:

'ëuX io. /ti.

Commission of the European Communities

Fire-safe steel construction

practical design
 Commission of the European Communities

Fire­safe steel construction :

practical design

Proceedings of the international conference

held in Luxembourg, 11 and 12 April 1984

This conference was organized by the Commission of the European

Communities in conjunction with :

Beratungsstelle für Stahlverwendung, Düsseldorf

Centre Belge­Luxembourgeois d'Information de l'Acier, Bruxelles
Centro Italiano Sviluppo Impieghi Acciaio, Milano
Constructional Steel Research and Development Organizations, Croydon
Office Technique pour l'Utilisation de l'Acier, Paris
Stichting Staalcentrum Nederland, Rotterdam
and
The European Convention for Constructional Steelwork

Directorate­General I r A K L Π ■',. ^. Hicifiofh.

Science, Research and Developmerjt­

1985
NC
J
­ E Ü R 10116 EN

CL
 Published by the
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES

Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation

Bâtiment Jean Monnet

LUXEMBOURG

LEGAL NOTICE

Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the
following information

This publication is also available in the following languages:

DE ISBN 92-825-5717-0
FR ISBN 92-825-5719-7

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1985

ISBN 92-825-5718-9 Catalogue number: CD-NC-85-082-EN-C

© ECSC-EEC-EAEC, Brussels · Luxembourg, 1985

Printed in Belgium
 CONTENTS

OPENING SESSION

Chairman : P.R.V. EVANS, Head of Division, Directorate-General

for Science, Research and Development, Division
"Technical research (steel)", Commission of the
European Communities, Brussels Belgium

Introductory address 3
H. TENT, Director, Directorate-General for Science,
Research and Development, Commission of the European
Communities, Brussels, Belgium

Trends in design methods for structural fire safety 11

J. WITTEVEEN, Director Institute TNO for Building Materials
and Building Structures, DELFT, The Netherlands

Fire development and safety requirements in construction 26

W. KLINGSCH, Bergishe University of Wuppertal,
F.R. Germany

ECSC contribution in the field of fire-safety of steel structures 42

M. DESCUDE, Industrial idviser, president of Executive
Committee on properties and behaviour in service of light
structures, Paris, France
Summary of discussions 52
Rapporteur : J. FERRON

S E S S I ON I : DESIGN METHODS

Chairman : G. Th. WUPPERMANN, Geschäftsführender

Gesellschafter Th. Wuppermann, GmbH, Leverkusen,
F.R. Germany

Presentation of european recommendations for the fire safety of

steel structures 58
J. KRUPPA, Head of fire service at the Metal Structures
Technical Industrial Centre and Member of Commission 3 of
the European Convention on Metal Structures, Puteaux,
France

-III-
Examples of calculation of fire resistance of the steel members
according to the european recommendations of ECCS TC3 73
S. BRYL, Research and Development Department,
Geilinger Ltd., Winterthur, Switzerland
Fire safety, design of composite columns 89
J.B. SCHLEI CH, Department Manager, ARBED-Research,
Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg

Fire engineering design of composite concrete slabs with

profi lied steel sheet 128
L. TWI LT, I nstitute TNO for Building Materials and Building
Structures, Delft, The Netherlands
Fire resistance of composite steel decks, floors and beams 144
H.B. WALKER, Head of Advisory Services, Constructional
Steel Research and Development Organisations, Croydon,
United Kingdom

Report on Session I 161

Rapporteur: H. WITTE

S E S S I O N II : P R A C TI C A L ASPECTS OF
IMPLEMENTING SAFETY

Chairman : TI EZZI , Capo della Direzione Generale Antincendio

& Protezione Civile, Ministero dell'I nterno, Rome,
Italy

Practical solutions by architects 164

Κ. SCHUWIRTH, Architect Bureau Schuwirth 6 Erman, Hannover,
F.R. Germany
Practical solutions by architects. Practical aspects of
implementing safety 175
G. ABBADO, Architect, I NSO SpA, E.N.I . Group - Florence,
Italy

A consultant's view of steel structures 194

M. LAW, Technical Director, Ove Arup Partnership, London,
United Kingdom
How to reduce the cost of fire safety 204
L. FRUI TET, I ngénieur-Conseil de l'Office Technique pour
l'Utilisation de l'Acier, Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris,
France

-IV-
Industrial buildings - fire losses and appropriate protective
measures 219
J. THOR, Swedish Institute of Steel Construction,
Stockholm, Sweden

Report on Session II 235

Rapporteur: G.M.E. COOKE

S E S S I O N III : F U T U R E P R O S P E C T S

Chairman : P. BORCHGRAEVE, Centre Belgo-Luxembourgeois

d'Information de l ' A c i e r , Brussels, Belgium

Application on the computer to model structural f i r e endurance 240

D.C. JEANES, Senior Engineer, American Iron and Steel
I n s t i t u t e , Washington, USA

Computer aided f i r e resistance for steel and composite structures 261

J.C. DOTREPPE, Senior Research Associate, J.M. FRANSSEN,
Research Assistant, National Fund for Scientific Research,
Liège, Belgium; J.B. SCHLEICH, Department Manager, ARBED,
Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg

Requirements of f i r e resistance based on actual f i r e s (Swedish

approach) 279
0. PETTERSSON, Division of Building Fire Safety and
Technology, Lund I n s t i t u t e of Technology, Sweden

A probability based f i r e safety concept 294

M. KERSKEN-BRADLEY, I n s t i t u t für Bautechnik, B e r l i n ,
F-.R. Germany

Report on Session I I I 307

Rapporteur: L. TWILT

CLOSING SESSION

Conference conclusions 312

P. BORCHGRAEVE, Centre Belgo-Luxembourgeois d'Information
de l ' A c i e r , Brussels, Belgium

L I S T OF P A R T I C I P A N T S 319

-V-
OPE NING SESSION

Introductory address
Trends in design methods for structural f i r e safety
Fire development and safety requirements in construction

ECSC contribution in the field of fire-safety of steel structures

Summary of discussions
 INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS.
H. TENT, Director,
General Science direction, of Research and Development.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

An important objective of the Community is always to ensure
and develop the competitivity of our industries, particularly
by a steady effort in the field of industrial research,
on both a national and a Community scale.

In fact, the development and reactivation of the so-called

conventional industries are two of the objectives that
the Commission has Included in its research programme
for science and technology in future years.

This desire to ensure a research strategy is thus materialised

by the initiation of vast programmes such s the "ESPRIT"
programme for the technology of information and the "BRITE"
programme on basic technology and the development of new
technology.

We must not, however, lose sight of the fact that the

first initiative of a community programme of applied
research dates back some 30 years, the date of the first
ECSC research programme.

It is interesting to note that the theme of this programme

was exactly the same as the one you are to discuss in
the next two days, i.e. fire safety of steel structures.

I must stress that the actions of ECSC Steel research

do not only act as catalysts in research and development,
but also:
 - enable a comparison and association of the research
methods used in the Community
-develop the actions and exchanges between scientists
and technologists
-reduce the duplication of effort
-give added credibility and international significance
to the results.
This is particularly true in the field of fire prevention
with which we are concerned to-day and which has undergone
considerable development during the last few years.

However, if we master the technique, we must also develop

a better understanding, a common language between the
originators, designers and those in charge of fire prevention.
We must show them that viable methods exist, including
those of information.

When the title of the conference - T i r e Safety of Steel

Structures = practical conception" was announced, three
questions sprang to my mind: questions to which, I hope,
the answers or at least further enlightenment will be provided
in the course of the next two days:

-firstly Why this conference, and why now?

-next For whom this conference?
-finally How to attain the objectives that we, the
interested parties, propose?

I. WHY THIS CONFERENCE

1. Because this sector of construction is a key sector

of the economy and social life of the Community. In fact,
if one considers the overall scope of all interested business
organisations in the construction industry, whether for
supply of products, tools etc. or for actual construction,
the order of magnitude of the number employed in the Community
is probably over 10 million, which represents at least
lot of the working population! The economic and social
implications are therefore enormous.
Furthermore, in comparison with its world-wide competitors
LU.S.A., Japan), the European construction industry is
well situated for export business. This means that exports
are vital for the professions involved, and that we know
how. to design structures, components, ensembles, attractive
and competitive arrangements. B ut we must not rest on
our laurels - only a constant effort is rewarding!

2.Because steel construction in its widest sense, i.e.

considering structures in all forms of utilisation of
steel = shells (roofing) finishing and completion of buildings,
represents 12.5% of steel consumption in the Community.

This is a far from negligible percentage for our steel

industry. The products involved are essentially:

- hot-rolled sections, beams,

- cold-rolled sections and various shapes,
- heavy and medium plates,
-thin sheet, mainly clad for corrosion resistance, in
the form of ρre-painted, galvanised or plastic coated
sheet.

In all cases the products incorporate the most recent

developments in regard to grade of material, quality,
anti—corrosion properties, related to aesthetic and decorative
qualities such as their surface condition (relief effect)
and colour. These properties should permit the architect
to innovate and cause the creation of a better future.

3. Because the safety of buildings, which includes the

preservation of people and goods, and more particularly
the fire safety, is a subject that concerns us deeply.

He know that the task of designers is often extremely

difficult when they are confronted with the often rigid
attitude of control organisations and the different interpretation
of rules.
That is why we must know the methods
that, at the present time, enable us
in a practical and viable manner and
to questions raised in the study and
resistant steel buildings.
and recommendations
to tackle these problems
to provide answers
construction of fire-

This change i n attitude, which should lead to re-consideration

of the spirit of rules rather than their blind application,
has become imperative.

4.Because it is now that we must think of tomorrow. In

fact any crisis contains the seeds of a new idea. This
is why careful attention should be paid to the slightest
symptoms, to the minutest details that can indicate, arouse
and assist the reactivation of these seeds and create
the environment favourable for their development. The
indicators of activity are favourable and suggest a slight
increase in activity.

Thus for building and civil engineering this index was:

96.9 for the 4th quarter of 1983,

84.7 for the 1st quarter of 1984, and it should reach
lo2 by the 2nd quarter of 1984.

Our role is thus to create a network of techniques, and

technology, in various orgainisations, vitalised by responsible
men conscious of their common task.

That is why you are here, and I thank you for attending.

II FOR WHOM.

To whom should we address ourselves during this meeting,

and also by whom will these efforts be made?
We must maintain a dialogue with, all parties concerned:
architects, consulting engineers, construction engineers,
controlling authorities, fire-fighting organisations,
insurers and investors.
Thus the planning offices lack information for joint planning
with both metal constructors and producers. It is necessary
to engender an atmosphere of intercommunication between
tne various parties to tackle and solve the problems in
a conerent manner.

In this process, the relations with safety organisations,

fire fighters are well experienced. Their experience
in relation to fire development and ways of controlling
it enables us to evaluate our own ideas.

Thus the ideas have been well developed oyer the years.
It has been difficult to make the transition between the
concept of "standard fire" and that of "real fire".

Our effort is now directed to the determination of protection

of structures: is this always necessary, in what cases
and how?
These questions are on the agenda and you will doubtless
provide elements of the answers. In fact, the idea
or fire safety of metal structures is (dare I say?) as
much a question of mentality as of technique. The notion
of safety snould actually appear not only at the design -
stage, but also in the use and exploitation of a building;
the plans must be observed, the methods of control maintained,
whatever the structure.

That is why, to promote the use of steel, experts must be

convinced that the intelligent use of steel can only reinforce
safety factors.
III. HOW
The various organisations concerned have made considerable
efforts to convince thier speakers- EEC in the case of
ECSC steel activities, the European Convention for Metallic
Construction in the case of work on EUROCODES, and also
by the Steel Information Centres which are in daily contact
with the interested professions and who provide the indispensible
link between knowledge and its application. «-·

These various actions are coordinated at community level

in such a way as to create the conditions necessary for
circulation of products and opening of markets, as a result
of a constant modification of codes (EUROCODES), of methods
and techniques for laboratory testing and of production
methods (in the case of ECSC), also of the methods of
application (this is one of the tasks of the Information
Centre).

-For this, the priorities have been defined in the case

of our activities:

-to consider national regulations with a view to their

harmonization and their adaptation to the results of research,
thanks to a more precise definition of the range of safety
requirements and of structural performance.

-to provide suitable methods and calculation tables and

suitably modified guidelines to the responsible personnel.

This common and coherent approach to the problems raised

by Fire Safety of Steel Structures is absolutely essential.
It is, in fact, one of the important roles delegated to
participants in meetings such as to-day's.
-It is by direct exchange that the best understanding
and appreciation of opinions can be achieved.
So, in this appreciation of the concept of "Fire Safety",
the ideas have changed considerably- empiricism is a thing
of the past. The present-day methods of calculation
by computer, controlled and invalidated where appropriate
by experience, enable a realistic approach to the conditions
of fire-behaviour of metal structures and an evaluation
of the performance of steel structures taking account
of the new technologies and techniques for production,
fabrication and application.

The steels currently available are the result of extremely

advanced research work, which enables them to satisfy
the most stringent conditions of use. Our interest to-
day relates to a highly specialised environment, but one
which must be carefully considered, that of fire. We
shall see that nothing can be said to show that steel
is not, in this context, a safe material.

This action of safety, to which it is convenient to add

that of "cost" as there is always a financial effect,
has been thebasis of research and development work in
the field of metal construction; work whose continuity
expresses tne will to explain how to use steel in an optimal
manner in association with other materials. It is not,
of course, desired to achieve a systematic replacement
of one material by another, but to use steel advantageously
in cases where its intrinsic qualities may best be exploited.

It is interesting to note that these projects were undertaken

with prudent logic, and with a tenacious desire to convince
architects, decision makers and insurers that steel, by
virtue of its favourable performance/cost ratio, can be
proved as a highly competitive material in the building
industry.
We have the opportunity to be helped in our task by eminent
experts from the Community, and also from Switzerland,
Sweden, and the U.S.A., and who will share with you their
approach to the questions raised by "Fire Safety". The
way in which these countries have tackled the problem
of regulations will be very interesting and very instructive.
It is worth mentioning that in North America 80% of multi-
storey buildings have steel frames, whereas the corresponding
figure for Europe is only 28%! What a potential market
for our steel industry!

Ladies and Gentlemen,

I do not think I need remind you of the importance that
we attach to the lessons that this conference will bring
to us; a conference on which rests, as with all efforts
concerned with steel, the beneficial spirit of the promoters
of ECSC and particularly here in Luxembourg.

I am sure that you have the "Sacred Fire" for the success
of this conference and that your deliberations will be
fruitful. I wish you a successful activity during these
two days.

-10-
 TRENDS IN DESIGN METHODS FOR STRUCTURAL FIRE SAFETY

J. Witteveen

Director Institute TNO for

Building Materials and Building Structures,
Rijswijk, The Netherlands
Professor of Structural Mechanics
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Summary

During the last decade there has been an Important progress in

analytical modelling of fire exposure and in the development of
probabilistic methods of fire risk assessment. As a result, the required
structural fire protection can be assessed in a rational way in combination
with active preventative measures, such as early detection and sprinklers.
Analytical methods have also been developed for the determination of the
load bearing capacity of elements and structures at elevated temperatures
as an alternative to the standard fire resistance test.
However, the choice and use of new design methods will be greatly
influenced by the present rigid building regulations and the shared
competence between authorities, responsible for the requirements and the
designer for proving compliance. The author concludes that major progress
in the implementation of new design concepts can only be achieved with
reformed building regulations and change in competence. Broad cooperation
among all concerned is needed and it is recommended to direct research to
policy related programs rather than to the present physically oriented
programs.

-11-
1. INTRODUCTION

Fire prevention measures and suppression in general serve both social

and monetary interest simultaneously. The overall objective is an optimum
return on investment in fire precautions in terms of lives and property
saved. It is important to appreciate that fire protection by structural
fire resistance alone does not generally assure adequate reduction in
material damage and personal risk. Apart from escape routes and control of
combustible materials, essential measures to be considered are sprinklers
to avoid flash-over and fire groth as well as partitions to limit fire
spread. For a given budget the optimum level of fire protection generally
is provided by a combination of active measures, such as early detection
and sprinklers and passive measures, provided by the building structure
itself. When, for reasons of live and property safety, sprinklers are
installed, it can be argued that the fire resistance of structural elements
can be reduced. However, in the building regulations the required level of
fire protection is expressed in one single parameter "required fire
resistance time". As a consequence the present regulations emphasize on
structural fire protection and do not provide means to balance use of
alternative protective measures against reduction in structural fire
protection to meet the same level of safety (keyword: equivalency or trade-
off).

During the last few years one can observe a changing attitude to
existing regulations and codes, and attempts are being made to achieve
flexible solutions with greater economy and a defined and more uniform
safety. The main components of such improved regulations and design methods
for structural fire safety are:

- improved heat exposure models;

- improved structural response models, including analytical models as an
alternative to the standard fire resistance test;
- a probabilistic design including a methodology by which the required fire
protection can be assessed in a rational way, in combination with active
preventative measures such as early detection and sprinklers. The effect
of suppression by fire brigades can also be dealt with.

One consequence of applying such improved methods is a change in

competence and responsibility between public agencies responsible for the

-12-
requirements and designers for proving compliance. The paper deals with a
review of Improved design methods for structural fire safety, which have
been developed during the last decade and are now becoming operational for
practical application and incorporation in the building codes. The nature
of this paper is conceptional rather than giving operational solutions for
particular design situations. For the latter it is referred to the relevant
literature.

2. THE PRESENT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Fires affect the structural performance of buildings, because they

change the physical and mechanical properties of materials of construction.
As a consequence a fire engineering design system needs to quantify the
fire exposure on one hand and the effects of that exposure on structural
behaviour on the other hand.
Internationally, the generally accepted method for the design of load
bearing structural elements under fire action is based on a classification
system. The system is characterized by shared competence between public
agencies responsible for the requirements and designers for proving
compliance (Fig. I).

Requirement

Γ by public agencies
Structural required fire
building code
application duration t,.,

compliance
by designers
1
structural standard fire
1
fire resistance
element resistance test YES END

NO
_l

Fig. I. Fire engineering design based on a classification system related to

the standard fire resistance test, characterized by shared
competence between public agencies and designers.

Requirement

A fire exposure according to ISO 834, with a required time of fire

duration t„., stipulated in buildig regulations and codes for the
structural application in question usually expressed in multiples of 30
minutes.

­13­
Compliance

A standard fire resistance test according to ISO 834 by which the fire
resistance time t, of the structural element In question is determined
experimentally - usually classified in multiples of 30 minutes (1)· As an
alternative to the standard fire resistance test, in some countries
analytical methods are accepted. The design implies a proof that the
structural element has a fire resistance t, , which meets the required time
of fire duration t .
fd
Although the classification system has been in use for over half a
century, it has some serious weaknessess. These weaknessess apply to both
components of the design procedure and can be summarized as follows:

Requirements

The rise of temperature as a function of time according to ISO 834 and

the fire duration are a rough approximation of the real gas-temperature
time curve of a fully developed compartment fire. The required time of fire
duration is generally related, not only to the estimated fire exposure, but
is also differentiated with respect to safety considerations relevant for
the building in question. This usually leads to a required time of fire
duration, which is more severe than the actual fire exposure. The estimated
fire exposure and the safety considerations are intermingled inextricably.
As a result, in situations not covered by the building regulations, the
required time of fire duration is often a matter of dispute between
authorities and designers (2). Moreover, no basis exist for trade-off
between reduction in structural fire protection and alternative measures
such as compartmentatlon and sprinklers.

Compliance

The specification of the fire resistance test according to ISO 834 is

insufficient in several aspects, such as heat-flow characteristics of
furnaces, material properties and imperfections of the specimen,
temperature distribution along members and restraint conditions. The
structural element to be tested has to be modelled with respect to actual
conditions expected in the structure. Deviations from conditions in the
actual structure are forced by limited dimensions of furnaces, idealized
characteristics of the loading device and unsufficiently defined support
conditions during the test (3,4). Fig. II shows some results of a

-14-
correlation test series on composite columns carried out in different
laboratories (5). It appears that a considerable and random difference in
results exist.

ψ 2M­2C0­S.3 ψ 150­150­5

«ϊκιϊΐ «ΕM£
■ iLuuC a k. u υ
test laboratory

Fig. II. Some results of fire resistance tests on identical concrete filled
hollow steel sections obtained in various test laboratories (5).

The deficiencies of the present classification system have certainly

stimulated the development of rational methods of fire risk assessment and
analytical modelling of thermal actions as well as structural response,
which potentially give possibilities to achieve solutions with greater
economy and a defined and more uniform safety. Horeover, It is recognized
that, following probabilistic design procedures in other fields of design
for accidental events, structural fire engineering design should be
probability based. In contrast to the present classification system,
probabilistic design includes a methodology by which all relevant factors,
such as safety considerations from both the human and economic point of
view, probability of flash­over, uncertainties in fire exposure and
structural response, the effect of structural fire protection, fire brigade
actions, early detection and sprinklers can be dealt with systematically.

­15­
3. CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL FIRE ENGINEERING DESIGN

Generally a structural fire engineering design Includes two main

elements, corresponding to the two components as described in Chapter 2,
i.e. requirement and compliance (6, 7 ) . Both components can have different
levels of schematization.

Requirement

A heat exposure model H, for the determination of the rise of

temperature as a function of time. Basicly three types of heat exposure
models may be identified with respect to the type of thermal exposure. The
listing starts with the heat exposure model, presently used in most
building regulations.

(Hj) A rise of temperature as a function of time according to ISO 834.

The duration of the temperature rise is equal to the "required time of
fire duration", expressed in building regulations and codes for the
particular use of the building or fire compartment.

(H-) A rise of temperature as a function of time according to ISO 834.

The duration of the temperature rise is equal to the "equivalent time
of fire exposure", a quantity which relates a non-standard or natural
fire exposure to the standard temperature-time curve (10, 11, 12).

(Ho) A rise of temperature as a function of time characterized by an

analytical determination of the gas-temperature time curve of a fully
developed compartment fire (12, 13).

The heat exposure model H is supplemented in a probabilistic way by factors

such as:
- the probability of flash over;
- the effect of early detection, the reliability of sprinklers etc. to be
considered as trade-off for structural fire protection.
- the occupancy and importance of the building;
- the height and volume of the building and the size of the exposed area;
- the availability of escape routes and rescue facilities;
- the consequence of violating a limit state.

-16-
Compliance

A structural response model S, for the determination of the heat

transfer to and within the structure and the ultimate load bearing capacity
of the structure. The structural response model may be experimental or
analytical. The design implies a proof that the structure or structural
member, under a defined load and subjected to the specified heat exposure,
fulfils certain functional requirements, expressed by the limit states with
respect to load bearing capacity, thermal insulation, fire Integrity (1, 8,
9).
Basicly, three types of structural response models may be identified
with respect to the type of structural system. The listing starts with the
structural response model, presently used in most building codes.

(S.) The load bearing structure is decomposed in single members with

simplified restraint conditions such as beams and columns. The model
can be either experimental -standard fire resistance test- or
analytical (1, 8, 9).

(Sn) The load bearing structure is decomposed in sub-assemblies, such as

beam-column systems. Although the model can occasionally be
experimental -standard fire resistance test- an analytical approach
will be prevalent (8, 9 ) .

(S,) The load bearing structure, such as a building frame or a floor slab
system is analysed as a whole. The model is only suitable for an
analytical design, assuming fire exposure throughout the structure or
only within an Individual compartment.

