
Repeat Back-wall Echoes Beyond The Near Zone

ZERO ATTENUATION ATTENUATION 0.02 dB/mm

 Sound at an Interface
• Sound will be either transmitted across
or reflected back
Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of
the 2 materials

Transmitted
 Acoustic Impedance
• Definition • Formula
The Resistance to the
passage of sound Z = ρ ×V
within a material ρ = Density , V = Velocity

• Steel 46.7 x 106

• Measured in
• Water 1.48 x 106
kg / m2 x sec
• Air 0.0041 x 106
• Perspex 3.2 x 106
 % Sound Reflected at an
Interface
2
 Z1 − Z 2 
  × 100 = % reflected
 Z1 + Z 2 

% Sound Reflected + % Sound Transmitted = 100%

Therefore
% Sound Transmitted = 100% - % Sound Reflected
How much sound is reflected at a steel to water
interface?
• Z1 (Steel) = 46.7 x 106
• Z2 (Water) =1.48 x 106
2
 46.7 − 1.48 
 46.7 + 1.48  × 100 = % reflected

2
 45.22 
 48.18  × 100 = % reflected

0. 93856 ×100 = 88.09% reflected

2
 How much sound transmitted?

100 % - the reflected sound

Example : Steel to water

100 % - 88 % ( REFLECTED) = 12 % TRANSMITTED

The BIGGER the Acoustic Impedance Ratio

or Difference between the two materials:
More sound REFLECTED than transmitted.
 Air Steel

Steel
Air
Large Acoustic Impedance Large Acoustic Impedance
Ratio Ratio

Steel Aluminum

Steel
Steel

No Acoustic Impedance Small Acoustic Impedance

Difference Difference
 Interface Behaviour

Similarly:

At an Steel - Air interface 99.96% of the

incident sound is reflected

At a Steel - Perspex interface 75.99% of

the incident sound is reflected
Sound Intensity
2 signals at 20% and 40% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?

H0
dB = 20 Log..10
H1
40
dB = 20 Log..10 = 20 Log ..10 2
20

dB = 20× 0.3010
dB = 6dB
2 signals at 10% and 100% FSH.
What is the difference between them in dB’s?

H0
dB = 20 Log..10
H1
100
dB = 20 Log..10 = 20 Log ..1010
10

dB = 20× 1
dB = 20dB
 Amplitude ratios in decibels
• 2:1 = 6bB
• 4:1 = 12dB
• 5:1 = 14dB
• 10 : 1 = 20dB
• 100 : 1 = 40dB
Ultrasonic Testing
Part 3
The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
 Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90 )
o

Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in

sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted
 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted
 Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1

=
Sine R Vel in Material 2
 Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two
different materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes

into another waveform:
C
C MODE CHANGE

SS
 Snell’s Law
C If the angle of Incident is
increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at
Perspex 90° from the Normal

Steel 90° This happens at the

FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

C
S
 1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted
at 90 degrees

33

S
 1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
=
Sine 90 5960
Perspex
Sin90 = 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI =
5960
S SinI = 0.458

I = 27.26
 Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec

2730
SinI = = 0.5808 = 35.5
4700
 2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

 2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4 =
Sine 90 3240
Perspex
Sin90 = 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI =
3240
SinI = 0.8425

I = 57.4
 Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1
=
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex
Sine 20 2730
=
Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580 = 0.4580
C
 Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15 =
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730

=
Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR = Sin15
2730
C
SinR = 0.565
R = 34.4
 Snell’s Law
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S
 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Critical Angle: All wave in the material.
waves are reflected Compression is reflected out
out of the material. NO of the material.
wave in the material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear
is refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
 Summary
• Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
• No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material. One Defect Two Echoes

C S

S
 Sound Generation
• Hammers (Wheel tapers)
• Magnetostrictive
• Lasers
• Piezo-electric

magnetostrictive
 Piezo-Electric Effect
• When exposed to an alternating current a
crystal expands and contracts