4. TOWARDS NEW PROBABILITY BASED DESIGN METHODS THROUGH COMBINATIONS OF

HEAT EXPOSURE MODELS AND STRUCTURAL RESPONSE MODELS

In the table of Figure III the heat exposure models and structural
response models are combined in a matrix ln^sequence of improved
schematization, but consequently also with increased complexity in
practical application. In principle each element in the matrix represents a
particular design procedure. The matrix therefore can be considered as a
classification system for methods of structural fire engineering design.
As mentioned before, safety considerations from both the human and

-17-
 Structural s, s2 s3
Elements Sub­assembly Structures
\Model
1 « * *
Heat ^v
Exposure ^v
Model \ ^
DM S—^~Λ

Λ ft λ
J*»
Tf 1111
I SO­834
Τ i n i or calcul a t ion oitførvncf ­n

Li
calculation occasional t*st schMnallzallon
H, bocontfs loo lorojp

««o
1 SO­834
τ IM) or calculation calcutalion
calculation occasional tost
H2 unpractical

ted
compor trant
calculation calculation coJculalion
τ Fir·

H3
Ar occasional occasional
and let nmoreh

tfe ■ rfqutrMi tmr- of lir. duration

t^cj a «quivokml limp ol fir«* vipMur»

Fig. Ill· Matrix of heat exposure models and structural response models in
sequence of improved schématisation.

economic point of view as well as assessment of frequency such as

probability of flash­over and effect of sprinklers are taken into account
within the improved heat exposure models (see Chapter 4 ) .
The design method H, ­ S. and occasionally H. ­ S. with experimental
verification of the fire resistance, corresponds to a vast majority of
national building codes (see Chapter 2). In many countries Improved methods
based on heat exposure models H_ and H« (10, 11, 12, 13) have occasionally
been used, but, except in Sweden, they are not yet automatically accepted
as methods which satisfy the requirements of the building regulations.
In contrast to the acceptance of Improved heat exposure models there
is a growing acceptance of design methods H S and H S2 with an
analytical verification of the fire resistance. In several countries these
methods are now being used as an alterntive to the standard fire resistance
test. Recently the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork (ECCS)
and the Comité Euro­International du Beton (CEB) completed Recommendations
providing reference documents for national codes of practice (8, 9 ) . These
Recommendations apply to design methods based on heat exposure models H.

­18­
and H. and structural response models S. and S..
In principle a differentiated fire engineering design allows to make a
problem oriented choice of a combination of heat exposure models and
structural models, taking Into account reduction In structural fire
protection when alternative active measures are employed.
Relevant factors essential for the practical application of the
respective design methods, summarized in Figure III, are (see for a
detailed discussion (6):

- The rule should be to provide a sensible relation In the levels of

advancement of both models. Consequently the combination H1 - S_ and H, -
Sj, cannot be considered as design methods for general application.
- From an operational point of view the complexity of the design procedures
is of Importance. For the structural model S3 a computer is required for
carrying out the structural analysis. Hence the combinations H - S, and
Ho - S, are not to be considered operational design procedures for
everyday practice.
- As in a structural fire engineering design the fire resistance test will
still be used for the years to come, design methods for general
application should comprise an experimental as well as an analytical
verification. Heat exposure model H- generally cannot be combined with an
experimental structural model.
- Within the four design procedures, being combinations of heat exposure
models H. and H. and structural models S. and S,, there is an option for
either an experimental or an analytical verification of the fire
resistance. Both should be made compatible in order to render the same
degree of reliability (14).
- Finally, the choice of a design procedure will also be influenced by the
present shared competence in structural fire protection between public
agencies responsible for the requirements (i.e. the heat exposure model)
and the designer for proving compliance (i.e. the structural response
model). This will be discussed more in detail in Chapter 5.

Generally, the design criterion in a fire engineering design requires

that no limit state is reached during the fire exposure. For a load bearing
structure, the design criterion implies that the minimum value of the load
bearing capacity ( R (rO during the fire exposure shall meet the load

-19-
effect on the structure (S) i.e.:

min {R ( t J - S > 0 (4.1)

In this formula the design criterion is adapted to design methods

based on a natural fire, i.e. heat exposure model H,. For design methods
based on the standard temperature-time curve i.e. heat exposure models Hţ
and H_, the design criterion is expressed in a time domain, e.g.:

tfr ­ t£d > 0 (4.2)

where tf_ is the time in which the limit state of the structural element is
reached, i.e. the fire resistance of the structural element; t,, is the
required fire duration specified in the building regulations (heat exposure
model H.) or calculated on the basis of heat exposure model H~.
an
In the design methods based on heat exposure model H2 d Η,, the
following probabilistic aspects should be considered (heat exposure model
Hi implicitly includes these aspects).

­ Intrinsic randomness of design parameters and properties.

­ Model uncertainties of the analytical models for the heat exposure and
the structural response.
­ A ssessment of frequency, such as the probability of occurrence of a large
fire, the effect of early detection, the reliability of sprinklers.
­ Safety considerations from both the human and economic point of view such
as, the height, volume and occupancy of the building, the availability of
escape routes and rescue facilities as well as the consequence of
violating a limit state.
Introducing these sources in a probabilistic manner into the design
means that they must be expressed in numerical values. The level of the
probabilistic analysis may well be limited to a semi­probabilistic
approach, in which the aspects mentioned above are clustered and expressed
in partial factors and characteristic values are used for action and
response effects.
For the design method H 2 ~ S„ with an analytical structural model,
this probabilistic design format reads (6, 7, 10, 11):

ή"Ύη1 \2\^>0 <4·3>

-20-
 The structural response model represents the first term of the
equation and the heat exposure model the second term (see also Fig. IV).

analytically determined fire resistance time of a sub-assembly

equivalent time of fire exposure for the fire load and the fire
compartment in question
Ύ* - partial factor taking into account intrinsic randomness of design
parameters and material properties at elevated temperatures,
uncertainty in loads and load combinations, as well as uncertainty in
the analytical structural response model
partial factor taking Into account the uncertainty in specifying the
fire load, ventilation characteristics of the fire compartment and
the thermal properties of the enclosure, as well as uncertainty in
the heat exposure model
partial factor taking into account the assessment of frequency
'nl
T partial factor taking into account the safety considerations
n2

The partial factors γ follow from statistical data and socio-economic

optimization supplemented by engineering judgement (10, 11). The design can
be simplified by using unified γ factors for certain classes of buildings,
such as appartment buildings, schools, offices etc.
Finally it should be emphasized that a transition from a purely
deterministic classification system to probability based methods of design,
including analytical design methods as an alternative to the standard fire
resistance test, requires improvement and extension of the concepts
outlined, as well as extensive calibration to existing code requirements
(6, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16).

properties
fire load fire compartment

1 £
equivalent time assessment of safety
of fire exposure (t t ) frequency ( 7nl ) considerations ( T ^ )

uncertainties in design equivalent time

heat exposure!/,) of fire exposure

Fig. IV. Heat exposure model Ho including assessment of frequency, safety

considerations and uncertainties in the heat exposure model.

-21-
5. LEGAL IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF NEW DESIGN METHODS

In contrast to the numerous innovations in the building industry,

including new fire fighting and protection systems, it can be observed that
the requirements for structural fire protection remained practically
unchanged over the years (17). Requirements are legally fixed in the
building regulations in terms of required fire resistance time, instead of
in required safety levels. The latter would give the possibility to a more
flexible compliance by structural fire protection measures in combination
with alternative active measures.
Moreover, the choice and use of new design procedures will be greatly
influenced by the present shared competence in structural fire protection
between public agencies responsible for the requirements (i.e. the heat
exposure model) and the designer for proving compliance (i.e. the
structural response model). The present legal situation is illustrated in
Fig. V, in which the single parameter "required fire resistance time" is
the key factor and practically the only way of communication between
authorities and designers. Within this system the designer is only
concerned with choosing structural members of the required fire resistance
grade.

authorities building
requirement
regulations

required fire
resistance time

design codes
compliance
desi gners fire test

Fig. V. The present legal situation with the single parameter "required
fire resistance time" as the only way of communication between
public agencies responsible for requirements and designers for
proving compliance.

As stated before, a differentiated fire engineering design allows to

make a problem oriented choice of a combination of heat exposure models and
structural response models, taking into consideration reduction in

-22-
structural fire resistance when alternative active measures are employed.
This matter becomes increasingly important, because there is a growing use
of automatic detection and extinguishing systems in industrial as well as
in public buildings.
Bearing in mind the present legal situation with shared competence and
rigid building regulations, major progress in the implementation of new
design concepts for structural fire protection can only be achieved with
reformed building regulations (18, 19).
With retention of the responsibility of the authorities to set general
safety levels required, this involves an increasing freedom and
responsibility of the designer for a practical design situation, in
particular when a mix of active measures and structural fire protection is
employed (19).
Finally it can be observed that nationally as well as internationally,
research programs have mainly been directed to the physical aspects of fire
safety, i.e. heat exposure models and structural response models. Prac-
tically no research has been performed into the manner in which
requirements are specified as well as to the various ways of complying with
these requirements. Therefore, it is recommended that there should be a
change from the present physically oriented research programs, including
those sponsered by the European Community, towards policy related programs.
These should include studies on functional requirements, based on specified
fire safety objectives, allowing for equivalency of different design
solutions, as well as studies on the legal implications of the use of new
concepts of structural fire engineering design. Broad cooperation among all
concerned is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

International cooperation on the development of new concepts for structural

fire engineering design takes place in the Fire Committee of the Conseil
International du Bâtiment (CIB/W14) (7). The author is grateful for the
stimulating discussions and contributions in this committee, which
certainly have Influenced the contents of this paper.

-23-
REFERENCES

1. ISO: Fire Resistance Tests - Elements of Building

Construction.International Standard 834, 1975.

2. Witteveen, J.: Policies for Fire Safety. Proceedings of CIB-TNO-

Symposium 'Fire Safety in Buildings', Amsterdam 1977. CIB-Proceedings
No 48.

3. Pettersson, 0., and S.E. Magnusson,: Fire Tests Methods, Background,

Philosophy, Trends and Future Needs. Doc. Gen. Oil NORDTEST, Stockholm
1977.

4. Witteveen, J. and Twilt, L.: A Critical View on the Results of Standard

Fire Resistance Tests on Steel Columns. Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 4,
No. 4, 1982.

5. Grandjean, G., Grimault, J.P. and Petit, L. : Determination de la durée

au feu des profile remplis de béton. Convention 7210 SA/3/302,
Commission des Communautés Européennes Recherche Technique Acier,
Bruxelles 1980.

6. Witteveen, J., A Systematic Approach Towards Improved Methods of

Structural Fire Engineering Design. Proceedings 6th International Fire
Protection Seminar, organized by VFDB, Karlsruhe 1982.

7. CIB/W14: A conceptional Approach towards a Probability Based Design

Guide on Structural Fire Safety.: Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 6, no 1,
1983.

8. ECCS: European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures.

Elseviers Scientific Publishing Company, 1983. A summary is published
in: Witteveen, J.: Steelstructures exposed to the standard fire, an
introduction to the European recommendations. ASCE Spring Convention,
New York, 1981, Preprint 81-035.

9. CEB: Design of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance. 1982.

-24-
10. Bub, H. et al: Baulicher Brandschutz. Institut für Bautechnik, Berlin
1979.

11. DIN 18230 Entwurf: Baulicher Brandschutz Im Industriebau. August 1978.

12. Pettersson, 0., Magnusson, S.E., and Thor. J.,: Fire Engineering Design
of Steel Structures. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction,
Publication 50, Stockholm 1976.

13. Law, M.: Design Guide for Fire Safety of Bare Exterior Structural
Steel. Ove Arup & Partners, London 1977.

14. Pettersson, 0., and Witteveen,J.: On the Fire Resistance of Structural

Steel Elements, derived from Standard Fire Resistance Tests or by
Calculation. Fire Safety Journal 2 (1979/1980).

15. Brozzetti, J., Law, M., Pettersson, 0. and Witteveen, J.: Safety
Concept and design for fire resistance of steel structures. IABSE­
SURVEY S­22/83, Zürich 1983.

16. Brozzetti, J., Law, Μ., Pettersson. 0. and Witteveen J.: Fire
protection of steel structures. Examples of application, IABSE
Proceedings, P­61/83, Zürich 1983.

17. Ehm, H.: Brandschutzanforderungen im Wandel wirtschaftlicher

Randbedingungen. Brandverhalten von Stahl und Stahlverbund­
konstruktionen, Statusseminar 1983, Studiengesellschaft für
Anwendungstechnik von Eisen und Stahl, Köln, Verlag TUV Rheinland 1983.

18. Behets, J., Law, M., Study of research into the behaviour of structural
steel elements exposed to fire. Centro Belgo­Luxembourgeous
d'Information de l'Acier, Brussels and Ove Arup & Partners, London,
1981.

19. Witteveen, J.: Neue Wege in baulichen Brandschutz; eine Synthese

zwischen Anforderung und Nachweis, Brandverhalten von Stahl und Stahl­
verbundkonstruktionen, Statusseminar 1983, Studiengesellschaft für
Anwendungstechnik von Eisen und Stahl, Köln, Verlag TUV Rheinland 1983.

­25­
 FIRE DEVELOPMENT AND SAFETY REQUIREMENTS IN CCMbTKUL'l'iqN

Prof. Dr. I n g . Wolfram KLINCSCT

Berçishe ttiiversity o f Wuppertal

SYNOPSIS

The development of a fire can b e Influenced by careful attention

to the physical laws on which fire development depends. It
is possible to influence architectural and planning aspects,
and features of building utilisation and static or constructive
building development. Both intensity and duration of fires
can become controllable, and injuries and damage minimised.
A prerequisite for this is the application of integrated fire-
engineering. By using such procedures, the safety requirements
can be considered alongside economic aspects. There are
many suitable methods of fire protection suitable for use
in steel structures, to give a high degree of fire safety
economically. Together with traditional methods of fire
protection, section insulation offers new developments in regard
to the inclusion of whole building analysis and safety theory.
The advantage of these developments is particularly apparent
in that many building requirements cam be met simultaneously.
Fire safety is no longer an isolated procedure, but is integrated
in the overall building design.

-26-
1. INTRODUCTION

Fires involving personal injury or large fires causing

substantial damage to property are inevitably at the
centre of public interest. Both the necessity and uncertainty
of adequate safety precautions are highlighted in such
cases. In regard to injury statistics, many less spectacular
fires have a significant effect. The objective of fire
engineering should thus be to make use of all available
data. The progress of a destructive fire and its effects
are considered by many dsigners and users of buildings
to be not capable of prediction. The development of
a fire and its effects on the supporting structure are,
however subject to physical laws which enable a relatively
accurate prediction to be made. It thus becomes possible
to use numerical simulation of the physical factors to
predict the rate of development and the intensity of
a fire in quantitative terms and to estimate the damage
likely to occur to buildings. Variations in building
design, from the architectural design stage to the production
of the support structure can thus be introduced in a
process of optimisation of fire protection.

2. FIRE DEVELOPMENT

The majority of destructive fires begin with a small

localised fire, which is insignificant in regard to its
effects on the supporting structure and which can be
easily resisted in normal circumstances. Only if these
primary fire—fighting measures, active as in the use
of fire-extinguishers or passive as a result of local
conditions, can the development of a large fire occur.

During the course of a small localised fire, the temperature

effect on the surroundings is relatively small. However,
the hot gases which rise, and the flammable gases produced
by pyrolysis but not ignited, collect in localised areas

-27-
such as the interior of rooms or workshops. To this
vertical effect of a developing fire is added a horizontal
effect, particularly the component of radiant heat.
During the life of a relatively low-risk localised small
fire the risk builds up increasingly. A critical condition
may then arise, e.g. the attainment of ingition temperature
of material in the roof area or adjacent storage areas,
leading to spontaneous spreading of the former small
fire over a large area. This spontaneous transition
from a small fire to a full scale fire is termed "flashover".
The features of a small localised fire are termed "pre-
flashover" and those of a full scale fire as "post-flashover",
Fig. 1 illustrates the course of fire development. It
is in the post-flashover full scale fire that damage
to buildings occurs. The main features of such a fire
are shown in fig. 1, the main elements being a rapid
fire development phase, the attainment of a peak temperature
for a period that varies, and the decay of the fire.

|TfCl
-*· «*

pr« floshover- -post flashover

"Flaahpoint

t (mm )

small .full fire

local fire

Fig. 1 : Characteristic phases of fire development

-28-
The time-temperature characteristics of a natural fire
are mainly controlled by two parameters- fire load and
ventilation. The term "fire load" describes the nature
and quantity of flammable material enclosed within the
fire zone, and its distribution and fire behaviour.
The term "ventilation" describes the availability of
air (oxygen), in the fire zone including geometrical ratios.
In comparison with both the above parameters, the thermal
properties of the material in the surrounding structure
are .of secondary importance. However, consideration
of these parameters is necessary for a realistic appraisal
of fire behaviour, particularly in the construction of
steel buildings as explained in section 3.

The term "fire load*1 describes the total energy evolved

on complete combustion. Fire load thus depends on the
nature and quantity of combustible material. In practice,
the fire load is related to the surface area considered,
e.g. to the base area A. On the basis of extensive
international statistical evaluation of fire load distribution,
the fire load value can be determined for various applications
such as schools, offices, hospitals, hotels, dwellings etc.

As fire development is dependent on both main parameters, fire load

and ventilation, various fire characteristics can be developed
although there is one constant parameter. Fig. 2 shows various
fire behaviour patterns for constant values of fire load q. These
significant differences in time-temperature development are
entirely due to variations in ventilation conditions V. With
adequate ventilation sufficient oxygen is available for optimum
combustion, and the maximum temperature and duration of the full
fire will thus be dependent on fire load. With restricted ventilación,
the high temperatures cannot be attained and heat output is
reduced, with a corresponding increase in the duration
of the fire. In this type of fire the characteristic
features are determined by the ventilation. As shown
in fig. 2, various behaviour patterns are possible for

-29-
 ' q ■ const
V.A/h/A,

mi
^v Fig. 2 :
Ventilation­controlled
V1> V|>V, fire.
/ \
/ V, \ Constant fire­load, q .

r * vs
¿> t (atotl

Fig. 3 :
Fire­load controlled
fire.
Ventilation V constant.

Igyl­MJ/i 1 [kg/«')
TfCI A/h/A t «157­10'V

Fig. 4 :
ISO standard fires and
natural fires.
(V ­ constant ; after (9))

­30­
different values of ventilation: the transition from
a fire load controlled fire to a ventilation controlled
fire shows an abrupt change from an intensive fire to
a longer lasting fire at lower temperatures.
Fig. 3 shows the change in fire characteristics for different
fires at constant ventilation. It is clear that all
the fires investigated behave in a similar way, at least
qualitatively, in that the ventilation enables optimum
combustion of the maximum fire load. With smaller fire

loads, i.e. lower energy liberation, the intensive mixing

of cold fresh air inhibits the development of higher
temperature peaks and leads to a rapid consumption of
the available fire load.

Figs. 2 and 3 show that only the two main parameters,

fire load g and ventilation v, cause a wide variation
in the expected behaviour of a natural fire. As the
classification of fire behaviour of structural components
and the definition of protective measures cannot be
achieved in a universally acceptable form, the international
regulations were formulated on the basis of a standard
fire. In fig. 4 the ISO standard fire is compared with
various fire load controlled natural fires. Extremely
high fire loads can cause transient temperature peaks
exceeding the value for the ISO fire. For fire loads
normally encountered in building structures and the corresponding
ventilation ratios, this effect is normally only expected
in he first few minutes of a fire; ventilation controlled
fires are normally below the ISO curve for normal fire
loads.

3. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS.

The design of a building incorporating fire protection

technology is primarily linked to two criteria:

-31-
-protection of personnel and
-protection of property.

In the case of protection of personnel, the first requirement

is to guarantee the rapid evacuation in case of fire,
by the provision of safe escape routes. For the protection
of property the prime need is for a fire restrictor.
The common factor between the two protection aspects
is the feasibilty of a rapid and accurate attack by extinguisher.

The various effects of fire on personal injury and damage

to property may be broadly classified (with some overlap)
as shown in fig. 5. In the case of property damage
it is also possible to differentiate between damage occurring
during the fire itself and latent effects.

Personal Property
Injury Damage
Oxygen starvation X
Toxic gases X
Smoke X X
Heat X X
Corrosive gases X X

Fig. 5. Assignment of fire effects.

Personal injuries in fires are not normally caused by

collapse of buildings, but result from the effects of
smoke, toxic gases and oxygen starvation. Preventive
measures against this can be taken at the design stage,
including the requirement for smokefree escape routes
and the selection of suitable building materials.
In the case of structural damage, the immediate effects
result from the action of high temperatures on the building.

-32-
By reduction of material properties, increasing exposure
to the heat of the fire causes reduction of load bearing
capacity and increased distortion.
The distortion caused by heat can lead to stresses between
two connecting structural members and thus makes further
demands on the already reduced load bearing capacity.
Increasing deformation of members can also jeopardise
the closing of rooms and thus the requirement to form
a fire boundary: similar consequences arise from excessive
surface heating of structural members away from the fire
area, and here there is danger of renewed ignition.
Failure of structural members is expected in the case
of fire if the effective load bearing capacity is exceeded.
The safety margin between the stresses under working
conditions and the "cold" loading limit determines the
time taken to reach the critical temperature at which
the load bearing capacity is exceeded due to the effects
of heat. The indication of a critical temperature is
thus linked to the design of a permissible safety rating.
Fig. 6 shows the example of variation of normal strength
bending moment load bearing capacity of a steel beam
with increased heating.

♦ NU(T)/NU|TO

0 0.1 0.2 0,3 0A 0,5 0,6 0.7 0 Í 0,9 1,0

Fig. 6 : Variation of load bearing capacity of rolled steel sections

­33­
If the fire protection requirements of a building are
restricted to load bearing capacity, then there will
b e a distinct difference in behaviour depending on fire
characteristics. Fig. 7 shows the variation between
results of a fire load controlled natural fixe (qL and
the standard ISO fire. The load bearing capacity R
of a structural member changes with heating in relation
to the rise in temperature T. Thus for steel structures
it is accepted that in the decaying stages of the fire
the properties will, to a first approximation, b e restored.
This can lead to a full restoration of load bearing capacity
after cooling, but it must b e remembered that there may
b e some restriction on serviceability due to the effects
of residual distortion. The failure of a structural member
can occur during a fire if the load bearing capacity

Fig. 7 :
Interaction between
- fire development (T)
- member load bearina
capacity (R) and
- building behaviour (F)

-34-
 MO

120

— JO0­
ρ F»0

— eo
60

40
FM
.20

"H> 20 30 50 TO »0 150 200 300 500 700

— U/A Im­'l

Fig. β : Influence of isulation on cross section heating behaviour,

variation of failure time t as function of load depending
failure temperature.

( I J unprotected
Θ Insulated (25 itm vermitecta)

R becomes lower than the value of the load F. For the

ISO fire the failure of members is always expected, whereas
it is possible for a natural fire to die down before
the critical condition is reached. In complex support
structures the constraining stresses can lead to an
increase or a decrease in the planned stress ratings.
The failure time can be reduced or may b e extended indefinitely

­35­
The smoke gases originating from a fire can,in addition
to their toxic effects, have detrimental effects on materials.
For steel structures the effects of the corrosive gas
component are particularly important: they are frequently
produced by thermal decomposition of decorating materials.
As a rule, this type of damage causes no immediate reduction
in load bearing capacity, but remains as a cause for
later concern. Restoration procedures in the form of
passivation are feasible in principle, but the cost of
the damage remains comparable with that of member failure.
In this case the ventilation ratios in buildings during
a fire can only have a limited preventive effect, and
the effect on damage is similarly limited. In regard
to safety requirements this type of fire-related damage
is subjet to control only in the planning stage, as the
use of suitable materials and the provision of smoke
control can b e arranged.

The safety requirements of a building in relation to

load bearing capacity can thus be affected by:

-size of load,
-static system,
-probable fire development.
The traditional fire safety requirement for structural
members and buildings assume that breakdown will occur
after a certain time of exposure to fire. This follows
from the use of ISO fire development as a b a s i s . The
transition to natural fires can lead to a new concept
of safety requirements: object protection. The safety
requirements given below guarantee that no building collapse
will occur in the most critical fires to be expected,
although the restoration to full serviceability may be
restricted.

-36-
These object protection requirements can be of considerable
significance for specific structural components or for
buildings with outstanding function. The realisation
of broader safety requirements in these buildings assumes
the integrated consideration of all components concerned
and is normally only attainable by iterative optimisation
of the design of the whole supporting structure.

The technical safety requirements for buildings can be

divided into 3 groups, for which the next higher group
enables a realistic calculation of safety standards,
normally linked to economic design,
-single component calculation for ISO fires,
-whole-building calculation for natural fire development,
-object protection planning.

4. INTERACTION BL'fWhlM PIBE OCCURRENCE AND BUHJING BEHAVIOUR

The collapse of a building or component due to fire is

always attributable to direct or indirect heating of
structural members. Direct effects accrue from reduction
in strength of materials, with their effects on load
bearing capacity. Damage due to the effects of corrosive
gases must be considered in this category. Indirect
fire damage results from an increase in stresses in building
components as a result of prevention of free thermal
expansion: damage caused in this way can also affect
members that are not directly affected by fire and thus
have not been subjected to the effects of high temperature.

For the direct effects of fire in buildings, 'failure

time and failure temperature can be related. As the
majority of sections used in steel construction have
low cross sectional m a s s , i.e. have a large section factor
U/A, no significant temperature gradients are established
and one can refer to isothermal cross sections in buildings.
The collapse temperature is dependent on the loading
of structural members. Thus, in addition to the customary
equivalent safety value, the possible change of loading
conditions during fires due to constraint also has its

-37-
effect on collapse temperature, which, can be positive
or negative. (See fig. 7.)

Fig. β clarifies this relationship for protected and

unprotected steel sections. The change of collapse
temperature is consistent with the change in load.
From the shape of the curves it is apparent that for
unprotected members a reduction in load usually causes
only a negligible increase in collapse time, at least
for the case of an ISO fire. On the other hand, insulation
of members can have a considerable effect. In practice,
the transition from single members to members simply
connected, e.g. continuous beams spanning two areas,
is accompanied by a redistribution of shear forces which
has advantages in regard to the fire rating.

When the building safety analysis relates to natural

fire development instead of to the ISO fire, a wider
range of parameters is observed in accordance with the
above-mentioned effects on collapse time. These parameters
mainly affect the rate of fire development. The dominant
effects of ventilation and fire load have already been
demonstrated in point 1. Reference has already been
made to the effects of thermal properties of the materials
used on the change of temperature in a fire area. The
material properties of the structural members surrounding
a fire area can affect the fire development in a fire
zone by heat transfer. Good insulating materials retard
the heat flow through the enclosing walls and thus cause
a rise in fire space temperature provided the material
itself has adequate fire resistance. It is, however,
true that many inferior heat-checking materials, or materials
with inadequate fire resistance, are in common use.
In the past, the significance of the fire stability of
wall materials, or of the insulation materials used,
has not received adequate attention. This can lead
to an unrealistic calculation, as it gives an excessive
temperature. The full consideration of this factor
leads to a far more progressive consideration of the
interaction between fire development and building behaviour.

-38-
As in the case of the ISO fixe it is taken for granted
that temperature rise is almost inevitable, it is still
normal to consider only the irreversible effects of fire
on the structure when using traditional methods of analysis.
The transition to natural fires broadens this method
of examination 'to an interaction betwen fire occurrence
and the buiding structure. With this method of calculation
it is, however, still assumed that the structure of a
building remains unchanged or that the change is expressed
by the collapse temperature. In fire protection technology
planning of complete structures this can lead to an unrealistic
calculation which acts as a deterrent to optimisation
of building planning. The collapse of individual members
of a complete structure may not have a controlling effect
on the safety of buildings, but could equally have a
significant effect on fire development by changing the
ventilation conditions. Only the consequent calculation
of this reaction of building behaviour to fire development
leads to a realistic description of the interaction between
fire behaviour and building behaviour. The respective
steps in continuous fire engineering are described in
U , 2, 3..).
5. SUMMRKy
Conventional calculations on ISO fires do not show a
correlation between fire occurrence and building behaviour.
This method of calculation undoubtedly has the advantage
of a relatively simple application and also provides
a basis for comparability and reproducibility in fire
investigation and subsequent classification.

This advantage is at least partially lost on transferring

to natural fires. The procedures for calculation are
expensive and the results obtained are only valid for
the specific case involved, and cannot be used for general
application. On the other hand, a more economic building
design can emerge from such realistic calculations without
reduction in safety standards. Application of the method
opens up various possibilities for arriving'at an optimised
solution. There are possible effects in regard to both
planning and construction.
-39-
Both fire load and ventilation can b e influenced at the
planning stage. Ventilation can usually b e modified
by room geometry, and in industry supplementary measures
such as smoke- and heat blocking equipment, fire curtains
etc.. The fire load can b e varied according to the
building materials used for the load bearing members
and the stock involved.

The constructive possibilities of affecting fire behaviour

involve static, structural and probabilistic components.
The choice of building material, or combinations of materials,
and the choice of construction method and static system
enable the desired effect of achieving a practicable
failure time. The arrangement of a specified breaking
point can thus be an effective criterion for varying
the ventilation method in case of fire and for controlling
the failure mechanism, e.g. by fire walls in industrial
premises. New structural member developments offer
additional possibilities for decorative uses of steel
and for guaranteeing load bearing capacity for definite
fire times. New developments in this field also include
compund building methods and water cooled components
(4 , 5, 6, 7, 8 ) .

Fire development and fire behaviour of a building are

not factors that are incapable of being influenced, and
even the probability of a full scale fire can be influenced.
The effect of fire can b e included in the original design,
and the probable extent of damage calculated. Optimisation
of fire protection techniques leads to economic solutions
and can integrate completely the various requirements
relating to use, planning and construction. The instrumentation
available enables a comprehensive evaluation and interpretation
of the objectives and requirements of fire safety technology.

-40-
6. LITERATURE:

1. Petterson, 0: "Fire exposure",

Manual on the fire safety of structures (Chapter 2),
ECSC-T3 (in preparation).

2. Witteveen, J.:"new procedures of building fire-safety"

Status seminar, Cologne, 1983.

3. Hönig, 0., et al.,"Safety analysis of fire safety requirements

for buildings. Interaction between fire occurrence and
building behaviour.
Forschungsvorhaben BMFT Bau 6004, Studiengesellschaft
P86-3.4/3.5.

4. Witte, H. "Water cooling for the fire protection of

buildings. "Acier-stahl-steel, 4/1981."

5. . Hönig, 0 et al."Fire-safety of steel clumns by water filling

and circulation. Status Seminar, Cologne, 19 83.

6. Schleich, J.B. et al., "A new technology for fire proof

steel construction." Acier-stahl-steel, 3/1983.

7. Kordina, K., W. Klingsch.: "Fire resistance of composite

columns and solid steel columns."
Acier-stahl-steel, 2/1984.

8. Kordina, K., W. Klingsch.: "Fire hehaviour of compund

columns and solid columns."
Forschingsbericht P35/EGKS 7210-SA 1-108.
Düsseldorf, 1984.

9. Arnault, P., et al. "Experimental report on tests with

natural fires made in the small plant, Maizieres-les-Metz."
Document CECM-3/73-11-F, 1973.

-41-
 ECSC CONTRIBUTION IN THE FIELD OF
FIRE-SAFETY OF STEEL STRUCTURES.

M. DESCUDE, Industrial adviser, president of Executive

Committee on properties and behaviour in service of light
structures.

In recent years, 3 million ECU's have been devoted

to research on the behaviour of steels used for structures
subjected to incendiary conditions. Positive results
were obtained and practical methods of application developed.
The safety regulations and insurance conditions should
take account of these favourable observations.

1.MOTIVATION OF RESEARCH.

Since it was first discovered, fire has been uppermost

in man's preoccupation, because of the dangers it presents
to people and property. The development of city life
has reinforced this fear, to a time when the configuration
of towns and the material used in their construction were
responsible for the destruction of several of them: the
fires of Constantinople, London and New York are recorded
in History.

Such disasters do not occur nowadays, but even localised

fires can have very serious consequences. . During the
last ten y e a r s , thirty fires have been reported world-wide,
involving the loss of 2000 human lives and concerning
very different buildings: large stores, leisure centres,
residential and office property and hospital buildings.
The protection of both people and property against fire
thus remains an ongoing problem, not only on humanitarian
and economic grounds, but also because of the psychological
impact of the media in regard to such events.

-42-
This naturally led to the formulation of very conservative
regulations for urban development and construction.
From the legal aspect, the concept of responsibility has
also been particularly stressed, and the institution in
several countries of construction insurance independent
of fire insurance is an example.

It may thus be said that the technical solutions involved

in the design and construction of buildings should be
adapted to the optimisation of safety conditions. The
diversity of materials, and possibilities of combination,
the architectural needs and the cost factors also present
a number of requirements that can only be resolved by
an in-depth knowledge of the fire behaviour of materials,
in regard to their properties and service conditions.

This knowledge is also indispensible in combatting the

conservatism resulting from tradition, commercial preoccupation,
or fear of responsibility.

Steel, a modern material with potential for progress in

the building industry, is frequently confronted by these
problems. Metallurgists and metal constructors have therefore
undertaken research on the subject over the last few y e a r s .

The research, whether individual or collective, national

or international, on the fire-safety of structures, has
demonstrated their efficacy thanks to ECSC.

The human, industrial and economic aspects of the research

objectives, their effect on the regulations and technical
barriers, led the Commission to coordinate, with financial
assistance, the projects of major importance. Article
5s of the Treaty of Paris, in which the general provisions
cover the encouragement of research, enables development
of application of material within its terms of reference.

-43-
Since 1966, three million ECU's have been devoted solely
to research on fire, with the financial support of ECSC,
independent of regional or private sponsorship.
The main objectives of these programmes include:
-the establishment of fire testing stations, to provide
the community with research materials and to define the
European criteria for appreciation.
-general enquiries permitting the analysis of causes and
actual effects of fires and classification of the research
opportunities.
-study of static behaviour of structures and simple or
composite structural elements subjected to different types
of fire.
-examination of service conditions and methods of preservation,
enabling steel to present optimum fire-resistance capacity.
-the establishment, and communication to constructors,
of recommendations and current methods of calculation for
the revision and unification of European regulations.

The research has been made possible by collaboration beween

Universities, laboratories and specialist institutes,
witn the help of numerous international experts. The investigations
have not been of a theoretical, closed circuit nature,
but have related to actual problems, allowing the establishment
of dialogue between the relevant participants; administrators,
insurance, safety services, standards organisations and
research organisations.

Lastly, the economic balance of the behaviour of structures

exposed to fire has been a major consideration for the
investigators.

Before embaarking on a discussion of the technical details

of the main research projects undertaken, I would like
to thank all those who have contributed to their success:
the Commission, Steel and Building Industries and, of
course, those who have been involved in the day to day
execution of complex programmes.
2. ROLE OF TESTING STATIONS.

The intensity of a fire depends on the nature and quantity

of the combustible materials at its source. It also
depends on the speed of release of heat, which depends
in turn on the ventilation factor.

The resistance capacity of structures subjected to fire

is consequently a función not only of these elements but
also of their individual properties: mechanical and static
properties, structural system and service load.

The evaluation of fire risks, precise formulation of their

conditions and the systematic study of the behaviour of
metal structures in fires must be considered in specialised
testing stations.

By its financial contribution to the testing stations

at Brunswick, Gand and Maiziere les M e t z , the Community
has enabled several tests to be m a d e , forming a scientific
base for practical knowledge and essential data: the
effect of higher loads, establishment of coefficients
of combustibility, determination of curves of temperature
rise against duration of exposure.

The behaviour of several elements and structures has been

examined as a function of natural or standardised fire
conditions.

3. GENERAL INVESTIGATIONS.

3.1. State of knowledge and regulations regarding the

behaviour of steel in fire.

-45-
This investigation w a s particularly important for the
orientation of research still to b e done, and actions
to be undertaken: it was also justified by the desire
of metal constructors and metallurgists to:
-improve their knowledge of the requirements of regulations
relating to the protection of steel against fire
-remove all ambiguity concerning the actual capacity of
steel in relation to that of other materials
-evaluate the necessary conditions for its ultimate protection.

This task led to a comparison study of the situation in

Western Europe, Japan, U.S.A. and Canada. The resiOts
of this investigation are as follows:
-regulations concerning firs material and insurance conditions
are excessively conservative in Viestern Europe and do
not take sufficient note of the variability of risks.
These risks, and the consequences of fire, cannot b e generalised,
in regard t o , for example, a swimming p o o l , an old peoples'
home or a warehouse for storing products of varying combustibility.
-steel, doubtless because it has only recently been introduced
to the construction industry in Europe, is the object
of unwarranted prejudice. The risks incurred are in
fact much lower than for materials that are unstable at
high temperature, with toxic products of combustion, with
an unfavourable topography of premises or the absence
of prevention and emergency measures.

There is thus a tendency fgr oyer-dimensioning of structural

elements in steel, or for exaggerated protection requirements
whose cost loads the cost of the structure.
-It was finally established that the majority of these
spurious problems could be resolved by the development
of contact with the authorities and builders, on the basis
of results of work already completed. The priority accorded
by the enquiry to the provision of documentation facilitating
the application of these techniques is relevant in this
context.

-46-
3.2. Statistical analysis of actual fire conditions in
industrial buildings.
This investigation arises from the conclusions of the
previous project and is at present in progress. It concerns
collaboration with the authorities and fire-fighting and
demolition organisations, to study in situ actual fires
in ground-floor industrial and commercial buildings, to
establish a relationship between fire behaviour and construction,
and the losses resulting from the fire.

The analysis requires objective criteria, uniform for

all materials :
direct cost of building (internal and external), indirect
costs arising from loss of use, duration of stability.
It is hoped that the results of this investigation will
enable the establishment of more realistic safety regulations
for this type of building.

The participation of the authorities and representatives

of all branches of the building industry in this comprehensive
analysis will reinforce, by its undoubted objectivity,
the credibility of the results.

4.BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL MATERIALS IN FIRE.

LiKe all other materials, steel is subject to a reduction

in its load-bearing capacity above a certain temperature.
This results in increasing deformation for a given load.
Several researches have been undertaken to determine the
precise conditions of this change, to establish realistic
rules for practical calculations, to show that steel
completely satisfies the safety requirements in the presence
of fire.

The investigations concerned a wide range of elements

and structures stressed in different ways and consider
the possible use of complementary protection elements.

-47-
4.1. Structural elements.

One particular project covered the fire resistance of

metal pillars as a function of the various parameters
likely to affect their behaviour: sudden loading, rate
of reheating, conditions of dilatation and loading. The
position of columns relative to the seat of the fire was
considered, a reduction in the degree of heating having
the effect of extending the fire resistance time.

In regard to beams., their behaviour was determined firstly

as a function of different building systems, iso-static
and hyperstatic, and secondly by testing the effect of
protection by experimental coatings or concrete cladding.

Comparative research was also undertaken on the behaviour

of different types of pillar: hot-rolled or forged, cold
formed hollow or open sections. The effect was also
considered of the combined effect with concrete, reinforced
or otherwise, used either as an internal core for hollow
and open sections, or as an external cladding for h o t -
rolled sections.
In connection with claddings, research was also undertaken
on the strength of thin cold-rolled sections protected
by various types of fire-resistant material , applied
direct or in plate form. Finally, a current project
concerns the study of protection of certain sections by
special applied coatings, allowing reconciliation of the
increase in durability and the economic advantages resulting
from reduction of the thickness of applied coating.

4.2. Structures.

Research on the fire behaviour of metal structures has

naturally examined their behaviour in relation to both
small scale models or full size structures.

-48-
Model studies included the case of gantries, with or
without wind-bracing.

An example of the full scale work relates to a tetrahedral

structure with a tubular profile, with protection by
a suspended fire screen.

A particularly original experiment concerned the IRSID

building at Düsseldorf. This three storey building,
comprising a steel space frame, is actually specially
designed to improve its fire resistance.

The exterior columns are in the form of continuous hollow

sections which form a circulation channel for cooling
water, with provision for regulation. Internal columns
are protected by asbestos cement coatings. The concrete
floors rest on steel beams. Finally, the elements of
the facade are slightly behind the external columns.

Tests have been made on the efficacy of the system, using

a fire chamber specially designed for the purpose. The
results were highly informative.

5.CALCULATION OP FIRE RESISTANCE.

The various research projects udertaken on the behaviour

of steel under fire have revealed a good correlation
between the results of theoretical studies and practical
tests. This agreement h a s , in many cases, enabled the
development, or modification, of mathematical models
designed for simulation, analysis or prediction.

Thus, in several countries of the Community, information

programmes have been initiated to facilitate the practical
application of recommendations and building regulations.

Another project aims to establish an information programme

for calculation of the fire-resistance of buildings incorporating
steel and steel-concrete structures.

-49-
6. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.

The value of the objectives, the extent and diversity

of research that has been taken to a successful conclusion,
the pursuit of investigations for evaluation demonstrate
the extent of the contributions of the Community, the
steel industry and the steel building industry in the
field of safety of steel structures.

At the present time there is extensive knowledge available

of the causes and consequences of fires, of the effect
of fire on the behaviour of material and its durability,
and on the possible methods of effective and economic
protection.

Some lessons may also be learned:

-the favourable behaviour of steel structures subjected
to fire goes well beyond the times required by the safety
regulations for material properties.
-It will also be possible to ensure that these regulations
take into account the results obtained from scientific
and practical research.

-the notions of cost and risk of fires are more a function

of the environment, content of buildings and prevention
measures in use rather that the nature of the structures
themselves, in that their capacity has been conveniently
calculated.

The insurance regulations should therefore be related

to more selective conceptions of risk, with a possibly
more equitable appreciation of the potential of the material.

-50-
From the overall balance point of view, steel Is competitive
with other materials subjected to fire. On the technical
front, it has some specific advantages and it may be
perfectly integrated in composite systems from the safety
aspect. On the economic front, its cost is favourable
so long as it is not loaded by superfluous protection.
It may thus be said that the application of steel in the
building industry is viable, both in regard to its
potential for prevention and simplification of the problems
arising from damage to buildings.

The time is therefore ripe to demonstrate to these who

have been scornful of steel that it is a safe material
with predictable behaviour and service conditions in the
presence of fire.

This Conference will provide an admirable opportunity to

demonstrate the future potential of steel, by discussing
methods of calculation, provision of data and circulation
of appropriate safety documents.

-51-
 OPENDE SESSION

Siimiary of discussions

Rapporteur: Jean FERRON

P r i n c i p a l EEC A d m i n i s t r a t o r
R e s p o n s i b l e f o r " P r o p e r i e s and S e r v i c e b e h a v i o u r
of s t e e l s " .

In welcoming delegates to the Conference, M r . Evans expressed

regret concerning the recent sudden death of M r . Carpena,
technical secretary of the European Convention for Metallic
Construction, which w a s felt by a l l .

Mr. Carpena worked actively with the EEC, particularly

in the field of EUROCODES and t h e use of steel in construction.

This first session, devoted to the opening addresses,

enabled the objectives of the Conference to b e defined,
i.e.: to present, with the objective of sharing, methods
and recommendations that enable at the present time a
practical and viable programme for the study and construction
of buildings with fire resistant steel structures, resulting
from satisfactory solutions in relation to economy, architecture
and safety.

To this end, the speakers referred to the scientific knowledge,

techniques and technology acquired in the course of development
in the field of fire safety applied to steel structures.
The need for positive collaboration between the authorities
responsible for regulations, safety and fire fighting
on the one hand, and insurers, investors, designers and
constructors on the other, w a s particularly stressed.
Cost aspects were also discussed, as w a s the consideration
of the notion of "real fire" in the evaluation of risk,
taking note of the specific conditions of use of buildings.

-52-
Mr.Kruppa- CTICM, Paris.

Fire safety extends over a global study of the problem

and it is for this reason that w e support the position
of Professor Klingsch regarding, for example, the use
of roof apertures for evacuation of heat and fumes.
As Monsieur Descude also mentioned in his paper, an investigation
of fires in industrial buildings is at present in progress.
Preliminary analysis suggests that for buildings with
metal structures having coverings with very low fire resistance
the structure itself behaves w e l l .

In his paper, Professor Klingsch also made reference to

fires in industrial situations. We have made several
different tests with a large quantity of expanded polystyrene,
in a situation having a large volume (10 000m3. We have then established
tnat the temperatures attained are very low (J50°C) compared
with those referred to in the ISO curve, thus not endangering
the stability of the structure.

Commander Muller, Paris Fire Brigade.

I would like to comment on Monsieur Witteveen 1 s paper.

If the fire resistance time is the only criterion used by designers,
then it is difficult to appreciate and to determine an acceptable
safety level for each type of occupation of buildings. I would
add that whilst there are obvious attractions in using
dynamic safety measures (detectors, sprinklers), we must not
overlook the fact that such systems are not always 100%
reliable, due, for example, to lack of maintenance or
budget considerations. In short, w e are in favour of:
-the provision of static compensatory equipment, such
as large size outlets,
-the limitation of surface of the compartments,
-the increase in height of levels,
-the limitation of fire load.

-53-
 Professor Witteveen - TVO - Delft.

The preceeding remarks amply illustrate that the important

point is that of communication between the authorities
and the designer. More dialogue is required between the
parties concerned. But with the present rigid regulations
based on a single parameter this dialogue cannot be established.
More flexibility is required and w e must strive to achieve
it by convincing the authorities of the validity of our
tests. These ideas w i l l b e developed during the course
of the next two d a y s .

M r . Meskens - a Brussels Architect.

I have listened with interest to M r . Tent's paper and

I should like to stress the fact that in regard to fire
safety it is Man w h o introduced fire to his h o m e , for
light, heat and comfort, without undue regard for the
risks involved. Some famous buildings have been destroyed
by fire. That is why it is necessary to pursue our efforts
in regard to safety development with the use of all modern
means at our disposal, such as micro-processors to enable
early detection of the parameters that can encourage fire.

Ing. De Martino - Nuova Italsider - Genova.

Fire behaviour is an element that enters into the overall

design of a building. All the components contribute to
safety - structure, floors, w a l l s , partitions and thus
ensure a uniform stability with time.

Mr. Favre - Regional Insurance Establishment, Berne, Switzerland.