• Converting electrical energy into mechanical

- + + - - +
 Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ LITHIUM SULPHATE
• Resistant to wear • Efficient receiver
• Insoluble in water • Low electrical
• Resists ageing impedance
• Inefficient converter of • Operates on low
energy voltage
• Needs a relatively high • Water soluble
voltage • Low mechanical
Very rarely used nowadays strength
• Useable only up to 30ºC
Used mainly in medical
 Polarized Crystals

• Powders heated to Examples

high temperatures • Barium titanate (Ba Ti O3)
• Pressed into shape • Lead metaniobate
• Cooled in very (Pb Nb O6)
strong electrical • Lead zirconate titanate
fields (Pb Ti O3 or Pb Zr O3)

Most of the probes for conventional usage use

PZT : Lead Zirconate Titanate

Probes
 Z
Probes
• The most important part of the
probe is the crystal
• The crystal are cut to a
X
particular way and thickness to
give the intended properties
• Most of the conventional crystal
are X – cut to produce
Y
Compression wave

X X
 Probes
• The frequency of the probe depends on
the THICKNESS of the crystal
• Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency
V = the velocity in the crystal
t = the thickness of the crystal
Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal )
where at that frequency the material will vibrate.
 Probes
• The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency
• Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ?
1 MHz Compression probe
5 MHz Compression probe
10 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear probe

25 MHz Shear
Probe
 Probe Design
• Compression Probe Electrical
– Normal probe connectors
– 0°

Housing
Damping
Transducer
 Probe Design
• Shear Probe
– Angle probe

Backing
medium
Damping
Transducer

Probe
Shoe

Perspex wedge
 Probe Design
Advantages
Twin Crystal • Can be focused
Transmitter Receiver • Measure thin plate
• Near surface
resolution
Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
Focusing • Signal amplitude /
Separator /
lens focal spot length
Insulator
 Ultrasonic Displays
• A-Scan
• B-Scan End View
• C-Scan Plan View
• D-Scan Side View

• P-Scan or “projection scan” collects and

combines A, B, C & D Scan information
 Ultrasonic Displays
• A scan
The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
display
The Horizontal axis :
Represents time base /
beam path length /
distance / depth
The Vertical axis :
Represent the amount of
sound energy
returned to the crystal
 Ultrasonic Displays
• B scan
The End View Display

B
 Ultrasonic Displays
• C scan
The Plan View Display

C
 Ultrasonic Displays
• D scan
The Side View Display

D
 Ultrasonic Test Methods

• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
(pulse echo techniques where the transmitter is
separate from the receiver - e.g. tandem testing, time
of flight)
 Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends
and receives sound
• Gives an indication of
defect depth and
dimensions
 Defect Orientation
ONLY DEFECTS HAVING A SUITABLY ORIENTATED
REFLECTING SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED BY PULSE
ECHO METHODS!!

Orientation favourable, Orientation unfavourable,

sound reflected back to sound not reflected back
point of origin to point of origin
Through Transmission Testing
• Transmitting and receiving probes on
opposite sides of the specimen
• Pulsed or Continuous sound
• Presence of defect indicated by
reduction in transmission signal
• No indication of defect location
• Easily automated
• Commonly integrated into plate rolling
mills - lamination testing
 Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal

No indication of
defect location
Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects
matter don’t show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
 Transmission with Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Transmission with
Reflection
T R

TANDEM TESTING
Transmission with Reflection
T R

TANDEM TESTING
 Automated Inspections
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection

• Contact scanning
• Gap scanning
• Immersion testing
 Gap Scanning
• Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
• Couplant is fed into
the gap
 Immersion Testing
• Component is placed in a water filled
tank
• Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed
distance above the surface
Immersion Testing
 Immersion Testing

Water
path
distance

Front surface Back surface

Defect

Water path distance

Ultrasonic Testing
Part 4
 DEFECT LOCATION

DEFECT LOCATION IN ULTRASONIC

TESTING IS BASED UPON THE PREMISE
THAT A “MAXIMISED ECHO RESPONSE” CAN
ONLY COME FROM A REFLECTOR WHICH IS
LYING ON THE BEAM AXIS.
THIS PREMISE CAN BE ASSUMED BECAUSE
THE GREATEST SOUND INTENSITY OR
PRESSURE IS CONCENTRATED IN A SMALL
VOLUME AROUND THE BEAM AXIS.
 DEFECT LOCATION IN FUSION WELDS