In Switzerland it is the regional establishments that

determine the conditions to be observed for fire safety.
That is made by a general approach with the help of the
fire prevention services, the Swiss Society of Engineers
and Architects and the groups working on the respective

-54-
materials, wood, concrete and steel.
Into tnls global approach the Idea of evaluation of fire
risk has been Introduced, balancing active and passive
measures. The rule will be to determine a fire load and
dimensions of apertures that determine the risk (equivalent
temperature) rather than to fix a time of 30 or 90 minutes.

Mr. Kruppa -CTICM - France.

It has also been established that the present regulation

system based on a unique and standardised type of fire
is very restrictive and limits architectural expression
and at the same time increases the cost of the building.
A study group has recently been formed at the instigation
of the Minister of the Interior, to study how it will
be possible to introduce real fires into the regulation
system. It is a long task, but it has been established
that a slow evolution is in progress in the direction
of a probabilistic approach to fire.

Mr. Hammer -Federation of Insurers.

The primary objectives in the different countries are

admittedly quite conservative. But by actual tests one
can make a realistic appraisal of risk;in regard to steel
in particular the most recent information has been used.
If metal construction should contribute, in the future,
to the reduction of risk, the primary directives will
certainly incorporate this, depending of course on the
type of utilisation of the building concerned.
Mr. Bonqard - Stahlbau-Verband - Cologne.

It is important to differentiate between the risk to the

shell, the building, and the risk due to the contents
= a good example is that of a single level building.
The premiums must take account of this.

-55-
Mr. Hammer.

That is actually a subject what will be discussed during

this Conference, particularly in Session I I .

Dr. Kersken-Bradley -Building Institute - Berlin.

It should be noted that many current standards are still

based on ideas of an age when the state of knowledge
regarding design and construction of buildings and the
development of fires was very limited. It is necessary
to continue to improve them with the help of results now
available - involving, for example, the ductility of steel.

-56-
SESSION I : DESIGN METHODS

Presentation of european recommendations for the f i r e safety of

steel structures

Examples of calculation of f i r e resistance of the steel members

according to the european recommendations of ECCS TC3
Fire safety, design of composite columns

Fire engineering design of composite concrete slabs with

profilled steel sheet

Fire resistance of composite steel decks, floors and beams

Report on Session I

-57-
 PRESENTATION OF EUROPEAN RECCMMfcNDATIONS
POR THE FIRE SAFETSf OF STEEL STRUCTURES

D r . J . KRUPPA

Head of fire service at the Metal Structures Technical Industrial

Centre and Member of Commission 3 of the European Convention
on Metal Structures.

INTRODUCTION.

The European recommendations for calculation of the resistance

of steel structural elements exposed to standardised fires
(1) have been compiled by Commission 3 "Fire Safety of Steel
structures" of the European Convention on Metal Structures.

They are the result of several years of study and research

undertaken in various European laboratories ( 2 , 3 , 4 ) .

The primary objective of the recommendations is t o provide

the user of steel structures in building with a simple tool
for calculation that w i l l enable h i m to justify the duration
of stability of his structures in fire, and t o prove that
they comply with regulations.

In comparison with Laboratory tests, this procedure is far

more rapid, cheaper, and can take precise account of the
various factors affecting fire resistance. A s a result,
solutions may b e proposed that are optimal in regard to their
compliance with safety requirements and minimisation of building
costs.

Witn these recommendations the builder no longer submits,

he acts.

A further objective is to demonstrate that the extent of

current knowledge of the behaviour of steel structures to

-58-
fire is such that it is possible to offer safety levels comparable
in all respects, or even superior, to those achieved by traditional
structures. In fact, the stability of metal frames in fire
is such that it is easy to obtain a fire resistance of 2 hours,
or even 4 hours with standard fires.

In most cases., standards and national fire safety regulations

relate to standard fires, and thus have generally satisfactory
safety coefficients. The European recommendations are thus
voluntarily limited to the presentation of a mathematical
model having the sole objective of achieving results identical
to those that would be obtained by testing structural
elements in a furnace.

The present state of knowledge , which w i l l be discussed

in the final session of this symposium/ offers the possibility
of studying the overall behaviour of a steel building
subjected to any type of fire. When the regulations
have been extended to methods of risk analysis enabling
a consideration of the overall safety of a building, it
will b e easy to modify the European recommendations to
provide a method of appreciation of the stability of the
whole.

Regarding the present state of the European regulations,

a working manual (5) h a s been prepared by Commission 3.

PRINCIPAL HYPOTHESES.

The hypotheses on which the European Recommendatopns are

based are:
-fire resistance of individual structural elements (beam
or column) subjected to an ambient temperature rise defined
by standard ISO R 834 ( 6 ) .
-in each element uniform temperature is assumed over

-59-
 the entire section and length.
-creep, the effect of which becomes significant above
400°C, implicitly included in relations linking mechanical
behaviour with- temperature (fig. 1 ) .

20 "C

(i)

Fig. 1. Stress-strain curves for mild steel at

various temperatures.
The last two hypotheses have made it possible to split
the calculation of fire stability of a steel structural
element into two independent parts:
-calculation of the temperature attained by the element
after a given time of exposure to a standardised fire,
-calculation of the critical temperature, i.e. the limiting
temperature above which the element is in danger of being
unable to support the loads applied and thus of collapsing.
Comparison of the two values thus determined indicates
whether or not the structure will have the required stability
Fig. 2 represents the change in temperature of an element
with time. At 60 min., the temperature is of the order

-60-
of 55ûeC. If the critical temperature is 500°C, the
element will not have a stability period of 1 hour under
standardised fire conditions, and will be in danger of
collapsing after about 54 minutes. If the critical temperature
is 600 C, the element will have a stabilityof 1 hour,
as there will only be danger of collapse after 65 minutes.

It is in fact desirable that the temperature attained

at the stability time required by the regulations or standards
should be equal to the critical temperature. The European
recommendations enable this objective to be achieved.

600
/Λ
550
500 I
ι
α 400 / 1 I
ε
1
1
200 1
1
1

, ii­ ii
54
20 40 60 65

Time (Min) .

Fig. 2. Change in temperature of a structural element

with time: comparison with critical temperature.

HEATING OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS.

The change in temperature in a metal element subjected

to fire is a function of:
(a) conditions of heat transfer by radiation and convection
(ltt 3.2.1)*: from numerous tests in furnaces an expression
* The relevant paragraph of manual or recommendations is given

­61­
has been found t o estimate the flux transmitted per unit of surface (Q) :

where © t = furnace temperature;

θ = surface temperature of element.

(b)­the ratio between the heated contour of the element,

by which the heat exchange occurs between the ambient
medium and the steel section being heated. This ratio
is termed the massivity factor ( F / V ) . It plays an important
role, and it is obvious that the three sections in fig. 3
will not have similar heating characteristics.

> f

J V.
I
HEM 300 HEA 200 IPE 100
F/V = 60 m­1 F/V = 211 m­1 F/V = 389 m­1

Pig. 3. Steel sections with different massivities.

The increase in temperature ΔΦβ during a time interval ¿ t

is given by (1, 3.3.1) :

1
Á9
S ­ Q . — At
c
s's
where Cg = specific heat of steel
ps = density of steel.

­62­
With this formula, experimentally verified, it is possible
to calculate the temperatures attained after k h and *¡ h
exposure to standardised fire as a function of massivity
factor (fig. 4) (5 ­chapter V )

These data may b e represented in a different form, indicating

the time required for the steel to reach a given temperature,
fig. 5., or to provide an approximate mathematical expression
(5, chapter III)

/ F \ *0,6
t ­ 0,54 (*s ­ 50) Í — ) [min]

900
30 Bin
G" 800

(Ρ
V
*i
a

3 500
«
I 400
i­

300

200

100

«0 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360

MASSIVITY FA CTOR ­ C"1)

Fig. 4. Temperature attained by sections of different massivity

after 15 and 30 min. in standard fire.

­63­
 80

c
•H
E
­ 60

20

50 100 150 200 250 F/V (m­1)

Fig. 5. Time required for steel sections of different massivity
to reach temperatures of between 500 and 600°C in standard fire.

TABLE I Temperatures attained after different exposure times to

standard fire by steel sections of different massivity protected
by material of thermal charcteristic :

JL = io m2 °C w­1
Ai
di/ Λ, « 0,10 /
_1
massivity factor : F1/V (■ )

Time 10 20 30 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

(«In)

α 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
15 32 43 54 76 126 172 212 249 283 313 341
30 48 74 99 146 247 327 393 447 493 531 564
45 65 107 146 216 353 454 529 588 634 671 701
60 83 140 192 281 445 555 633 690 733 767 793
75 102 173 237 342 523 637 714 768 807 837 860
90 120 206 279 398 591 705 779 829 865 891 910
105 139 238 320 449 649 762 832 878 910 933 949
120 15B 268 359 496 700 810 876 919 947 967 981

­64­
 (c) -of trie tilermal p rotection that can be used to reduce
the rate of heating of steel elements. The efficacy
of this p rotection is a function of the material thickness
(d^) , its thermal conductivity (Λί) and its volumetric
heat ( C i , P i ) . T h e increase in temperature is then defined
by (1 * 3.5.2):

Δθ
3, 1 F 1 ί Γ 1
5
dţ Cs P% V 1 ♦Í

c
i di Ί F
1
where 2. C s P$ V

and F. = internai surface of protection.

This expression may b e simplified in the case of protection

materials for which it is possible to neglect the amount
or heat that they absorb (ci,#i = 0 ) .

In practice, the European recommendations and their working

manual give numerous tables, graphs and mathematical expressions
giving values for the temperature attained by metallic
elements (Table 1 and Fig. 6) (1, * 3.4.2) and (.5, chapter I I I ) :

d, » · »·"
« . « , . , ­ M , | J_J M
Further, according to the arrangements specific to each
country, it is possible to produce graphs specific to
each protection product (fig.7) (5, chapter I V ) .

­65­
 200

100

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007

Fig. 6 Graphical representation of tables indicating steel

temperature as a function of massivity factor and properties of
protection material.
PRODUCT : X
STABILITY TIME : 60 MIN.

Fig. 7

Typical graphs for g 700

direct determination
of thickness of
protection to be
used as a function
of required fire
stability, massi-
vity factor and
permissible tempe-
rature limit for
the structural
element

40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360

F/V ( · · ' )

-66-
TEMPERATURE FOR COLLAPSE.

The determination of the critical temperature of a steel

structural element, i.e. the temperature at which it will
collapse, depends on the theory of calculation of the
extreme conditions.

A direct relation has been established, for a structural

element, between the ratio of applied load (Q*) to the
cold crippling load (0 ) and the decrease in yield point
of tne steel (oy) with temperature (θ), valid for all
uniformly heated elements (1, # 5 . 3 . 2 . ) :

Qp <*v (20 °C)

'y
The European recommendations having been fixed on the
basis of laboratory measurements, a multiplication factor
Κ must be introduced to cater for the increase in mechanical
strength due to uneven temperature distribution in tests
and to the use of steels with properties superior to those
stated, parameters implicit in the results of official
tests.
The critical temperature is then obtained from:
KQ*
Ψ m

QP
and the change in yield point with temperature is shown
in fig. 8 (1. # 2 . 3 . 3 ) .

Thus, for ψ =0.b7 the critical temperature is 450°C

and for ψ =0.18 the critical temperature is 650°C.

It is thus established that the collapse temperature of

a steel structural element is not a constant value but
depends on the loading conditions and the strength of
the element.
The determination of ψ is made from the applied loads
and the application of formulae or use of tables:

-67-
 "y.«
1.0

" y . 20

0,8

0.6

0.4

y. β 108 (i ­ β/îooo)
0.2
'y.20 a ­ 440

200 400 «00 800 1000

Steel temperature (°C)
Fig. 8. Change in yield point of mild steel with temperature

For elements in compression, such as columns, the crippling

load is calculated from:

1 ♦*( * ­0,2 ) + 3 2 I./! ,2 '

Ncr ­ A . "y 2 0

Λ
when > 0,2

and from

Nc
r­ * ■ "yzo when Λ « 0.2

the various coefficients being defined in (1*5.4.2.)

Knowing N*, the applied load on the element, and with K=0.85,
we obtain: N*
ψ « 0,85
Ncr
This model has been tested by numerous experimental results
(fig.9) (7 & 8 ) .

­68­
 120 160
"cr (experimental) (N/mm2)
Fig.9. Fire stability of steel columns. Theoretical v. experi­
mental results (7).
For elements in bending such as beams, a coefficient of
hyperstaticity ( θ ) , which is generally greater than unity
for hyperstatically designed elements, under service loads
and in the elastic region, must be introduced. The expression
then becomes : ,.

f · σ

where a = maximum applied stress

f = section factor.
Values of Κ are given in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Values of coefficient k for beams.

LOADING LEVEL "¡J^

0.2 0,3 0,4 0.5 0,6 0.7 0,8 0,9 1,00

0,80 0,83 0,86 0,88 0,90 0,93 0,95 0,98 1,00

ISOSTATIC BEA MS

Beans with degree 0.60 0,65 0,70 0,76 0,80 0,85 0,90 0,95 1,00
if hyperstaticity

Beams with degree of 0.40 0,48 0.55 0.65 0,70 0,78 0,85 0,93 1,00
liyperstatlclty

­69­
Depending on the level of loading and the type of element,
the critical temperatures for elements designed elastically.
may have the values indicated in Table 3.

Table 3. Critical temperature as a function of loading level

and type of element, assuming section factor
f = 1.15 and coefficients Κ as in Table 2.

Static
α /.,
β hyper­
■yatea 1
«ty " b.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

IS0STAT1C ­ ­ 625 590 550 505 450

H»PERST*TIC

i­U
•L

*
4

i
ι

Ϊ
1,12

1.00
1

>ι
675

700
625

640
690

595
550

555
510

500
1 6
stilus ι.47 1 710 660 625 595 565

|UiUiJ| 1.33 740 680 630 600 560

The correlation between theoretical and experimental results

has been verified on many occasions. For example, fig.
10 shows the good correlation between a method of calculation
very similar to that in the recommendations and tests
made in Germany, Japan and France ( 9 ) .

In regard to assemblies with horizontal and vertical elements,

tests (10) and investigations after disasters have shown
that these zones have a fire resistance greater than that
of the elements assembled. This is due to a greater concentration
of material , which reduces the temperature of these zones
and to a general over­designing of combined systems.
Except for some precautions in use ( 1 * 4 . 5 ) there is thus
no particular need to study the fire resistance of steel
assemblies.

­70­
 o
β
fri

χ uniform variable
temperature: i s o s t a t i c beams
o Japanese t e s t s
+ German t e s t s .
.French t e s t s , hyperstatic beams

800 »C

Experimental temperature (°C)

Fig. 10 Theoretical v. experimental collapse temperature

for isostatic and hyoerstatic beams. (9)

Several European countries have already adopted rules

for calculation very similar to these recommendations,
or will soon do so. (Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany,
Britain, France).

Some countries have even more sophisticated regulations,

referring to several possible fires (Sweden and Denmark)
or calculation using probabilistic methods (Germany).

­71­
 REFERENCES

1 ­ ECCS ­ Technical Committee 3 ­ Fire safety of steel structures.

European recommendations for the fire safety of steel structures.
Calculation of the fire resistance of load bearing elements and
structural assemblies exposed to the standard fire.
ELSEVIER ­ 1983 ­ NETHERLANDS

2 ­ Communauté européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier.

Recherche sur la tenue au feu des constructions métalliques.
Doc. EÜR 5180 F ­ Août 1974.

3 ­ European Convention for Constructional Steelwork

Fire safety in constructional steelwork.
Doc. CECM ­ III ­ 74 ­ 2 E ­ 1974.

4 ­ International Seminar on steel and composite elements

DELFT ­ 6,7 November 1980.
Fire safety journal volume 4 ­ Ne 4 ­ 1981/1982.

5 ­ ECCS ­ Technical Committee 3.

Manual on the European recommendations for the fire safety of
steel structures ­ 1984.

6 ­ Organisation Internationale de Normalisation

Recommandation ISO R 834.
1968 ­ F.

7 ­ M. VANDAMME et J. JANSS.
Buckling of axially loaded steel columns in fire conditions
IABSE Proceedings ­ Ρ 43/81 ­ August 1981.

8 ­ J. KRUPPA
Calcul des températures critiques des structures en acier.
Revue Construction métallique n" 3 ­ 1976.

9 ­ J. KRUPPA
Résistance au feu des structures métalliques en température non homogène
Thèse présentée â l'INSA de Rennes ­ Juin 1977. .

10 ­ J. KRUPPA
Résistance au feu des assemblages par boulons haute résistance.
CTICM ­ doc. n° 1013­1 ­ Juin 1976.

­72­
 EXAMPLES OF CALCULATION OF FIRE RESISTANCE OF THE STEEL
MEMBERS ACCORDING TO THE EUROPEAN RECOMMENDATIONS OF ECCS TC3

S. BRYL

Research and Development Department, Geilinger Ltd, Switzerland

Summary

The European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures con-
centrate on the analytical determination of the fire resistance of load
bearing steel elements as an alternative for the standard fire restistance
test.
The calculation of the fire resistance consists of the computation of the
rise of the temperature in the steel member under the influence of the
standard fire conditions and of the calculation of the critical temperature
of this element. The fire resistance is the time necessary for the steel
element to reach its critical temperature.
According to the initial data given, the calculation can be conducted in
three different ways:
1. Given: Steel section, insulation, loading.
Asked: Fire resistance.
Example: Column with light weight insulation.
Example: Column with heavy, moist insulation.
2. Given: Steel section, loading, required fire resistance.
Asked: Type and thickness of insulation.
Example: Continuous beam. Box type cladding.
3. Given: Steel section, insulation, required fire resistance.
Asked: Admissible loading under fire conditions.
Example: Unprotected steel column.
(14 Fig.)

-73-
1. INTRODUCTION

The European Recommendation for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures

concentrate on the analytical determination of the fire resistance of
load bearing steel elements as an alternative for the standard fire
resistance test. The calculation of the fire resistance consists of
the computation of the rise of the temperature in the steel member un­
der the influence of the standard fire conditions and of the calcula­
tion of the critical temperature of this element. The fire resistance
is the time necessary for the steel element to reach its critical tem­
perature (Fig. 1)

"c

* ^ ISO sv kNDARD FRE *­♦„

no

»
ι

700

500

UJ
K

Ψ-
<
300 τ ÍMPER ATURE / ţ STEEL oc
*i»tlF/Vj ^i.di.tv) Η
UJ ϊ
»
ty

100

■J ^
0
30 M M 120 MM
1IME t
FIRE RESISTA NCE Ir

Fig. 1 Γ

­74­
Following data are necessary for such calculations (Fig. 2 ) :
­ properties of steel at high temperatures as the yield stress σ γ and
specific heat c ,
­ structural behaviour of the steel element f(S), mostly beam or col­
umn,
­ loading of the element during the fire test κ·ρ
­ the shape factor of the cross section F/V,
­ the thickness and the thermal conductivity of the insulation \./d.,
­ density p. and the moisture content p. of the insulation.

By F/V.C,

r.P* *¡/d¡

f(s) Si.Pi
OD
Fig. 2.

According to the initial data given, the calculations can be conducted

in three different ways, to prove that:

Case 1: the time necessary to heat the steel element to the critical
temperature is longer then the required fire restistance

(υ. «cr)

Case_2: the steel temperature υ reached after the fire duration equal
to the required fire resistance time is lower then the critical
temperature

° s S °cr

Case 3: the loading of the element during the fire test is lower then
the loading which would cause, at the maximum temperature
reached at the required fire duration, the failure of the
structural element:
K.P s Ρ
υ,cr

­75­
 ■c

* ^
ι^­τ
0 0 SIA NOA RO F W t
2. CALCULATION CASE 1
CASE 1
OVEN : S U E L SECTION INSULA TION LOA DING
Given: Steel section «M ASKED: FIRE RESISTA NCE

Insulation
Loading
Asked: Fire resistance

Course of calculation: 900 Gy.T.P.»

1) Load level κΡ/
K P / P U and the critical
temperature υ
2) Temperature rise in the steel sec­ V
tion υ

3) For υ.
s υ
cr
read the tine t .
r
<ff
/
and t = fire resistance.
r
"V t=?
f
00 MM
IME I

Fig. 3

Steel column with light weigth

insulation (Fig. 4) ­ = l ·
ISO STA NDA RD FIRE * ­ * _ · US. log ( I t ·11

Column HEB 300. Steel grade

235 with σ = 235 N/mm2.
Loading during fire Ρ = 1700 kN
Heigth of column L. = 350 cm.
Insulation: Sprayed mineral
¿cr=517'C
wool, thickness d. = 2 cm
thermal conductivity λ. = 0,10
W/m.K, d^Xj = 0,2 m2.K/W

Step 1
2
Steel section A = 149 cm
i = 7,58 cm.
Under the assumption, that
the slenderness ratio of the
column in fire test is:
λ = 0,7xLt/iy = 32,3
we receive for European buckling
curve C: Fig. 4

­76­
buckling stresso = 217 N/mm and the buckling load Ρ = 3233 kN.
cr u
With the correction factor for fire tests of K = 0,85 the load level
is: K.P /P = 0,85.1700/3233 = 0,447
From the condition, that the relationship of the yield stresses σ /σ
should not be smaller then the load level:

°y.A = ι + 767 In(υ /1750) K.P/Pu = 0,447

s
we can easily find the critical &y,¿/Ey
temperature, which is: 7.
100
u„ „„ = 517 °C
s,cr
For this purpose one can use
diagrams as in Fig. 5 | 11 or
80
tables as published in the
Appendix A | 2| .

60
Step 2
The temperature increase of a O.J7 ■

lightly insulated steel element 40

IUI li
during a time interval A t can
\
be calculated:
0,2( 11 \
Δυ = — Κ (υ t ­Ug). At
20
s c I m wy,
' 1
where: ,.
Fig, 5
100 300 500 700 'C
Κ = —
—α„+α
— + d/λ· co
ι Λι mm co

For different values of F/V and d./λ. the increase of temperature has
been calculated and the resulting values of temperature are tabulated
in the Appendix Β |2|. From these tables it is also possible to con­
struct diagrams as in Fig. 6.
In our case we receive:
d i A i = 0,2 m2.K/W

For HEB 300: F = 1.73 m2/rn and V = 0,0149 m3/m

1
F/V = 116 m"

­77­
Through interpolation between d j A i = 0 2m*.K/W
F/V = 100 and 150 and for the
critical temperature of 517 °C * F/V
we find, that this temperature
will be reached after 111 minutes. S 150
S
* ( Γ = ί17· / 116
That is, the fire resistance of ι
bUU ΙΙΗ)
the column is:

t = 111 minutes
r
For a practical range of critical
temperatures, 400 to 600°C and
a constant λ-value, the time t
' r
t =111
can be very easily calculated
30 60 90 120 t
from the formula |2|:
0,77
t = 40. (υ 140)
■m Fig é

In our example:
t = 40.(517 - 140).(0,2/116)°·77 = 112 minutes

2.2.EXAMPLE2

Column as in Example 1 but

with box-type cladding with
moist insulation.