600

S = STAND OFF DISTANCE FROM ANY CONVENIENT DATUM

POINT (IN THIS CASE THE WELD CENTRELINE)

R= RANGE READ FROM THE FLAWDETECTOR SCREEN

DEFECT LOCATION
IN FUSION WELDS

450

S
S = STAND OFF DISTANCE FROM ANY CONVENIENT DATUM
POINT

R= RANGE READ FROM THE FLAWDETECTOR SCREEN

 DEFECT LOCATION IN FUSION WELDS

TO ACCURATELY LOCATE DEFECTS IN A BUTT WELD

THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA MUST BE MET:
1. THE PROBE EXIT POINT MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.
2. THE BEAM ANGLE MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.
3. THE WELD CENTRELINE MUST BE ACCURATELY KNOWN.
4. THE MATERIAL THICKNESS MUST BE ACCURATELY
KNOWN.
5. THE FLAWDETECTOR MUST BE ACCURATELY
CALIBRATED.
DEFECT SIZING TECHNIQUES

1. 6 dB DROP TECHNIQUE (SOMETIMES

CALLED HALF AMPLITUDE OR BEAM
SPLITTING TECHNIQUE).
2. 20 dB DROP TECHNIQUE (SOMETIMES
CALLED BEAM BOUNDARY TECHNIQUE).
3. MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE TECHNIQUE.
 6 dB DROP

LENGTH
 6 dB DROP

1. THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR WHICH

IS BEING MEASURED MUST EXCEED THE
BEAM WIDTH.
2. THE ULTRASONIC BEAM MUST BE
SYMMETRICAL IN THE DIRECTION OF PROBE
MOVEMENT.
3. WORKS BEST ON UNIFORM REFLECTORS
WITH RELATIVELY STRAIGHT EDGES
 20 dB DROP

LENGTH
 20 dB DROP
1. THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR
WHICH IS BEING MEASURED MAY BE
EITHER LARGER OR SMALLER THAN THE
BEAM WIDTH.
2. THE ULTRASONIC BEAM NEED NOT BE
SYMMETRICAL IN THE DIRECTION OF
PROBE MOVEMENT.
3. THE BEAM SPREAD PARALLEL TO THE
DIRECTION OF PROBE MOVEMENT MUST BE
KNOWN.
4. WORKS BEST ON UNIFORM REFLECTORS
WITH RELATIVELY STRAIGHT EDGES.
 MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE

1. THE MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE TECHNIQUE IS AN

EXTENSION OF THE TECHNIQUE USED IN UT FOR
DEFECT LOCATION.
2. IT WORKS ON THE PREMISE THAT A MAXIMISED
RESPONSE COULD ONLY COME FROM A POINT ON A
REFLECTOR WHICH IS ON THE SOUND BEAM AXIS.
4. VOLUMETRIC REFLECTORS CAN BE SIZED VERY
ACCURATELY IF THEY CAN BE APPROACHED FROM
A VARIETY OF ANGLES.
3. PLANAR REFLECTORS CAN OFTEN BE SIZED USING THIS
TECHNIQUE DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF TIP MAXIMA.
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE
 MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE

LACK OF
FUSION 700 700

TIP MAXIMA
AMPLITUDE

ECHO DYNAMIC PATTERN

RANGE
 MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE

1. THE DIMENSION OF THE REFLECTOR

WHICH IS BEING MEASURED MAY BE
EITHER LARGER OR SMALLER THAN
THE BEAM WIDTH.
2. WILL WORK WITH ALMOST ANY
REFLECTOR.
ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

PRIMARY OBJECTIVES:
1. TO SCAN ALL FUSION FACES AT AN ANGLE
OF INCIDENCE = 00 +/- 200 (00 +/- 100 FOR
CRITICAL EXAMINATIONS).
2. TO SCAN THE ENTIRE WELD VOLUME
INCLUDING THE HEAT AFFECTED ZONE WITH
A MINIMUM OF TWO PROBE ANGLES.
3. TO SCAN FOR POSSIBLE TRANSVERSE
IMPERFECTIONS
ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

600

20
2
4

SINGLE SIDED BUTT WELD

 ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS

450

THE 450 PROBE CAN NOT BE USED TO SCAN THE WELD ROOT
AT HALF SKIP, THEREFORE THE 700 PROBE MUST BE USED:
57 57

700 700

FIXED STAND-OFF SCAN OF WELD ROOT USING THE 700 PROBE

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF WELDS
600 SCAN OF WELD VOLUME AND FUSION ZONES

80 80

23 23

600 600 600 600

COVERED AT
FULL SKIP

COVERED AT FULL
& HALF SKIP

COVERED AT
HALF SKIP
SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS

SCAN
 ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF
WELDS

40

450
450

BACK

40
GOUGE

DOUBLE SIDED “T” JOINT

 ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF COVERAGE
WELDS OF FUSION
FACES

COVERAGE
OF WELD
100 VOLUME
(approx.)
00 00
 ULTRASONIC
EXAMINATION OF
WELDS COVERAGE
OF FUSION
FACES

450
450

450
450

COVERAGE
OF WELD
VOLUME
SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS
SCANNING FOR TRANSVERSE IMPERFECTIONS
 RECOGNITION OF DEFECT TYPE

DEFECT TYPES SUCH AS CRACK, LACK OF FUSION, SLAG

INCLUSION etc WHICH ARE DETECTED BY UT CAN OFTEN BE
RECOGNISED AS SUCH BY:
1. OBSERVATION OF THE SHAPE OF THE ECHO RESPONSE
AND IT’S BEHAVIOUR WHEN THE PROBE IS MOVED IN
VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.
2. OBSERVING THE SIZE OF THE ECHO RESPONSE.
3. OBSERVING THE POSITION OF THE REFLECTOR.
4. MEASURING THE SIZE OF THE REFLECTOR.
5. TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION THE TYPES OF DEFECT
WHICH ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE PRESENT.
 THREADLIKE DEFECTS, POINT DEFECTS AND FLAT
PLANAR DEFECTS ORIENTATED NEAR-NORMAL TO
THE BEAM AXIS ALL PRODUCE AN ECHO RESPONSE
WHICH HAS A SINGLE PEAK:
THESE DEFECTS CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED BETWEEN
BY OBSERVING THE ECHO DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR IN
LENGTH AND DEPTH SCANS:
PLANAR
POINT THREADLIKE (NEAR NORMAL INCIDENCE)

DEPTH
SCAN

LENGTH
SCAN

NOTE: THE RESPONSE FROM A PLANAR DEFECT WILL BE STRONGLY AFFECTED

BY PROBE ANGLE WHILE THAT FROM A THREADLIKE REFLECTOR WILL
REMAIN ALMOST UNCHANGED IF A DIFFERENT PROBE ANGLE IS USED.
 THE ECHO RESPONSE FROM A LARGE SLAG
INCLUSION OR A ROUGH CRACK IS LIKELY TO HAVE
MULTIPLE PEAKS:
SOMETIMES IT WILL BE POSSIBLE TO DIFFERENTIATE
BETWEEN THESE 2 DEFECTS SIMPLY BY PLOTTING
THEIR POSITION WITHIN THE WELD ZONE:

A. PROBABLE SLAG, POSSIBLE B. PROBABLE HAZ CRACK

CENTRELINE CRACK
IN CASE “A” IT WILL BE DIFFICULT TO DETERMINE
WHETHER THE DEFECT IS SLAG OR A CRACK.
“ROTATIONAL” OR “ORBITAL” PROBE MOVEMENTS
MAY HELP:

ORBITAL ROTATIONAL
 TYPICAL ECHO DYNAMIC PATTERNS

CRACK SLAG

ORBITAL
SCAN

ROTATIONAL
SCAN