Insulation:
Thickness d. = 2 cm
thermal conductivity
X i =0,2 W/m.K
diAi = 0,1 mZ.K/W
specific heat c 1.7 kJ/kg.Κ
density ρ BOO kg/m3
moisture content p. = 20 %

Fig. 7

-78-
Step 1 Load level and critical temperature.
Aa in Example 1: κΡ/Ρ = 0,447 υ = 517 °C
u cr
Step 2 Temperature increase.
2
Area of inner surface of the insulation F r 4x0,30 = 1,2 m /m
Volume of steel V = 0,0149 m 3 /m
Section factor F/V = 81 m
The section factor should be modified, because the heat capacity of
the insulation c..p ,d..F = 1,7x800x1,2x0,02 = 32,7 kJ/m.K is greater
then the half of the heat capacity of the steel section 0,5.c .ρ .V =
= 0,5x0,52x7850x0,0149 = 30,4 kJ/m.K

The modified section factor will be:

c .ρ F
»W.mod F/V. 8c.K S.p . .F. .d. = 64 ^ v m o d = 6* m"
C 1 1 1 1 d¡/X¡ ïO.lm'.K/W
s°s+ 2.V

For the modified section factor of

64, the d.A .­value of 0,10 and
the critical temperature of 517°C 500
we can find from Fig. 8 the neces­
sary time and at the same time the
fire resistance:

t = 105 minutes
r
Quite the same value can be re­
ceived using the simplified tr :105Min
equation:

t = 40x(517­140)x(0,10/64)°' 77

t = 104 minutes Fig. 8

3
r
The evaporation of moisture will slightly prolong this time by about:
P 1 .p 1 .d i .d i
20x800x0^02'
fc
v = ,2 = 6 minutes
5 ~ 5x0,20
^i
The fire resistance of the column is t + t = 111 minutes,
r ν

­79­
3. CALCULATION CASE 2 ISO STANDARO FRE 4­l 0 <USI»g Jlt­11

Given: steel section,

loading
required fire resist­
ance.
Asked: necessary insulation.

Course of calculation:
1) Load level and the critical
temperature υ
2) Necessary d./X.­value.

Fig. 9

3.1._EXAMPLE 3

Continuous steel beam IPE 300

Steel grade 235. σ = 235 N/mm2
μ=τ­
Span L = 600 cm. Loading at
fire conditions ρ = 36 kN/m.
Required fire resistance:
90 minutes.

Step 1
Plastic moment of IPE 300:
M = Ζ.σ = 628.23.5 = 147 kNm
Ρ y
Ultimate loading of a middle
span of the continuous beam:

ρ
K = 16.M /L 2 = 16xl47/62
u ρ
p u = 65,3 kN/m

Correction factor for statical­

ly indetermined beam with two
or more redundancies: Fig. 10

­80­
 κ= 0,25.(1 + 3.p/pu) = 0,25χ(1 + 3x36/65.3) 0.66

Load level: κ.ρ/ρ = 0.66.36/65.3 = 0.363 σ /σ

y,υ' y
Critical temperature (Fig. 5) υ = 558 "C

Step 2
Section factor for IPE 300 with box­type cladding, one side against
fire screened:
F = 0,15 + 2.0,30 = 0,75 mVm
F/V = 140 m'
­1
V = 0,00538 m3/m
We must now find such a value of d./λ­, which after 90 minutes of the
standard fire, results in a steel temperature of 558 °C. From the tabu­
lated values of the rise of temperatures |2| one can construct a dia­
gram (Fig. 11) giving an inter­
dependence between the tempera­
*
\1 FIRE RESISTA NCE

ture of steel, the d./λ.­values \

V 901V in
1
and the section factor F/V. , s\ y *cr= 558"
Interpolation for F/V = 140 V\
gives the searched value as
F/V
di/\i = 0,17
»IbO
100

In order to obtain a fire re­

sistance of 90 minutes the heat 01 02 0.5 d/λ;
transfer coefficient of the in­ d¡/Xj =0.17m*.K/W
sulation should be not greater X¡ = 0.1 d¡> 0.017 m
then λ/d. 1/0.17 = 6 W/m .K Fig. 11
ι ι
For instance, the thickness of a mineral spray with λ. = 0.10 W/m.Κ
should be:
min d 1 = 0,168.0,1 = 0,017 m = 17 mm
Instead of using the diagram the necessary value of d./λ. can be ap­
proximatly calculated with following equation:
d./λ. = 0,0083. ^ . [t/(Us ­ 140)] 1 ' 3

For values of the example above:

o y ^ = 0,00B3xl40x [90/(558­140)] Χ ' 3 = 0,16 m2.K/W

min d, = 0,16x0,1 = 16 mm

­81­
4. CALCULATION CASE 3

Given: steel section,

insulation,
required fire resist­
ance,
Asked: admissible loading at
fire conditions.

Course of calculations:
1) Steel temperature υ after
the fire duration equal to
the required fire resistance
2) Yield stress of steel at the
temperature υ .
3) Admissible loading for tem­
perature υ ■

Fig. 12

4.1 . EXAMPLE 4 ISO SIANDAJtD FRE f * * ; " * I·«« (■>·■!

Unprotected steel column.

Steel column, made from solid
V«
round section D = 240 mm.
Steel grade 355, with the
guaranteed yield stress of
σ = 355 N/mmZ. Length of
the column L = 400 cm.
Required fire resistance
60 minutes.

Step 1
Section factor F/V 4/D
­1
F/V = 4/0,24 = 16,7 m"

Through interpolation (Fig. 14)

between F/V = 15 and 20
the steel temperature after F i g . 13

­82­
60 minutes of standard fire can be read
υ = 636 °C
600
s
Step 2
The corresponding yield stress

°y,u /tJ y =
°* 2 0 1 °y,u =
°-201x355
σ u = 72 N/mm2

Step 3
Buckling load at normal temperature:
.2 0.7x400
452 cm i = 6 cm

Fig. 14
λ= 47. For buckling curve C:
276 N/mm* and the buckling load Ρ = 27.6x452 = 12470 kN
cr g u
Buckling load at the temperature of 636 °C:

Ρ = Ρ J} /O = 12470x0,201 = 2500 kN
υ,υ u yfj y '
Correction factor for fire test: κ= 0,85
Admissible load under fire conditions:
Ρ = Ρ l< - 2500/0,85 = 2950 kN
υ u,u

The loading of the column under fire conditions should not be greater
then 2950 kN.

5. REFERENCES

|1| ECCS-Technical Committee 3. European Recommendations for Fire

Safety of Steel Structures. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co,
Amsterdam 1983.

|2| ECCS-Technical Committee 3. Manual on the European Recommendations

for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures. (To be published before
the Conference in Luxembourg).

-83-
APPENDIX A. YIELD STRESS OF STEEL AT HIGH TEMPERA TURES

υ u σ„ ,,/σ„ υ σ, υ,,/σ„ υ σ„ ,,/ow υ σ.. ,,/σ.

yi u .y°..
°.. y o c y>» y oc ^ y y»u y y»u y
°C °C °c
300 0,778 345 0,723 390 0,661 435 0,593 480 0,516
301 0,777 346 0,722 391 0,660 436 0,591 481 0,514
302 0,776 347 0,720 392 0,658 437 0,589 482 0,513
303 0,775 348 0,719 393 0,657 438 0,588 483 0,511
304 0,774 349 0,718 394 0,655 439 0,586 484 0,509
305 0,772 350 0,716 395 0,654 440 0,584 485 0,507
306 0,771 351 0,715 396 0,653 441 0,583 486 0,505
307 0,770 352 0,714 397 0,651 442 0,581 487 0,504
308 0,769 353 0,713 398 0,650 443 0,580 488 0,502
309 0,768 354 0,711 399 0,648 444 0,578 489 0,500
310 0,766 355 0,710 400 0,647 445 0,576 490 0,498
311 0,765 356 0,709 401 0,645 446 0,775 491 0,496
312 0,764 357 0,707 402 0,644 447 0,573 492 0,494
313 0,763 358 0,706 403 0,642 448 0,571 493 0,493
314 0,762 359 0,705 404 0,641 449 0,570 494 0,491
315 0,761 360 0,703 405 0,639 450 0,568 495 0,489
316 0,759 361 0,702 406 0,638 451 0,566 496 0,487
317 0,758 362 0,700 407 0,636 452 0,565 497 0,485
318 .0,757 363 0,699 408 0,635 453 0,563 498 0,483
319 0,756 364 0,698 409 0,633 454 0,561 499 0,482
320 0,754 365 0,696 410 0,632 455 0,560 500 0,480
321 0,753 366 0,695 411 0,630 456 0,558 501 0,478
322 0,752 367 0,694 412 0,629 457 0,556 502 0,476
323 0,751 368 0,692 413 0,627 458 0,555 503 0,474
324 0,750 369 0,691 414 0,626 459 0,553 504 0,472
325 0,748 370 0,690 415 0,624 460 0,551 505 0,470
326 0,747 371 0,688 416 0,622 461 0,549 506 0,468
327 0,746 372 0,687 417 0,621 462 0,548 507 0,466
328 0,745 373 0,685 418 0,619 463 0,546 508 0,465
329 0,743 374 0,684 419 0,618 464 0,544 509 0,463
330 0,742 375 0,683 420 0,616 465 0,543 510 0,461
331 0,741 376 0,681 421 0,615 466 0,541 511 0,459
332 0,740 377 0,680 422 0,613 467 0,539 512 0,457
333 0,738 378 0,678 423 0,612 468 0,537 513 0,455
334 0,737 379 0,677 424 0,610 469 0,536 514 0,453
335 0,736 380 0,676 425 0,608 470 0,534 515 0,451
336 0,735 381 0,674 426 0,607 471 0,532 516 0,449
337 0,733 382 0,673 427 0,605 472 0,530 517 0,447
338 0,732 383 0,671 428 0,604 473 0,529 518 0,445
339 0,731 384 0,670 429 0,602 474 0,527 519 0,443
340 0,729 3B5 0,668 430 0,601 475 0,525 520 0,441
341 0,728 386 0,667 431 0,599 476 0,523 521 0,439
342 0,727 387 0,666 432 0,597 477 0,522 522 0,437
343 0,726 388 0,664 433 0,596 478 0,520 523 0,435
344 0,734 389 0,663 434 0,594 479 0,518 524 0,433

­84­
APPENDIX A. Continued

υ Oy^j/Oy
°c
υ
°c
Ou/a
ν».*, υ σ /θ

525 0,431 570 0,337 615 0,238 660 0,167

526 0,429 571 0,335 616 0,236 661 0,166
527 0,428 572 0,333 617 0,234 662 0,164
528 0,426 573 0,331 618 0,232 663 0,163
529 0,424 574 0,329 619 0,230 664 0,162
530 0,422 575 0,326 620 0,228 665 0,161
531 0,420 576 0,324 621 0,226 666 0,160
532 0,417 577 0,322 622 0,224 667 0,158
533 0,415 578 0,320 623 0,222 668 0,157
534 0,413 579 0,318 624 0,221 669 0,156
535 0,411 580 0,315 625 0,219 670 0,155
536 0,409 581 0,313 626 0,217 671 0,154
537 0,407 582 0,311 627 0,215 672 0,153
538 0,405 583 0,308 628 0,214 673 0,152
539 0,403 584 0,306 629 0,212 674 0,150
540 0,401 585 0,304 630 0,210 675 0,149
541 0,399 586 0,302 631 0,209 676 0,148
542 0,397 587 0,299 632 0,207 677 0,147
543 0,395 588 0,297 633 0,205 678 0,146
544 0,393 589 0,295 634 0,204 679 0,145
545 0,391 590 0,292 635 0,202 680 0,144
546 0,389 591 0,290 636 0,201 681 0,143
547 0,387 592 0,288 637 0,199 682 0,142
548 0,385 593 0,286 638 0,197 683 0,141
549 0,383 594 0,283 639 0,196 684 0,140
550 0,380 595 0,281 640 0,194 685 0,139
551 0,378 596 0,279 641 0,193 686 0,138
552 0,376 597 0,276 642 0,191 687 0,137
553 0,374 598 0,274 643 0,190 688 0,136
554 0,372 599 0,272 644 0,188 689 0,135
555 0,370 600 0,270 645 0,187 690 0,134
556 0,368 601 0,268 646 0,186 691 0,133
557 0,366 602 0,265 647 0,184 692 0,132
558 0,364 603 0,263 648 0,183 693 0,131
559 0,361 604 0,261 649 0,181 694 0,130
560 0,359 605 0,259 650 0,180 695 0,129
561 0,357 606 0,256 651 0,179 696 0,128
562 0,355 607 0,254 652 0,177 697 0,127
563 0,353 608 0,252 653 0,176 698 0,126
564 0,351 609 0,250 654 0,175 699 0,126
565 0,348 610 0,248 655 0,173 700 0,125
566 0,346 611 0,246 656 0,172
567 0,344 612 0,244 657 0,171
568 0,342 613 0,242 658 0,169
569 0,340 614 0,240 659 0,168

­85­
APPENDIX Β. MEAN TEMPERATURES IN PROTECTED STEEL MEMBERS
ISO STANDARD FIRE. INITIAL TEMPERATURE 20 "C.

TIME SECTION FACTOR F/l/ m" 1

Min 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 400 500

2
INSULATION d./λ. = 0,60 m .K/W

15 31 33 36 38 40 42 53 63 73 83 103 121
30 46 51 56 61 66 71 94 117 139 159 198 234
45 62 70 78 86 93 101 137 171 203 232 286 333
60 78 89 100 111 121 131 180 223 264 300 365 420
75 95 109 123 136 149 162 221 273 320 362 434 494
90 112 129 145 161 177 191 260 320 372 418 496 559
105 129 149 168 186 203 221 298 364 420 470 551 616
120 146 168 189 210 230 249 334 405 465 517 601 666

INSULATION d./λ. = 0,50 m2.K/W

15 33 36 38 41 44 46 59 71 83 95 117
30 51 57 63 69 74 80 108 134 159 182 226
45 70 79 88 98 107 115 157 196 232 265 324
60 89 102 115 127 139 151 206 255 299 339 409
75 109 125 141 156 171 186 252 310 361 406 482
90 129 148 167 185 203 219 296 361 418 466 547
105 148 171 192 213 233 252 338 409 469 520 603
120 168 193 217 241 263 284 377 453 516 569 653

INSULATION d^X. = 0,40 m2.K/W

15 36 40 43 46 49 52 68 83 97 111 138
30 58 65 73 80 87 94 127 158 187 214 264
45 81 93 104 115 126 136 186 231 271 308 373
60 105 120 135 150 164 178 242 298 347 391 465
75 129 148 167 185 202 219 295 360 415 464 543
90 152 175 197 219 239 258 345 416 476 527 609
105 176 202 227 251 274 296 391 468 531 583 666
120 199 228 256 283 308 332 434 515 580 633 716

INSULATION d./λ. = 0,30 m2.K/W

15 33 37 41 46 50 54 58 62 82 101 119 136 169

30 50 60 70 79 88 97 106 115 157 195 230 262 320
45 69 84 99 114 128 142 155 168 229 282 329 371 442
60 88 109 129 149 168 186 203 220 296 360 415 463 540
75 108 134 159 183 206 228 249 269 358 430 490 540 620
90 127 159 189 217 244 269 293 316 414 492 555 607 6B 7
105 147 183 218 250 280 308 335 360 466 547 612 664 743
120 166 207 246 281 314 345 374 401 513 597 662 714 792

-86-
APPENDIX Β. Continued.

TIME SECTION FACTOR F/V m" 1

Min 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300

2
INSULATION d-Λ- = 0,20 m .K/W

15 39 45 51 57 63 69 74 80 108 134 158 181

30 64 78 91 104 117 130 142 154 209 258 302 341
45 90 112 133 153 172 191 208 225 302 366 421 467
60 118 147 174 200 225 249 271 292 385 458 518 568
75 145 181 215 246 276 303 329 354 457 536 598 648
90 172 214 253 290 323 354 383 410 521 603 666 715
105 198 247 291 331 368 402 433 461 577 660 723 771
120 224 278 326 370 409 445 478 508 627 711 772 818

Min 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250

INSULATION d ^ = 0,10 m2.K/W

15 54 65 76 86 97 107 117 126 172 212 249

30 99 123 146 168 189 209 228 247 327 393 447
45 146 182 216 247 276 304 329 353 454 529 588
60 192 239 281 320 355 388 418 445 555 633 690
75 237 292 342 386 426 462 494 523 637 714 768
90 279 343 398 446 489 527 560 591 705 779 829
105 320 390 449 500 545 584 619 649 762 832 878
120 359 434 496 550 595 635 670 700 810 876 919

INSULATION d.A· = 0,05 m2.K/W

15 40 60 78 96 114 131 147 163 178 193 259 315

30 68 112 153 191 226 259 289 317 343 368 467 540
45 98 167 228 282 330 373 411 445 476 505 612 683
60 129 221 298 364 421 469 512 549 582 611 716 780
75 160 273 363 438 499 551 595 633 666 694 793 850
90 191 322 423 503 568 621 665 703 734 762 853 902
105 222 368 477 561 628 681 725 761 791 817 901 943
120 251 411 527 613 680 733 776 811 839 864 940 977

INSULATION d ^ = 0,04 m2.KW

15 44 66 88 109 129 148 166 184 201 217 290

30 76 128 175 218 257 293 326 356 384 409 512
45 112 191 260 319 371 417 457 493 525 553 658
60 148 252 338 409 469 519 563 600 632 660 759
75 184 311 409 488 552 604 648 685 716 743 832
90 220 365 473 557 622 675 718 753 783 808 888
105 254 416 531 617 683 735 776 810 838 861 932
120 288 463 583 670 735 786 826 857 883 904 967

-87-
APPENDIX Β. Continued.

TIME SECTION FACTOR F/V m"1

Min 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

INSUALTION d./λ. = 0,03 n2.K/W

15 48 62 75 88 101 126 149 172 193 213 232 251

30 88 120 150 178 204 254 298 338 374 406 436 463
45 131 180 224 265 303 369 426 474 516 553 584 612
60 175 239 296 346 392 468 531 583 626 662 693 719
75 218 296 362 420 470 553 618 669 711 746 774 798
90 260 349 423 486 539 625 689 740 780 812 838 859
105 300 399 479 545 600 686 750 798 835 865 888 907
120 339 446 530 598 654 739 801 847 881 908 929 946

INSULATION d./k. = 0,02 m2.K/W

15 56 73 89 106 121 151 180 206 231 255 277 299

30 107 146 182 217 249 306 357 402 441 476 507 535
45 161 221 275 323 366 440 501 552 594 630 661 687
60 216 293 360 418 468 550 614 665 705 738 766 788
75 269 361 437 501 554 639 702 751 788 817 B41 860
90 320 424 506 573 628 713 773 818 851 877 897 913
105 369 481 568 637 692 774 831 871 901 924 941 954
120 415 534 623 692 746 825 878 915 942 961 975 986

INSULATION d.A · = 0,01 m2.K/W

15 68 91 113 135 155 194 230 263 294 322 349 373
30 139 191 239 283 323 393 451 501 543 579 609 635
45 215 292 360 418 469 551 615 664 703 734 759 780
60 289 387 467 532 587 671 731 775 808 832 851 866
75 360 472 559 627 682 762 815 853 879 898 912 922
90 426 547 637 706 758 832 878 909 930 945 955 963
105 487 614 705 771 820 887 927 953 969 981 989 994
120 542 673 762 826 871 931 965 987 1000 1009 1015 1020

WITHOUT CLADDING d.A- =0

1 1
15 95 131 164 196 226 282 333 378 418 454 486 514
30 215 296 367 429 484 572 637 685 721 747 767 781
45 343 460 552 625 682 760 808 836 854 865 872 877
60 467 603 700 767 814 869 897 911 919 924 928 930
75 580 721 809 864 898 934 949 957 961 964 966 967
90 678 814 889 930 954 976 985 990 993 995 996 997
105 762 886 946 977 993 1007 1013 1016 1018 1020 1021 1022
120 833 942 989 1011 1021 1031 1036 1038 1040 1041 1042 1043

-88-
 FIRE SAFETY, DESIGN OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS

J. Β. SCHLEICH
Department Manager
ARBED-Recherches
LUXEMBOURG

Summary

The four basic types of composite columns are presented.These columns,

alike by the combination of the two materials STEEL and CONCRETE, differ by
individual behaviour under fire conditions. Together they offer a whole set
of very interesting technical and practical solutions. The theoretical
basis of the fire resistance calculation of composite columns, their
experimental support as well as the available practical design tools are
exposed.

"This taper is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Augusto CARPEM, who suddenl y
passed away from us the 25th March 1984.
As General Secretary of the European Convention for Constructional l
Stee work,
he significantl y contributed to the success of this l ast conference."

-89-
 INTRODUCTION

From view point of performance under fire conditions four different types
of composite columns should be considered (Fig. 1):

a) rolled Η­profiles encased in concrete

b) rolled Η­profiles concreted between flanges
c) concrete filled circular or rectangular hollow sections with and
without reinforcing bars
d) steel core columns embeded in concrete with outer circular or
square steel sheet.

a) b)
a?)
* s ^ ^ O lM'. M
V " > ^'Ί«i L NX1
Γ7\
s^
* sSVN1 \>N>.
s ' c· ν1· 1
1 \ ^N ^ J
vXSH 1­X
^\Ν\Ί
>\:
\­ \1
l·^: Λ
ί ¡Jj 1 \v
M V
J

\ \^ "J ^^^\
η

FIG. 1. Typical cross sections of composite columns

One of the great advantages of the composite columns are their constant
outside dimensions in multi­storey buildings. By varying the thickness of
the steel section, the material qualities of steel and concrete, the
percentage of reinforcement, the cross section of the column may be adapted
to the increasing load without changing significantly the outer dimensions.
Every type of composite columns has its typical advantages and its proper
range of use.

The oldest type of composite column is the steel section encased in con­
crete. Its advantages are: High possible load level in fire conditions and
high carrying capacity not only for axial loads, but also for bending
moments (1).

The second type, the profiles concreted between the flanges, can bear
considerable axial loads and high bending moments. The shuttering is
strongly reduced and, if the section is concreted before erection, even
totally superfluous. Other advantages are: good resistance against the
mechanical damage without any reinforcement of corners, conventional steel
connections between columns and steel beams even when columns are concreted
before erection (2).

Both first types of composite columns furthermore have an excellent

resistance to earthquakes. It should be underlined that these two types of
composite sections are also used as beams.

­90­
The carrying capacity of the concrete filled hollow sections in case of
fire depends on the load level, but this capacity can be increased by using
reinforcement and high values of concrete compressive strength. The use of
reinforcing bars allows to consider bending moments or email load
eccentricities under fire conditions (3).

The steel core column is a further development of the concrete filled

hollow section, but with the main part of the load carrying steel cross
section protected against fire by layers of concrete. However, the columns
with steel core should be used as axial loaded members with only small
eccentricities (4).

Both last types of composite columns have a considerable advantage compared

with the reinforced concrete columns. The most severe drawback of
reinforced concrete members is the danger of spalding, by which the
reinforcing bars will be layed free and the expected fire resistance
considerably reduced. In the last two composite column types the ouside
casing will prevent the spalding and the core will remain better protected
against the fire.

The range of use of the previous given composite column types is very wide.
They finally cover a spectrum of axial loads extending from 100 kN to
20000 kN for the fire class F 120. Higher carrying capacities can be
obtained by using special built up composite column types like those given
in fig. 2 and 3.

FIG. 2 FIG. 3

F 120 built up composite column, AF 240 built up composite column,

based on rolled Η-profiles, of based on rolled Η-profiles of
0.9 m diameter, with the service 980 mm χ 1058 mm cross section,
load of 45 000 kN. with the service load of 90 000 kN.

-91-
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TEMPERATÜRE AND LOAD BEARING CA LCULA TIONS

2.1. General load bearing behaviour under fire conditions

Temperature gradient over cross section of a composite structural member

leads to different heating rates of its single components. In connection
with temperature dependent decrease of material strength, fire resistance
will depend on cross section design. Differences in cross section type,
involve differences in load bearing behaviour in fire case independent of
load bearing capacity at normal temperature. In fig. 4 the principle of
change of component's ultimate plastic load is plotted against fire time t.
External steel directly exposed to a fire will loose very rapidly its
plastic load bearing capacity, because of its high heating rate and
consequently its high strength reduction. That part of plastic load bearing
capacity, which comes from an external steel shell, must then be carried by
the concrete core. Contrary to this characteristic, in cross sections with
centrically imbeded steel profils, load will be rearranged from concrete to
profil. In this case average of concrete strength over cross section will
decrease more rapidly than strength of the imbeded steel profil (23).

To the second basic type belong cross­sections of type a and d of figure 1,

whereas concrete filled hollow sections (type c) must be attributed to the
first basic type. Rolled profiles concreted between flanges (type b ) , form
a mixed type with directly exposed steel of the flanges and insulated steel
of the web.

Internal Steel
(hot rolled Mettons,
reinforcement,...) FIG. 4
Ultimate plastic load
of the cross­section
components in function
of fire time t.

Fir* Tim· t­

2.2. Temperature distribution

As the heat capacity of the concrete part of a composite column is not at

all unimportant, the general differential equation of heat must be solved
g e n e r a l transient
in order to get the accurate d i f f e r e n t itemperature
a l e q u a t i o n field.
of weak
ιccurate transient temperature field.
[1]
^J-f^t «

­92­
where /{(θ): Thermal conductivity W/mK
,¿.(9): Specific heat Wh/kgK
ƒ : Density kg/mJ
c5: Fire temperature as a function of time t (in minutes)
according for example ISO-standard:
θ 20 + 345 log10 (8 t + 1)

The numerical methods using finite differences or finite elements are the
most common and unfailing ways to solve this differential heat conduction
problem. Whereas the finite difference methods are all easy to use with one
dimensional problems of simple structures, they become difficult with
several dimensional problems. The formulation of boundary conditions may
also raise problems. Therefore the more generally applicable programs use
the method of finite elements, which is applicable to even complicated
structures and to all types of boundary conditions. Typical networks for
finite elements analysis are presented in figures 5 and 6.
It is essential to know, that the heat (Q) is transferred from the hot
gases of the furnace or fire to the surfaces of a column by the two
mechanisms of convection (Q ) and radiation (Q ) .
+
Q ■ Qc Qr · " ^ [2]
Together with the furnace or fire temperature Θ,, the column surface
temperature θ (Κ), the coefficient 0( of convection heat transfer and the
resultant emissivity of steel ¿ or/and concrete, determine the heating up
of the column.
­ífte f ­o e ) + <te<e;­g¡) [3]
where $■* = Stefan Boltzmann Constant " 5,67 . 10 w/ 2
tf 4
m
m κ ·
For practical use, values of Of » 25 W/ 2 and ¿ » o,4 to 0,7 lead to
surface temperatures which are in good accordance with test results. For
cross sections with outer steel sheet the resultant emissivity can be
reduced to <f » 0,3, because of the radiation shield effect of this steel
sheet separating the heated outside from the inner concrete (4).
For practical use computer programs, allowing two and three dimensionnal
transient thermal field analysis, are available worldwide (5,6,7,8,9,10).

FIG. 5

Typical FEM­network for steel

profil concreted between flanges.
Steel sections (profil and
reinforcing bar) have been hatched,
whereas the numbers given represent
the temperatures (°C) computed in
nodes after 90 minutes of
ISO­standard fire exposure (6). The
finite elements THERNL, with 8
nodes, are Isoparametric thus
allowing the simulation of any
1XS « lie on shape.

­93­
 FIG. 6
Typical network for the computation
with finite elements. The numbers
presented indicate the temperatures
after 90 minutes of ISO-Standard
fire exposure. ■ The circular core
has been replaced by a quadratic
one of equal area (5), which is
sufficient for this type of
composite column.

Internal stress diagram due to the unequal temperature field

in a composite AF cross section, after 120 minutes
of ISO fire (12)

2.3. Load bearing capacity of composite columns under fire conditions

As seen before, the transient temperature field, created under fire

conditions in a composite cross section, is highly differential. Thus the
simplified proceedings (11) used with sufficient precision in order to
analyse protected or unprotected steel elements, are no longer applicable.
Indeed first of all the unequal temperature field, through the temperature

-94-
depending, non linear, thermal and mechanical material properties, creates
a rather inhomogeneous material properties distribution within the cross
eection. Finally the unequal temperature field accompanied by an unequal
free thermal strain field, through the plane cross­section assumption,
leads to strong internal stresses (fig. 7). These however affect
undoubtedly the load bearing capacity of composite construction elements.

For these reasons the calculation of the ultimate buckling load Ν of

composite columns under fire conditions is only possible, without* any
restrictions as to the geometry of the cross­sections, the building
structural system, the load combination etc. if a numerical model is used
allowing an exact thermal and mechanical system analysis (6, 13, 14, 15,
15'. 16).

However the numerical complexity is quickly increasing with the growing

precision of such an analysis. Therefore simplified calculation models have
been developped. These models allowing a quick, every day use calculation
of the ultimate buckling load of composite columns, for a given application
field and a given cross section, are based generally on

­ a transient thermal field analysis assigning, for a given fire class,

a mean temperature to any finite element in case of a sufficiently
fine mesh. This temperature gives the respective material parameters
of the element.

­ the calculation of the ultimate plastic load of the total composite

cross section which is obtained by summing up the plastic limit loads
of all finite elements of the discretized section. This procedure
represents the so­called summation method.

Ν Ρ Θ ­ j£{À;*f o +¿i*Se,* > W

As however the thermal, internal stress distribution, increased by the
axial column load, leads to heavily crushed border elements whereas
the core elements are less loaded, border elements should not be
considered or at least their contribution in the total plastic load
should be strongly reduced. This fact is taken into account by the
balanced summation method for which

Ν xA x +
Ρ.Θ '¿Vi i ^i,» Îi *Aj *<E. e > I«
with o f frf 1

­ the calculation of the ultimate buckling load Ν for a given fire

class, by using the ultimate plastic load previously calculated and
following the guidlines for ambient temperature (17, 18, 19)

N
cr,e " * * Ν Ρ , Θ I«

Among those simplified calculation models, the summation method should only
be used for short columns which are more or less centrically loaded. The
balanced summation method may be applied to columns with moderate
slenderness and small eccentricity of load, if based on real fire test
calibration.

­95­
Based on the aforementioned calculation methods i.e. transient thermal
field and exact system analysis, summation method and balanced summation
method calibrated on real fire tests, practical design tools like tables,
graphs and diagrams have been established enabling architects and engineers
a quick, safe and economic calculation of the ultimate buckling loads for
composite columns. Thus in practice 3D, non linear, transient FEM-programs
have not to be used. They remain research tools which of cause are needed
in order to develop our knowledge on composite construction elements and to
assure the firm basis to those practical design tools which will be
explained hereafter.
3. FIRE RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS WITH ROLLED PROFILES ENCASED IN
CONCRETE

3.1. Description

Columns of hot rolled profiles totally encased in concrete have been used
in practical engineering for a long time. In these cases concrete served as
fire protection of the load bearing steel columns, which continued to be
designed as steel elements. The concrete only produced the effect of
thermal insulation.
Recent development created the type of composite columns taking advantage
of the concrete's own load bearing capacity. Thus, besides the well-known
fire resistance, a considerable improvement of load bearing capacity is
achieved. Columns of this type attain a much better load bearing capacity
than columns of reinforced concrete or pure steel (1).
The cross section of this composite column consists of an Η-shaped rolled
profile arranged centrically within a reinforced section. According to the
design regulations for a reinforced cross-section, the latter is provided
with longitudinal reinforcements at least in the section corners and with
stirrups (Fig. 8).

FIG. 8
Composite column section
with Η-profile encased in
concrete, including re-
bars and stirrups

-A- •B-
The construction of closed stirrups of form A can be replaced by 2
half-stirrups of form B, provided that the hook (u) is long enough to tie
completely the 2 half-stirrups. The reinforcement can either be
concentrated in the corners, distributed proportionally along the section
sides or be symmetrically arranged on tension side and compression side in
case of additional bending moments.

3.2. Method of calculation and experimental basis

Within an European research project, extensive experimental and

theoretic-numerical work has been done in order to ascertain the fire
behaviour of these columns (20). The knowledge of the dependence on
parameters, gained by experimental investigations has been generalized by
numerical analysis (9, 14, 15, 21, 22). The comparison between failure
times ascertained either numerically or by experiment is given in figure 9.
The data show a divergence of less than 10 X which may partially be a

-96-
result of geometrical imperfections.
The different heating behavioure of the individual component parts, i.e.
re-bars, concrete and profile section are shown in fig. 10. As a
consequence of the earlier heating of the reinforcing bars in comparison to
the steel section, increase of the percentage of reinforcement in order to
improve considerably the load bearing capacity at normal temperature gives
way, in case of fire, to an earlier failure of columns. Indeed the total
load of the failing outer component must be transferred to the efficient
inner one. In case the influence of the profile section prevails, load
bearing capacity of the column is improved in case of fire because of
considerably slower heating of the steel component.
t* [mini
FIG. 9
160 X. y Ultimate failure times of
experiments (ttt) compared to
I
numerically predicted failure
/ / times ( t£), for 18 tested
m
composite columns with encased
/ s y rolled profiles.

s / y^/ %/
//y
/ / ·/ • ·/·

bU
—^TC^
t" (mini
0
60 90 120 150 160 ^

FIG. 10

The different heating

behaviours of individual
component parts
1) reinforcing bars
2) profile flange edge
3) profile web-flange junction
4) Center part of profile web.

Concrete should not be the dominant component, because it has an earlier

heating and loses strength earlier than the profile section. An increase in

-97-
the profile cover d. intensifies the effect of insulation and thus improves
failure time. This Increase in profile cover means, however, increase in
concrete as load bearing component and, at the same time, decreasing part
of profile section in relation to the load bearing capacity. Since concrete
has a higher heating rate than the profile, an increasing portion of load
has to be redistributed from concrete to profile. This procedure cannot be
recommended to obtain optimum fire resistant qualities of cross sections of
this type of composite columns. With equal loading and equal failure time,
outer dimensions of cross sections can be considerably reduced, if the part
of reinforced concrete is reduced and the profile section becomes the
predominant component of the cross section.
Composite columns with hot rolled steel sections totally embedded in
concrete, which have been optimized in this way, not only attain a
considerably higher load bearing capacity than columns of reinforced
concrete with comparable dimensions (1,23) but additionally have higher
fire resistance times. In figure 11 it is proved that, in comparison to
reinforced concrete columns, the required fire resistance can be obtained
with much smaller cross section dimensions.

FIG. 11
Minimum dimension "a" of concrete
columns and composite columns with
encased rolled profiles, in
function of the required fire class
F 30 to F 180,

FAILURE TIME ( u I mini ·

^ R einforced Concrete Columns

' occloDIN 4102 (BSI420/500R )
I-Composite Columns
, usingmax HE - M Profils (SI 52)

Increase in column length involves a decrease of failure time due to

slenderness. Figure 12 shows, however, that even in case of total design
load (t)ø~ 100 Ζ) with column slenderness of normal multi-storey buildings,
where columns can be supposed to have at least one fixed end in fire
conditions (Euler-case 3 ) , still a minimum of 90 minutes failure time will
be attained. Furthermore, figure 12 proves the validity of this statement,
in spite of smaller outer dimensions, up to a failure time of 120 minutes
in case of cross sections with high fire resistant qualities, for instance
by using HEM-profiles. The heavier HD profiles will of course be even more
efficient (42).
Systematic investigations have shown that load eccentricities have no
negative effects on column fire behaviour, if bending moments caused by
this eccentricity have been considered in the design for service
conditions. This favourable behaviour can be assumed up to an eccentricity

-98-
of e^0,5.a, i.e. normal force acting at the cross section edge.
In case of a normal force applied outside the cross section, the
eccentricity e^0,5a should act according to the main axis of inertia of
the hot rolled steel profile.
FIG. 12

Failure times of composite

columns with encased profiles,
in function of column lengths.

0 3 A 5
3.3. Practical design

The following recommendations (23) guarantee, besides optimum behaviour in

case of fire, advantages under service conditions and for technical
production.
l
u H) Ρ Γ 0 f i l e roBsrks
HE «ï HD
1 *7
■1* M
FIG. 13
>look >so > Ilo
<*000 31ο ht
JO
M00I têC > ï6o Minimum steel profiles
<I000 MOOI MO >
36ο
Ilo
7J

97
Www? assuring
resistance
a given
class
fire
without
31ο
WWW:,
»0
<tooo
>100λ

MOOI
>so

MO
> He
ato 13*
>40
w/W* τ 1> load reduction, in function
of the column length Lo (E3).
> doc
<·000 >]00B MO ■too 167 accordlag to
(see also (59)).
rolofoxc«6 coacrot»
MOOI >so MIO coloana
'aio •7
<4500 MOOI MO Mte
IDI
~2t0 ­μ < 3 t
*0 Μ00Μ >4 0 MIO
"310 130 foi Ita * fO' aad
MOOI >S0 L > 4.S .)
<*000 M40 . e
14 Β
'ito
M20M MO MOO

<tooc >1I0N MC MIO . ­for t^MJO'i

*31C . 100
ρ < 1 «
>3tc .
«400C >I2M >SC . "3tc . 1*9
130 > aie .
MIOH MC 31o . ì&e
<·000
> 36c .
" 3(c . 191
> *fC .
" hoc . U T

Design of cross section:

­ The minimum cover d. of the hot rolled steel section has to be 40 mm.
­ In order to obtain optimum fire resistant qualities with minimized

­99­
 cross section dimensions, thick hot rolled steel sections are of
advantage i.e. HEM, HD profiles and the like.

It is recommended to use high strength steel for the rolled shapes.

Reinforcement (A »tf­ ) should be minimized.
Γ y,r
Λ
Concrete of higher quality is not advantageous (if possible, limit/a
to 35 N/mm 2 ). »
If composite columns are supported according to Euler­case 3, that
means one end fixed and one end hinged, they attain in normal
multi­storey buildings, without reduction of load ( /*J© ■= 100 %) a
minimum fire resistance of 90 minutes; the fire resistance of 120
minutes is given when the rolled profile is clearly the predominant
load bearing component (see fig. 13).

3.4. Constructional details (24)

* The hot rolled steel section has to be embeded evenly into the
concrete; vertical concretinR is advantageous. The concrete has to be
compacted by vibration. The maximum grain size should be limited to 16

* Spacers should be arranged at a sufficient amount and size in order to

guarantee the centric position of the hot rolled steel profile within
the cross section, during concreting.
* The cross section has to be strengthened by stirrups. If high bending
moments are introduced in the beam­column connection, the number of
stirrups has to be encreased.
* Proportional introduction of load into the two components, hot rolled
steel section and reinforced concrete, has to be ensured for instance
by using top and base plates. Load introduction between these
plates into the steel section of the column, is possible by means of a
welded butt strap, further transfer of the load to the reinforced
concrete can be obtained through shear studs welded to the web of the
profile or the like.
* Composite columns with encased rolled profiles are qualified for
préfabrication as well as for multi­storey elements.

■
à

LUENEBURG, Administrative building, W.Germany

FIG. 14: Composite columns with FIG. 15: Cross section and pers­
rolled profiles encased pective of column­beam
in concrete. connection.

­100­
FIG. 16 et 17: Composite columns before and after concreting, used in
connection with flat slabs - LUXEMBOURG, office building
LE FOYER.

-101-
4. FIRE RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS WITH ROLLED PROFILES CONCRETED
BETWEEN THE FLANGES

4.1. Description

This column type, a component of the so called AF 30/120 composite

construction system, has been developped by ARB ED, Luxembourg in
collaboration with Prof. Dr. Ing. 0. JUNGBLUTH of the Technical University,
Darmstadt in Western Germany (25, 2, 26, 27). This .system, right away
available for columns, beams and their connections, can be designed for any
fire resistance time of 30, 60, 90, or 120 minutes (28, 29, 30, 31, 32) and
has been installed at some ten buildings in several European countries
(33, 34, 35).

The main characteristic of the system consists in using rolled H-profiles

and filling the spaces between the flanges with concrete. The exterior
faces of the steel flanges remain visible. The concrete contains
longitudinal reinforcing bars which contribute to support loads. Stirrups
or shear studs are welded to the web of the beam in order to ensure
solidarity of the reinforced concrete with the steel profile at normal
service (18) and under fire conditions (fig. 18).

FIG. 18
Composite AF 30/120 column section
with main components: H-profile,
re-bars, stirrups welded to web and
concrete between flanges.

4.2. Method of calculation

The exact method of calculation is based on the principles exposed in

chapter 2. The transient thermal field analysis of a composite AF 30/120
cross section ( 2, 6, 36), and the numerical calculation of the ultimate
buckling load Ν - under fire conditions of the same AF 30/120 column (12,
13) have shown a very good agreement with the measured temperatures and the
buckling load during the corresponding fire test.
However for everyday use, a simplified calculation model has been
developed for centrically loaded AF 30/120 columns. This model established
according to the balanced summation method explained in chapter 2.3, has
been calibrated on a series of AF 30/120 test columns (28, 37).

-102-
According to this method, the cross section of the analysed composite
column is divided into various parts (see figure 19). It is granted that
the mechanical properties of the aforementioned parts vary according to
their average temperatures, which are known in function of the fire
exposure time (t) and of the section size. When calculating the ultimate
load bearing capacity, the whole section is supposed yielded according to
its properties reduced in function of the average attained temperatures.

FIG. 19
Reduced composite cross section
depending on the fire exposure
time. The static properties of the
four individual parts are given by:
w
- I , moment of inertia of reduced
w
web area A
r
- I
fl, moment of Inertia of
fl
flanges with area A'
- I , moment of inertia of
reinforcing bars with area A rb

- I , moment of inertia of reduced

4-4 concrete area A
r
By comparing the various test results, showing the temperature evolution in
function of time and cross section shape, to the well known variation of
material properties in function of temperature (38, 39, 40, 41), the
following relationships could be set up.

The neglected outer parts (h ) of the web and the reduced yield point
(o _ ) of the remaining central web are given by
ry ,tf
h f (t, h, e) t — fire exposure time
s h - depth of steel shape
w f (t, h) e » thickness of flanges
ffry.e
The mechanical properties, yield point and Young modulus, of the
flanges will be strongly reduced by following relations:
fl
<7 f (t, F/V)
ry,e
F/V - section factor (m )
fl
E f (t, F/V)
r.e
A similar reduction is applied to the mechanical properties of the
reinforcing bars:
rb
f (t d) d - concrete covering of
ary.e " '
reinforcing bars
E* - f (t, d)

-103-
 The concrete layers (Sb) directly exposed to fire or in contact with
the hot flanges­ (Fig. 19) are neglected. The remaining part of the
concrete section has reduced compressive strength and Young modulus:
J f (t F/V
Γ.β ' >
c
E r 8 ­ f (t, F/V)

Thus the total ultimate plastic load (N „) of the composite section is

P»"
given by adding up the individual plastic loads of the web, the flanges,
the reinforcing bars and the concrete.
» «w ~.v ^ «fl —.fl ^ «rb rb , .c Λ c
Ν ­­ A . O" Q + A .Q" α + Α .fl­ „ + A . « „
ρ,θ r ry.ö ry,θ ^ ry,β r pr,θ
The effective rigidity being

El
eff,e » <E20­C­lW>+ (Er!e ^ ^ Ο ­ ^ ( E ^ ­ l ' > ·
the Euler buckling load should be

N
2 ^Eleff θ^
E 9 * *Lcr " c o l u n m b u c k l i n 8 length
cr
and the equivalent slenderness ratio is calculated by

This slenderness ratio "X used with European Buckling Curve C (19), gives
reduction factor d£ (17) to be applied to the total plastic load in order to
obtain the ultimate, or critical buckling load

N Ν
cr,e ­*· Ρ .Θ

4.3. Experimental basis

Practical tests of fire endurance on AF composite columns have been carried

out in the Fire Resistance Laboratory of Brunswick Technical University
under the leadership of prof. Dr.­Ing.Dr.­Ing. E.h. Karl Kordina.
These tests consisted in heating up the ambient gas temperature, around the
previously loaded column, according to the ISO standard curve. The moment
at which the loaded column collapses under these fire conditions gives the
respective ultimate failure time.

The main characteristics of the tested column specimens are:

­ rolled Η­profiles according to European and American Standards Í42),

yield point of profile steel given by ţ7~ « 235 N/mm. to 355 N/mm ,
yield point of longitudinal re­bars C~ ■ 420 N/mm ; normally 4 6 16
to 4 i 24 were installed,
­ stirrups or studs welded to the profile's web,
­ compressive strength of concrete p ~ 35 N/ 2 to 45 N/ 2.
ƒ ΙΗΠΙ ΠΙΠΙ

-104-
More detailed test conditions and test results are given in fig. 20 and in
the respective available technical certificates (28).
FIG. 20
TEST COLUMN COLUMN COLUMN AXIAL ULTIMATE FA ILURE TECHNICAL
NUMBER PROFILE LENGTH END TIST TUIE (■in.) CERTIFICATES Centrically loaded AF
L(m) CONDITION LOAD (kJ!)
KEASURED COHPUTED
BRUNSWICK columns tested under
HP 36oxl32 123
fire conditions in
3.8
22oo 1*1
HP )6oxI32 3σοο 112 97
7715oR
Brunswick.
HP 24oxS7 7oo 81 86
HP 24ox57 6oo 99 92
HP 3oox86 3.8 16oo (β 7«, 5 8o64*

HP 3oox86 12 So 97 98
HP 36oxl74
λ 325o So 76
HP 36oxl74 2ioo 91 88

HE 32oA A 2o9o 86 79,5

3,68 831oo9
lo HE 32oA A 16oo lo2 94

11
12
HP 31ox79

HP 31ox79
5,71 Τ 7oo
7oo
US
116
127,5

125
831ol6

1
It can be seen from fig. 20 and 21 that the ultimate failure times
predicted by the simplified calculation method are very close the measured
failure times, except for test number 7, in which case important concrete
spalding occured and therefore gave a smaller test failure time.

FIG. 21
Comparison of fire endurances
of A F columns, measured from
tests and computed according
to ARBED's "Reduced Composite
Cross Section" method of S
4.2., for real steel and
concrete qualities (see also
fig. 20).

4.4. Practical design tools

* A catalogue of composite columns for nearly all the series of European

and American rolled Η­profiles has been set up on the basis of the
calculation method described in paragraph 4.2., so enabling architects
and engineers a quick analysis of AF 30/120 composite columns. This
catalogue (29, 30) contains for the different rolled H­sections:

­ the allowable service load Ν of the rolled shape at ambient

temperature
­ the allowable service load Ν of the composite column at ambient
temperature
­ the ultimate buckling loads Ν „ of the composite column for the
fire classes F 30, F 60, F 90 and F 120.

­105­
 Following parameters have been considered:

­ the column lengths L from 2.50 m to 4.50 m

­ the concrete qualities Β 25, Β 35, Β 45 according to DIN 1045
­ the steel grades ST 37, ST 52 according to DIN 17100
­ the longitudinal reinforcing bars of quality BST 420/500 according
to DIN 488 up to 3 Ζ of the concrete area
­ the creep factor of concrete, ratio between the permanent load and
the total load applied to the composite section, supposed
equal to 50 Z.

A selection of this catalogue, containing a total of some 50 000 design

values, is given in fig. 22.

Calculation of allowable service loads Ν for composite AF 30/120 columns

at ambient temperature, according to German standard DIN 18806, is based
on a safety factor of 1.7 and on the assumption that the buckling length
(L ) should be taken equal to the column length (L) from floor to floor,
thus covering the most unfavourable sinusoidal instability case over
several levels.

But the calculation of the ultimate buckling loads Ν ­ of composite AF

30/120 columns in fire condition is based on a safety factor of 1,0.
Furthermore as the real fire normally occurs on one level, a stabilizing
effect is created through the strong rigidity decrease of the directly
heated column, whereas the rigidity of the same column on the upper and
lower levels remains more or less constant. Therefore, the directly
heated column on one level, behaves as if its ends were almost fixed.
Thus the given ultimate buckling loads Ν „ are based on the assumption
that the buckling length (Lcr) is equal to 85 Ζ of the column length (L)
from floor to floor.

Buckling has always been presumed around the weak axis Z.

* Concurrently, a set of diagrams has been drawn up, which allow a very
fast design. Indeed each diagram contains the whole set of one profile ­
type from 240 to 1000 mm height. For a given fire class, load to be
supported and column length, each diagram gives at once an adequate
composite cross section including geometry and qualities of all the steel
and concrete components (see fig. 23 and 24).

* Furthermore, CAD programs for the design of AF columns will be available

on different hardware configurations as HP 41 CV, HP 85, VAX etc. These
programs allow to consider any steel or concrete qualities given by
national standards, provided the application field covered by the initial
catalogue is not outwalked.

­106­
 B E I ­ A S T U N Q S T ABEL­I­El* FUER VERBUNDSTLIETZEr
>­9β­12β
UERKSTOFFE RROFILSTRHL ST 37 PROFILREIIC HP
BEKHRUHOSSTRHL »ST 42Β/386 BETONGUETE ■ 13
KDIECHERZEUOENOE LA ST

BERECHMUNGS­ ZULRESSIOE ZENTRISCHE LftST IN KN BEI EINER FREIEN STUETZENLREHGE VON

FAELLE 2. SB 273 3. M 3.23 1 SB 173 4.88 4. 23 4. 38
BEUEHRUMl
STRHLPROFIL 2411 2366 2336 2323 2288 2231 2211 2178 2128
VERBUNOPROFIL 4313 4463 4418 433B 4286 4217 4143 4869 3991
Fie 4»S6 4926 4Θ92 4B36 4B16 4772 4726 4677 4623
12 β IS F6B 3747 3724 3697 3669 3637 3683 3367 3328 3487
FM 2886 27»7 2767 2745 2728 2694 2666 2636 2664
F12B 192B 1M7 1892 1B73 1B37 1838 1817 1793 1772

STRHLPROFIL 2716 26B6 2633 2616 2378 2S3C 2493 2447 2466
VERBUNDPROFIL 4B2B 4767 47B9 4646 4379 4386 443B 4331 4268
F3B 3188 3138 3116 3878 3037 4993 4946 4896 4842
F68 3693 3871 3B43 3613 1764 3749 3712 3673 3632
FM 2919 2968 28ΒΘ 2837 2B32 2883 2777 2747 2715
F12B 2B1B 2BB4 1M9 1972 1933 1933 1912 1Θ89 1B66

STRM. PROFIL 3822 2989 2932 2913 2878 2823 2777 2727 2673
VERBUNOPROFIL 3127 3B72 5Θ11 4943 4874 47M 4719 4613 4546
F3B 34 BB 3376 3342 33B3 3262 3216 3168 3117 5B62
12 β 18 Fã« 4843 4821 3994 3964 3932 3697 383» 3828 3778
FM 3834 3813 2994 2971 2946 2*1» 2698 283» 2627
F12B 211» 21B3 2BB8 2B7B 2831 2831 2869 1986 1961

STRHLPROFIL 3273 3238 3208 3138 3114 1866 3816 2963 2969
VERBUHDPROFIL 3388 3324 3261 3194 3121 3843 4961 4873 4786
F3B 5*2« 3393 3357 331» 3476 3438 33ΘΒ 3328 5272
U ( U FSB 41B3 4161 4133 4183 4871 4833 399Θ 3957 3*15
FM 3148 3121 3188 3877 3831 3824 2993 2964 2931
F12B 228» 2193 2179 2161 2142 2121 2899 2873 2836

STRHL PROFIL 3383 3343 3384 143» 3411 336B 3383 3248 3189
VERBUM3PROFIL 3692 3633 336B 3497 3421 3348 3255 3163 5671
F36 SBS6 3823 3787 3747 3784 3657 3687 3353 5496
12 · IB F66 4338 4313 428« 4233 4222 4186 4148 4187 4064
FM 3238 3239 3217 3194 3168 3140 3111 3879 3843
F12S 2312 2297 2281 2262 2243 2221 219» 2175 2149

FIG.22: Catalogue for AF composite columns; this selection shows the design
values (kN) for several rolled profiles HP 400 χ 144 to HP 400x213
(i.e. HP 14"xl6"x97 to 14"xl6"xl43), with steel quality St 37
( Q"" ­ 235 N/__2) and concrete quality Β 35 ( A­ 35 N/ 2 ) .

L (m)­
FIG 23: F 90 ultimate buckling FIG 24:F 120 ultimate buckling
loads of HEAA European sections. loads of American wide flange
« Τy ­ 355 N/mm2;/J­
ι 45 N/
mm2) shapes W10"xl0"to W40"x 18"
(^"355,,/ππη2^"45 N/
mm 2 )

­107­
4.5. Constructional details

It should be noted that a construction designed according to the AF 30/120

process, still has the characteristics of a steel structure. The elements
are prefabricated in the shop or on site and are erected and assembled
according to methods similar to those of traditional steel construction.
Steel- or AF-beams can be bolted to vertical steel plates welded to the
AF-columns (fig. 25 and 26).

FIG.25: AF90 column with gussets for FIG.26: AF beams bolted on AF column
floor beam connection-COLOGNE, - DELMENHORST, office building Magnus
office building TradeARBED, Muller, W. Germany.
W. Germany.

But composite AF columns are also used in connection with flat slabs. The
column is delivered with the steel shear head already welded (fig. 27 and
28).

Besides the AF column can be prefabricated in one piece over several

levels, re-bars being adapted to the changing axial loads, so that the
building's construction speed will be accelerated.

Concreting in horizontal position before erection, asks for no shuttering

(fig. 28) whereas concreting an AF column in vertical position after
erection is always possible. In this last case the shuttering will be
strongly simplified, thanks to the very straight edges of the profile's
flanges (fig. 27).

Proportional introduction of load into the two components hot rolled steel
profile and reinforced concrete must be guaranteed either by using top and
base plate, either by welding locally shear studs to the profile's web or
the like.
The outer dimensions of this composite profile are strongly decreased
compared to the dimensions of a traditional steel or concrete column.
It should be noted that the column of fig. 28 supporting a service load of
7300 kN for the fire class F 120, has a cross section of 1000 mm to 300 mm.

Furthermore AF columns have an appealing surface, since the directly

painted steel flanges, together with the chosen concrete texture may create
a most successful architectural feature (34). Besides their high
resistance to impacts, due to the bare steel flanges, is a big advantage in
case of industrial and public buildings.

-108-
FIG.27: AF 90 columns with steel FIG.28: AF 120 column during
shear heads after erection - GENEVA, horizontal concreting before
Commercial Center Jumbo Vernier, erection - LUXEMBOURG, Social
Switzerland. Assurance EVI.

4.6. Future developments

Several research programs are going on for the moment. First of all
different column-beam connection types are analysed under fire conditions
(43). Furthermore a general numerical model for steel and composite
structures (16) is developped. It should allow an exact thermal and
mechanical system analysis without any restrictions as to the geometry of
the cross-sections, the building structural system, the load combination
etc. This more general fire approach is requested as the simplified calcu-
lation models are limited to the application fields covered by fire tests.
Accordingly we should be able to analyse special types of composite cross
sections (fig.29) and to solve the M/N interaction problem for composite
columns under fire conditions (44).
Fire retardant paint

FIG.29: Special types of AF composite cross sections able to support

axial loads and bending moments according to YYor/and ZZ axes.

-109-
5. FIRE RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS WITH CONCRETE FILLED HOLLOW
SECTIONS

5.1. Description

Developments in the field of concrete filled hollow sections have been

carried on steadily during the last ten years, for as well normal service
conditions [ (18), (45) to (52) ] as fire conditions (23). The fire
behaviour of columns with concrete filled hollow sections has been
thoroughly studied in several countries, especially in France and Western
Germany, where several research programmes were carried out between 1972
and 1983 (53, 54, 20). Theoretical and experimental studies resulted in
working out computer simulation programmes of fire tests for composite
columns of this type, among others (21, 55, 56, 15). Practical design tools
like tables and diagrams are available allowing a quick design of this
column type for the fire classes F30, F60, F90 and F 120 (58, 59, 3,).

^7T.
'•'/""/s FIG. 30
Traditional cross sections of
composite columns with con-
crete filled hollow sections.

V? ///·*//*>
'/// //'///,
¿////A
/// '/'/
Zxu.
As shown in fig. 30, different cross-section types are used depending on
circular or square hollow shapes, and concrete with or without reinforcing
bars.

5.2. Method of calculation

* The purpose of the theoretical study of COMETUBE (53, 55) was to find the
relationship between the imposed load and the ultimate failure time under
fire conditions.
It was based on the following assumptions concerning concrete filled steel
hollow sections:
- equare or circular hollow sections,
- the hollow sections are warm or cold finished welded profiles,
- section size between 140 and 400 mm,
- filling concrete made of current aggregates,
- either reinforced or non reinforced concrete,
- the percentage of reinforcement varies from 0 up to 3,5 Z,
- simulation of the heating process according to the ISO standard
curve,
- columns with no external protection,
- subjected to a centric load without end moment.

-110-
For the numerical simulation of the fire stability of these composite
columns, the thermal and mechanical properties of both materials ­ steel
and concrete ­ have been defined at both ambient and high temperatures.

The temperature field accuring in the cross section of this composite

column is calculated on the basis of the finite difference method and
following assumptions:

­ thickness and thermal conductivity of steel Involve a zero

temperature gradient in steel. Heat resistance between steel
and concrete is zero, and concrete is considered as homogeneous
material.
­ there is no heat transfer along the vertical axis of the columns,
which means that the problem is two­dimensional.
­ only radiation transmission was taken into account for the heat flow
transmitted to the column.
­ free water influence was simulated by considering a rapid increase
in the concrete's specific heat.

For square shapes, the cross section is divided in a square grid, each
square having a side length positioned diagonally; for reasons of sym­
metry, only 1/8 of the whole section, the triangle ABC (figure 31) must be
analysed.

FIG. 31
Typical FDM­network for a
square cross­section with n»6.

The half
halt .sidt
side a of the concrete core is divided into η equal parts so that
a η . J> . f 2. To give stable conditions to the numerical calculation, the
value of Jß should be 1 to 2 cm

Since the temperature field of the composite column cross­section can be

calculated for any instant, the ultimate failure time of the corresponding
column can be determined (see also S 2.3).

The medhod of calculation proposed is a generalisation for hot conditions

of the method drawn up by GU1AUX and JANSS (45,47) for the calculation at
ambient temperature of concrete filled hollow sections subjected to centric
load. The method has, however, been modified to take account of load
eccentricity (56).

­111­
* Following important conclusions could be drawn from the numerical
calculations and tests of the German research program (20, 14, IS).

­ It is necessary on one side to have a minimum reinforcement in order to

obtain sufficient fire resistance time. On the other hand, however, only
slightly better fire behaviour can be expected by a very high percentage
of reinforcement (see fig. 32).

FIG. 32
Influence of reinforcement
on the failure time of con­
crete filled hollow sections.

ji=0.0V. >J«1.0·/. μ«3.0°/·

­ It has been observed that for cross section size •X'240 mm, a decrease of
load by at least 50 % is necessary to reach a failure time higher than 60
minutes. For higher load levels, larger cross sections do not bring any
considerable advantage in spite of delayed heating. This is due to the
fact that a still significant part of the load at ambient temperature is
supported by the hollow section itself, which leads to an early critical
overloading of the concrete core under fire conditions (see fig. 33).

η » 0.7 Q6 0.5 0.45 0.4 FIG. 33

Influence of load level ^¡
and cross section size "a"
on failure time.

60 90 120
VERSAGENSZEIT I I m n l
(F­KLASSE)

­112­
5.3. Experimental basis

* A large number of concrete filled hollow sections has been tested by

COMETUBE under fire conditions and centric loads (53). About 79 composite
columns containing circular or square profiles with and without re­bars
were tested according to ISO 834 standard curve. Various parameters like
end conditions, load level, thickness of hollow section, percentage of
reinforcement and slenderness have been studied. The minimum section tested
was the square 140 mm profile, whereas the biggest sections tested were the
square 350 mm profile and the circular 406,4 mm profile.
The large number of test measurements available enabled a good comparison
between theoretical calculations and experimental results, thereby ensuring
a high degree of reliability in the proposed method of calculation
(fig.34).

FIG. 34
Ultimate failure times of ex­
periments (Texp) compared to
calculated failure times
(Tcalc) for 79 tested concrete
filled hollow section columns
under centric loads (53).

30 tO 10 10 100 130 HO IH IH 3O0

Furthermore 28 fire tests on loaded columns with small eccentricities (57)

show good agreement with the calculation method.

* The German research program of the S.A .E.S. (20) deals with 24 tested,
concrete filled hollow section columns with and without load eccentrici­
ties. Failure times measured are very close the numerically calculated
values (14, 15) as shown in fig. 35.

t ; [mini FIG. 35
/ Failure times of tests (t )
/ u
t'­t"
y/} compared to calculated failure
times (tţi) , for 24 tested co­
/7
lumns with concrete filled
** A
hollow sections (20).
**As
r

t"

A
'υ

Omini

­113­
5.4. Practical Design Tools

For everyday use practical design tools, deduced directly from computer
calculations have been established. Design values are given in tablee (58)
and diagrams (3, 53) for 16 standardized square and circular hollow
sections.

The diagrams (see fig.36 and 37) are of most practical use as every graph
gives for one required fire resistance time and one specified hollow
section, the ultimate centrical buckling load Ν . (kN) in function of

the column buckling length L (m)

the reinforcement percentage 0,5; 1 or 1,5 Ζ
the concrete compressive strength

f 30; 40 or 50 N/ 2
90
FIG. 36
Ν.«. (KN) I 2DD |T­ 60mn| Ultimate centrical
buckling load of concrete
^ v
filled hollow section
O»?
\ s column 200 ζ 200 χ 5 mm,
χ** 1
^ ­v
V N
^
for the fire class F 60.

­—'Ζ,
•X ^ ^ \ Ν

§5^
too

t­^ ' 1 1 1
—'— ­ ~

FIG. 37
ultimate centrical
Nu t (KN) o 457.0 |Τ. 120mi
Ί buckling load of concrete
filled hollow section
column 0 457 mm, for the
fire class F 120.
SS I J y S
S
■ ' ­<s
M 0.S—1\
<β · . · — » κ ^.
­
­ j _
Γ1­ ­1­ J ­­ L ­ ­L.
■4 rh ΓΗ ΓΗ Γ4 ι
u <·)

­114­
The possibility of taking small load eccentricities or small moments into
account is foreseen in monograph η S of CIDECT (47), which deals with the
calculation at ambient temperature of concrete filled hollow sections. This
is done by applying a reduction factor "Ä" to the ultimate centrical
buckling load obtained from graphs. This reduction factor "o(" is given in
fig. 38, in function of the 1./b and e/b ratios.

FIG. 38
Reduction factor et in case
of load eccentricity:
e: load eccentricity(mm)
1, : buckling length (mm)
b: profile size (mm)

The reduction factor to be applied to the ultimate centrical buckling load

under fire conditions in case of small eccentricity is given by the factor
tK1 ­0Í. (see fig. 39)

CŒFFtCtCNT imtOAATEUÑ DC ALPHA FIG. 39

C facto
factor function of
__j_ m
reinforcement percentage.
— — ■ —
■ - > "
A
ƒ
/
y ß» mulm ft arm■ fum

Consequently the diagrams (3,53) given for centrical loads under fire
conditions can be used in case of eccentricities by considering that
(56, 58):
centrical,
«1 Νult.ö ? Νservice load

„centrical w service load

0r N
ult.e ¿ "οζ

­115­
5.5. Constructional details

The wall thickness of hollow sections is to be minimized for the fire

design of this composite column type. Steel of higher grades should not be
chosen.

Columns are to be supported basically with the full surface area of their
head and footplates. Loads coming from concrete floors (fig. 41 and 42) are
transmitted to concrete filled hollow section columns through steel shear
heads. Steel floorbeams are connected to the concrete filled hollow section
through gussets welded according to fig. 40.

FIG. 40
Plate welded to hollow
section for beam-column
bolt connection (see also
figure 43 and 44).

Steam escape holes are to be bored in the top and bottom zones of columns.

Stirrups are to be arranged inside the hollow section, in order to fix the
re-bars and guarantee their concrete cover. Stirrups do not have any other
statical function.

Aggregates of an adequate graded mesh curve are to be used for core

concrete. The value of water to cement ratio is to be selected as low as
possible. It is advantageous to use concrete liquifier.

Columns are to be filled up with concrete in a vertical position.

Concrete-filling is to be carried out in layers or continuously at a slow
rate (see fig. 44). In order to achieve sufficient compression and to avoid
gaps, the application of shuttering vibrators is recommended, which are to
be installed transversely to the column axis.

-116-
FIG. 41: Residence building based on FIG. 42: Hollow sections filled
F90 concrete filled hollow section with concrete, supporting con-
columns (300x300 mm) - BORDEAUX crete floor - STRASBOURG, Centre
MERIGNAC, France. de formation des PTT, France.

HÉHiii
SÍSII

FIG. 43: Steel frame with F9o con- FIG. 44: Steel frame detail with
crete filled hollow section columns opening in column for concrete
(220x220) - BIELEFELD, administrative filling - Bielefeld.
building, W. Germany.

-117-
6. STEEL CORE COLUMNS

6.1. Description

This type of composite column has been developed by Geilinger Ltd.

Switzerland. The column cross section, according to fig. 45, consists in a
steel core embeded in concrete with outer circular or rectangular steel
sheet. Contrary to other steel core column types (62), the concrete of this
core column is strengthened by no reinforcing bars.

FIG. 45
Circular or square
steel core columns.

6.2. Method of calculation

At ambient temperatures the core column is calculated as a composite

section. The combined action of sheeting, concrete and core is provided,
even if the load is conducted only into the core of the column.

For the calculation of the temperature distribution during the fire, the
TASEF­2 Program was used (4,5). Typical results of such calculations are
presented in Fig. 46.

30 MINUTES 60 MINUTES 90 MINUTES

1 Ml

m m
| Β. *t m
■ » »» »
* « ft.I"1 va

□J
L_ io Nn η

ik *. Β». »
2 ( t t β tl β«

FIG. 46: Temperature development in core column 250 χ 250/140 after

30, 60 and 90 minutes of ISO fire.

­118­
With the known temperature distribution and the material properties, the
load bearing capacity of the heated column is calculated according to the
summation method given in chapter 2.3 (see fig. 47).
*i *-X<
FIG. 47
f Computation of the buck­
ling load at elevated
"t777^
Ή;«χ4 # ;4, temperatures.
'-*.
Τ
Γ-Ή;$>"7·;^

Ultimate plastic load :N„

Vo --?<*V<Ço> + ^ ( / s V/3 c e >
Euler buckling load : N E 9 ­ffr 4 *,·^»* ^¿(ΔΑ^Σ^ x¿2l
ST*
Equivalent slenderness ratio: 1 ■ u'N _/N„„' "

The reduction d€of the ultimate plastic load due to buckling is given by
the European buckling curve C.
The ultimate buckling load at elevated temperatures follows by:
Νcr,β ■ae- »,ρ,β
Cross section elements with temperatures greater than 600°C are not taken
into account.

In the above formulas:

ΔΑ , ΔΑ section elements of steel and concrete

s c
coordinate of the center of gravity of an element
buckling length of the column

The results of computations for some typical sections of the composite

columns with steel core are presented in fig.48. The values are given for
(Γ ­ ­ 215 N / 2 , Λ ­ 30 N/ 2 and a co Lumn length of L ­ 3000 mm.
y,¿o mm /*c mm

Section Core Sheeting Buckling load in kN FIG. 48

„ *) Ultimate buck­
20°C ' F30 F60 F90
ling loads of
300.300 RND 160 6 mm 6280 4370 3930 3580 core Columns.
300.300 RND 180 6 mm 7290 5420 4930 4510 Under fire con
0 300 RND 160 7,1 mm 6450 3970 3740 3150 ditions
t 300 RND 180 7,1 mm 7450 4890 4450 3270 L ­ 0,7 χ L.
200.200 RND 120 6 mm 3370 2020 1630 1270
200.200 RND 100 6 mm 2770 1490 1140 870
0 220 RND 120 5,9 mm 3470 1970 1560 1050
t 220 RND 100 5,9 mm 2890 1460 1300 950
*)
To obtain the service load at ambient temperature,
the values should be devided by the safety factor.

­119­
6.3. Experimental basis

The method of calculation was verified by three whole scale tests: two of
them were carried out at the Swiss Federal Research Station in Dübendorf at
ambient temperatures (63), one was a fire test at the Technical University
of Braunschweig, West Germany (64). The most important data of these tests
are given in figure 49.

FIG. 49: Whole Scale Tests on Steel Core Columns

Section Core Sheeting Length Conditions Results

calcu- measured Remarks
lated

150.150 RND 75 2 3000 20°C Ρ -1536 1540 kN

240.240 RND160 4 3000 20°C Pcr-4572 5360 kN
cr
300.300 RND160 6 3700 P-2510 kN 90 min. 128 min. ISO F i r e
M-12,5 kNm Test

The fire test was run with a column load of 2510 kN and a measured
eccentricity of 5 mm (M ­ 12,5 kNm). Under this loading a fire resistance
of 90 minutes was predicted. The test has shown, that the fire resistance
is greater, because reaching 128 minutes.

During the test the temperatures in concrete and on the steel core were
measured. The comparison between the measured and calculated temperatures
are presented in Fig. 50.

^ — ^ ­ ^ me measured
UhJUNl
woo
Standard Fire FIG. 50
(150)
HO
Comparison between cal­
culated and measured
Point
temperatures (64).
HO
·.· The measured temperatures
·"" "^ are below the calculated
100 _—■■* " / ones.
II .7
' "" ^^——" s.w.i.n
f^
_.·»* ­­O. ­­~"7

Fire Duration Min.

It is obvious, that the calculated temperatures were reached with a delay

of some 30 minutes, i.e. the calculation of temperatures is conservative.
The failure occured as the temperatures reached the predicted ones. Thus,
the method of calculation is on the safe side, which is desirable, as the
material properties at high temperatures may considerably scatter.

­120­
6.4. Constructional details

The sheeting of the columns can be manufactured from round or square hollow
sections (Fig. 51) or from cold formed steel sheet.In the last case two
C-formed parts will normally be used (Fig. 52).

FIG. 51: Core column with tube FIG. 52: Core column with cold
sheeting formed sheeting

In both cases there should be local connections between steel core and the
sheeting.
If the sheeting is made from hollow sections, evaporation holes should be
provided, as in other concreted hollow sections.
The composite columns with core are mostly used as centrically loaded
columns in connection with flat slabs. The column is delivered with a steel
shear head already welded and put upon shuttering of the slab or held in
position with special devices (Fig. 53).

The core columns have the smallest dimensions in comparison to any other
type of column (Fig. 54). Furthermore, they have an appealing surface,
since the steel sheeting may be painted directly. Their resistance to
impacts may be advantageous in case of industrial and public buildings.

-121-
 råt,

FIG. 53: Erection of F 90 steel core columns (65)

CHUR, Parochial building Titthof, WINTERTHUR, Commercial center

Switzerland. SISKA, Switzerland.
Max. column load 2100 kN. Max. column load 2000 kN.

FIG. 54:
Two composite F90 columns with
exactly the same height and
loading: left -H section
embeded in concrete, right -
steel core column.

WINTERTHUR, Industrial
building Weilenmann Ltd.,
Switzerland.
Max. column load 4000 kN.

-122-
7. CONCLUSIONS

Composite columns are modern and slender construction elements with high
load bearing capacities. They combine numerous advantages relating to
design and practical construction and are able to fulfil given fire
resistance requirements.

If the design of composite columns include fire engineering, the best

possible technical and economical solutions are available. Indeed among
others the load bearing materials remain visible because doing without any
outer surface insulation, the fire resistance is unaffected by age, and the
smallest possible cross section size is obtained.

Of course composite construction asks for more competency than mere steel
construction. This apparent disadvantage is however largely compensated on
one side by the aforementioned practical design tools and existing
computerized calculation methods. On the other side the close association
of steel and concrete inside composite elements, undoubtedly leads to an
improved competitiveness and consequently to a larger use of steel in
buildings.

P.S.:

Thanks are due to S. BRYL, research manager at Geilinger Ltd., Winterthur,

J.F. GRIMAULT, engineer at Come tube, Paris, and W. KLINGSCH, professor at
Wuppertal University. All these gentlemen are members of the TECHNICAL
WORKING GROUP 3.2., a sub-committee of ECCS-TC3. 'By their own scientific
and diversified work done in the fields of different composite column
types, the author, chairman of TWG 3.2, was able to elaborate the present,
general state of the art report on the FIRE SAFETY OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS.

-123-
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­127­
 FIRE ENGINEERING DESIGN OF COMPOSITE CONCRETE SLABS
WITH PROFILLED STEEL SHEET

by
L. Twilt

Institute TNO for Building Materials and Building Structures

Delft, The Netherlands

SUMMARY

The behaviour of fire exposed composite concrete slabs with profiled

steel sheet is discussed. On basis of experiments carried out in various
European fire test laboratories, it is concluded that the load bearing
capacity of this type of composite system is sufficient for a fire
resistance of at least 30 minutes, also if no specific means of fire
protection are applied. Condition is that the design at room temperature
complies with an approved method. To check the other fire resistance
criteria (insulation, integrity) a simple verification rule is presented.

If the required fire resistance is over 30 minutes, additional means

of fire protection may be necessary. In this respect the following
possibilities are briefly discussed:
- additional reinforcement
- insulating coating
- suspended ceilings

It follows from this discussion that - for various reasons -

preference is for additional steel reinforcement to increase the fire
resistance of composite slabs. This concept is therefore further evaluated.
The evaluation includes general fire engineering considerations as well as
the presentation of practical calculation rules for minimum slab tickness
and additional steel reinforcement to meet given fire resistance
requirements. These rules apply to normal weight concrete and lead to
conservative solutions.

-128-
1. INTRODUCTION

The composite concrete slab with profiled steel sheet is the type of
composite system most frequently found in buildings today.
The fire resistance of composite slabs is significant, even if no
additional fire safety precautions are taken. If necessary the fire
resistance can be increased to practically any desired load level by simple
and reliable means. Until recently, however, the structural fire
engineering design of composite slabs could only be based on fire
resistance tests. This procedure is time consuming and expensive, and
sometimes gives rise to anomalies due to variation in test results.
Consequently, there is a strong need for a practical design method, by
which the fire resistance of composite slabs can be determined analytically
and this should lead to more uniform levels of safety. Furthermore it leads
to a more simple and systematic design procedure, thus stimulating the use
of composite slabs. Such a design method, established by Technical
Committee 3 of the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork and
derived for normal weight concrete, is available now (1) and will be
reviewd.

2. CRITERIA FOR FIRE RESISTANCE

Fire resistance is determined under standard fire conditions,

characterized by the so­called standard gas­temperature­time curve. This
curve is shown in Fig. 1.
rcoc-r
#>° » o o ­
-Γ "J-
s
d.
T 200

-fr time l (min.)

Fig. 1 : The standard fire curve

Composite steel­concrete slabs have both a load bearing and a
separating function, and the following criteria for fire resistance shall
therefore be taken into account: (2).

­129­
(1) LOAD BEARING CAPACITY : Resistance to collapse or excessive deflection
under structural loading
(2) INSULATION : Limitation of the temperature increase on the
unexposed side of the slab
(3) INTEGRITY : Ability of the slab to resist penetration of
flames or hot gases through the formation of
cracks and openings.

The time taken to fail any of these 3 criteria is taken as the fire
rating of the slab, even though failure under other criteria may not occur
until much later. It is common practice to determine the fire resistance by
means of standard fire resistance tests. During such tests, the test
specimen is exposed to the standard fire on the underside while loaded with
a load calculated to produce the normal maximum working stresses in the
floor construction. Similar assumptions are adopted when using the
analytical approach. For a proper verification of the performance criteria
in an analytical approach however, some additionals assumptions are
necessary.

The criterion of load bearing capacity requires that the slab shall not
cease to perform the load bearing function for which it was constructed.
During tests, collapse of the slab is avoided so as to prevent damage to
the furnace and other apparatus. This is achieved by limiting an excessive
deflection. From a functional point of view, the failure condition is
prefered. Since this publication deals with an analytical approach rather
than with experiments, the load bearing criterion is used here.

In order to fulfill the insulation criterion, the temperature rise of

the unexposed side should not exceed 180*C at any point and the average
should not exceed 140*C. This criterion, given in (2), is applied in most
national standards. Because of the profiled shape of the slab, care must be
taken when checking that the insulation criterion is satisfied.
Theoretically the temperature at the unexposed side will vary at a function
of the place at which the temperature is measured. Tests show however that
in practical cases the temperature differences are small. In theory it is
also possible that passage of heat through joints may result in a non
uniform temperature distribution at the unexposed side. However, composite
steel concrete slabs are normally manufactured in situ and this

-130-
complication does not arise. In this publication therefore a uniform
temperature distribution at the unexposed side is assumed. A temperature
increase of 140"C at this side is taken as the limiting insulation
criterion.

Integrity is a measure of the ability of the construction to resist the

passage of flames and hot gases through cracks. For composite steel
concrete floors the integrity criterion is not difficult to fulfill. The
main reason is that, as mentioned before, the floor slab is cast in situ.
This means that joints are adequately sealed. Any cracks which may occur in
the concrete during fire exposure are unimportant because the steel sheet
will prevent penetration by the flames and hot gases. Therefore it is
assumed here that if the insulation criterion is fulfilled, then the
integrity criterion is also fulfilled.

3. BEHAVIOUR OF FIRE EXPOSED COMPOSITE SLABS WITHOUT SPECIFIC MEANS OF

FIRE PROTECTIONS

The steel sheet of a composite slab is normally designed to transmit

the tensile stresses due to positive bending moments when at ambient
temperature. When exposed to fire, the temperature of the steel sheet will
increase, and consequently the mechanical properties such as yield stress
and elastic modulus will decrease. At a certain temperature, which is
dependent on the load level and the statical system, the steel sheet is no
longer able to transmit the applied tensile force and as a result the slab
fails the criterion for load bearing capacity. Such a failure may,
dependent on the thickness of the slab, be preceded by failure under the
insulation criterion.

Table I gives results of fire resistance tests on composite concrete

slabs with profiled steel sheet, conducted in various European fire test
laboratories. No additional means of fire protection was present. The tests
cover a practical range of application. It is seen that In all cases the
fire resistance is governed by the criterion for load bearing capacity and
is over 30 minutes. The considerable scatter is caused by differences in
design assumptions at room temperature and in the support conditions. All
tests, except fort Test 1 and 10, were conducted on simply supported slabs.

-131-
Such a static system obivously constitutes relatively unfavourable
conditions» since no beneficial moment redistribution or catenary force
can occur as It often does in practice·
F i n n t l e u a e F i n fMlataM·
1) UM 1M4 Ol tari··
te v > nsAMM^ Ima
Mena« Mptcltr

r'iöfc
­A*

{'h
ι π τφ·
­»—Η»

Μ3Μ/2 ■t; _rz rz_3>

f.J
(MCMtl^)

■ΛJ Q» r'fe
imn·)

inumi •Τ T^? t'fc

ItaMl

T4fMftU
è'fe
­| "" |

f»t
■"u·1 g f rt-
M.U7U ί 1 l'k
(ΠΜΜ) <*> 1» 4

f'fe
; '" ;
on
M.JJW
"î = LT ţflC 3BB , Β ^
¿•fe

UM·
ad i'fe
(MCUtlM«) )■ ;,B;

I^Q^y^ t
¿un
t'fc
-MS f-

I) dense concrete unless otherwise stated.

Table I Fire resistance of composite concrete slabs with profiled
s t e e l sheet without additional means of fire protection.

-132-
 Table I therefore suggests the following general practical design rule:

"The fire resistance of composite concrete slabs with profiled steel

sheet without additional means of fire protection is at least 30
minutes when assessed under the criterion for load bearing capacity".

The application of this rule should obviously be restricted to those

cases in which the design at room temperature is based on an approved
method. The European Recommendations for the Design of Composite Floors
with Profiled Steel Sheet (3), could be taken as a reference. It is also
necessary to check that the insulation criterion is fulfilled. The simple
verification rules presented in chapter 5 can be used for this purpose.

As a direct consequence of the above design rule, an explicit analysis

of the load bearing capacity of fire exposed composite concrete steel slabs
is only necessary for requirements over 30 minutes. Additional means of
fire protection may then be necessary.

4. ADDITIONAL MEANS OF FIRE PROTECTION

The following means of additional fire protection can be distinguished:

- additional reinforcement
- Insulating coatings
- suspended ceilings

Additional reinforcement

In a composite slab some steel reinforcement (say: 100 mm /m width of

slab) is normally included to control shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
This reinforcement may be placed directly upon the steel sheet. When no
coating or suspended ceiling is used, the steel sheet is directly exposed
to fire. As a result, the temperature increase in the steel sheet and in
the reinforcement can be expected to be approximately the same.
Consequently, the beneficial effect of the shrinkage reinforcement on the
fire resistance may only be marginal. However, additional reinforcement
placed in the centre of the ribs may significantly contribute to the fire
resistance. The same holds for the top reinforcement over Intermediate
supports of continuous slabs. Fig. 2 illustrates the various possibilities.

-133-

Fig. 2 Reinforcement in a composite
concrete slab with profiled
steel sheet.
1 - additional bottom reinforcement
in the ribs
2 - top reinforcement used over
supports in continuous slabs
3 - reinforcement against shrinkage
H - structural height
u - concrete cover (axial)

Coatings

Insulating coatings may be necessary when extremely high fire

resistance ratings are required and/or when deflections have to be severely
limited under fire exposure. Sprayed coatings (e.g. based on mineral fibres
or vermiculite) are directly applied to the surface of the steel sheet. In
order to achieve good adhesion, the steel surface should be properly
cleaned to remove dirt and grease. Fire protecting boards can also be used
(e.g. based on vermiculite, gypsum, fibre). These are then directly adhered
or mechanically fixed to the ribs of the steel sheet. As with sprayed
coatings, a thorough cleaning is necessary to ensure good adhesion. Special
attention should be paid to the type of adhesive used and to adequate
connection of boards under fire conditions. These aspects must be verified
by experimental evidence. Only a relatively small thickness of insulation
is necessary to achieve a considerable fire resistance (A). Nevertheless,
the application of fire protecting coating will involve considerable extra
cost.

Suspended ceilings

A suspended ceiling functions as a heat shield for the structural

components above and thus can contribute to the fire resistance of the
floor assembly. In the cavity over the fire protecting ceiling a time-
temperature curve which is less severe than the standard fire curve, can be
taken into account, subject to the condition that there is only a limited
amount of combustible material in the (unventilated) cavity. The extent to
which the standard fire curve is thus reduced, will depend on the quality
of the celling and on the floor above it. The behaviour of a suspended
ceiling during fire, however, is critical since it depends very much on
good detailing, workmanship and maintenance. These aspects have to be
verified experimentally and fire resistance tests are therefore essential.

-134-
 Summarizing, it can be concluded that additional steel reinforcement is
a simple, reliable and economic device to increase the fire resistance of
composite concrete steel slabs. Moreover, the assessment of the effect of
additional reinforcement is open to a theoretical analysis. The reliability
of the two other means of fire protection, i.e. coatings and suspended
ceilings, is much more critical, being highly dependent on factors such as
detailing and workmanship. Experimental verification is deemed to be
necessary in these cases.

5. CALCULATION RULES FOR MINIMUM SLAB THICKNESS

The insulation criterion of fire resistance is fulfilled if the average

temperature increase at the unexposed side of the slab exceeds 140 *C. See
2. This requires a sufficient effective thickness of slab, which will
depend on the period of fire resistance required. B ased on experimental
data, the following, conservative, rules for effective slab thickness can
be given ( 5 ) .

Required fire Minimum effective Equation for

Restrictions
resistance Hin thickness h_ mm effective thickness h

1, + 1,
30 60 h
e = h
1 + 7- ■ TT for h2/h.>1.5
60 70
90 80 ht >50 mm
120 100 r^'-HT-'J
Ί Ί

Table II : Effective thickness of a composite concrete slab with profiled

steel sheet as function of the fire resistance time.

As is seen from the equation for h e , the effective thickness

corresponds to an arithmetical average of the thickness which takes account
of the profiled shape of the slab. The calculation rule applies to standard
fire exposure and normal weight concrete.

-135-
6. CALCULATION RULES FOR ADDITIONAL REINFORCEMENT

6.1 Failure conditions

The load bearing capacity may be analysed on the basis of elementary

plastic theory (limit state design). For various statical systems the
failure conditions can then easily be formulated (Table I I I ) .

Statical system Failure condition

CU <u
> E
•t- tu Mu J *q ■ L V 8
* *
c
M u3 q >_8 . My f/L

M W­» 0.5 . Mu < q . L'/8

■Φ—w
M u.» q > (8M+ + 4M" )/L2

Ό ε
ω ω
υ
> i­ Mu j M u.» H; + Hu < q . L'/8
■r­ O

■« M W
+■» 4 ­
m c:
σι­ι­
υ <u
c s­
M,u» q > 8 . (M* + M~ )/LZ

Si M a» Mu 4 q · LV8
­ι­ i­ ■ » ■
(Λ O
O 4­ q > 8 . Mu /L'
CX C
Mu>=0

Table III : Failure conditions for slabs

In Table III the following notation is used:

M , M ­ absolute value of the positive and negative plastic bending
moment respectively at the end of the required period of
standard fire exposure
q . ­ load on the slab to be accounted for during fire
L ­ span of the slab.

To evaluate the failure conditions it is necessary to quantify the

plastic moments M , and Μ ,. Typical stress distributions over the cross
uJ uJ
section are represented in Fig. 3 and 4 respectively.
The following simplifying assumptions are made:

­136­
 OB <¡c20*)
+--
M = Z
u.j S-Z
Z j = e y j.A r
F i g . 3 : P o s i t i v e p l a s t i c marnent

Z = Dj

M^»Z.z

OAcc¿*)

Fig. A : Negative plastic moment M ~ U Q

General:

- the tensile strength of concrete does not contribute to the load bearing
capacity at elevated temperatures and thus may be ignored,
- the steel sheet does not contribute to the load bearing capacity at
elevated temperatures and thus may be ignored.

For the positive plastic moment:

- the ultimate strength of concrete in the compression zone is not

influenced by temperature and the room temperature values may be taken.
- the effective yield stress of the additional reinforcement is affected by
temperature

For the negative plastic moment:

- in calculations, the profiled concrete slab may be replaced by a slab

with a uniform thickness equal to the effective thickness h in
accordance with Table II.
- the ultimate strength of concrete in the compression zone (exposed side)
is affected by the temperature.
- the effective yield stress of the reinforcement (unexposed side) is not
influenced by temperature and room temperature values may be used.

*) The factor 0.8 is introduced to correct for the assumed full plastic
stress distribution in the concrete compression zone. In the ultimate
state a non uniform stress distribution will occur, due to the limited
capacity of the concrete to accept deformation.

-137-
 The load on the slab to be accounted for during fire (­ q) follows from
0.85 χ q where q Is the load to be used In fire test and chosen In
accordance with ISO 834 (2). The reduction Is motivated since, due to the
various simplifying assumptions, the calculation rule give
­ compared with the amount of fire resistance measured in a fire resistance
test ­ a conservative result. The actual value of the reduction factor
(i.e. 0,85) is based on comparative calculations. See also (6).

On basis of the above mentioned assumptions and using the information

on temperature distribution and mechanical properties of steel and concrete
at elevated temperature as presented under 6.3 and 6.4 respectively, the
evaluation of the failure conditions can proceed in a similiar way as for
conventional reinforced concrete slabs under ambient temperature
conditions. First however, additional design consideration should be
discussed.

6.2 Design considerations

In statically indeterminate slabs a redistribution of moments will
occur during the period of fire exposure. This phenomenon will be discussed
for the continuous slab presented in Fig. 5 a . The moment distribution at
room temperature under working load conditions is shown in Fig. 5 .
.uniformly diatri bute d lood q

(a) Statical system

(b) Moment distribution at

¿* 2
room temperature

(c) Moment distribution in

an initial stage of
fire exposure
Mu* W2

(d) Moment distribution at

failure M u.»
­X
MuA.r

Fig. 5 Moment redistribution in a continuous slab during fire exposure.

­138­
 Directly after commencement of the fire exposure, a steep temperature
gradient will be attained over the height of the slab due to the relatively
low thermal conductivity of the concrete. Consequently, additional negative
bending moments will develop, which relieve the positive moment in the mid
span region but increase the negative moment at the supports. Since, in the
first stage of fire exposure, the value of the full plastic moment at the
supports will not be affected significantly by temperature, a moment
distribution as presented in Fig. 5 C will tend to occur (conservative
assumption). The additional negative reinforcement should then be designed
to cope with such a moment distribution. This means that the additional
reinforcement at the supports shall be extended at least over a distance
L' (cf Fig. 5 C ) . The anchorage length should be determined in accordance
with room temperature design. For other statical systems, other minimum
lengths will apply. When heating continues, both the (possitive) plastic
moment capacity at mldspan and the (negative) plastic moment capacity at
the supports will decrease, finally leading to failure. The moment
distribution at failure is presented in Fig. 5 and corresponds to the
relevant condition given in Table III. To arrive at such a moment
distribution, sufficient rotation capacity is necessary, especially at the
supports. The amount of the negative reinforcement and its ductility are
then of crucial importance. The present state of knowledge does not allow
the formulation of criteria, specifically derived for fire circumstances.
In the room temperature design, however, a limit is normally set for both
the maximum and the minimum amount of negative reinforcement in order to
guarantee adequate rotation capacity at the supports. When these rules are
obeyed, it will be assumed here that under fire conditions the necessary
moment redistribution is also possible. Also the ductility of the
reinforcement steel should meet room temperature specifications.

6.3 Temperature distribution

Concrete

The temperature distribution in the concrete slab is assumed to be

independent of the effective thickness h and can be derived, for various
times of the standard fire exposure and normal weight concrete, from Table
IV (7).

-139-
 Depth Χ Ţeaperacure in U C
after a fire dura­
ción (min) of:
9B 60 90 120

S 705 XA
10 642 738
15 581 681 754
"■»e
20 525 627 697
", Γ"
25
30
469
421
571
519
642
591 he
/
J=
35 374 473 542 / ΓΛ
40 327 428 493 \ / ^_
45 289 387 454
50 250 345 415
55 200 294 369
60 271 342

Table IV Temperature distribution in the concrete.

Additional reinforcement

The temperature of the additional reinforcement depends on the position

of the reinforcement bars and the shape of the steel sheet profile. Both
factors can be represented by the coefficient γ which is given by following
equation (Fig. 6): (5)

L + 1 ­ +_2_
1 ^ ^

The distances u,, u. and u, shall be taken in mm.

Fig. 6
Ϊ^ΓΖ
Calculation of the coefficient γ.

The temperature of the reinforcement bars can be calculated using the

following equations:
­ fire duration 60 min: 1175 350.Ύ _< 810 'C (Ύ <. 3,3)
fire duration 90 min: & ­ 1285 350.γ <^ 880 'C <Τ <.3,6)
s
350.γ < 930 *C (Ύ < 3,8)
fire duration 120 min: tì' » 1370
8

­140­
6.4 Mechanical properties at elevated temperature
Concrete

The following, approximate relation between the ultimate compressive

strength σ a, and the temperature * of concrete may be used ( 8 ) .

u­ < 200 'C; θ' ­ 200

c "eft­ " °cfr
200 < *· < 700 'C; (1 ­ 0,8 ~5ÕÕ~) ' α
* °c20
— c —
θ­ > 700 'C;
c °c*-°
where σ .­ ­ compression strength of concrete at ambient temperature.

The strength of the compressive zone of a slab (Fig. 7) with a width of

1000 mm can be calculated as follows:
i

ff
*c c*
ιI
— \
\ —
k S* i ι

\ e
l ^ ,i
Fig. 7 Resultant compressive force in the concrete
compressive zone.

D,. » 0.8 Σ(σ „.dx.1000) ­ 0.8 a ,. . Z(a.dx.lOOO) ­ 0.8 σ „_ . A with

* cir c20 c20 cr
e ­ (Σ(σ ö,.dx.l000).x)/Dd.

The reduced compressive area A in mm and the position of the compressive

force e in mm are given in Table V.

Steel

The following approximate relation between the effective yield

stress σ ­, and the temperature θ" of the additional reinforcement may be
used: ( 8 ) .
6­ < 250 *C O j . « 1.0 σ ,„
— yo y20 a­ _ 2 S 0
250 'C < & < 650 'C a », ­ σ Q . (1 ­ 0.6 . — * ) for hot rolled bar

"„*. " "„in · d ~ 0.8 . — 7 T T — ) for cold drawn bar

where: a _­ ■ yield stress at room temperature.

­141­
 Total depth Values of A and e after a fire
duration in min.
of compressive
60 90 120
zone A
cr e A
cr a A
cr a
xlO" 2 xlO ­ 2 xlO­2
¿ ¡i «BZ
- ■ ■B
™
10 12.1 7.5
15 29.1 10.4
20 50.9 13.5 13.7 17.5
25 77.1 16.5 31.8 20.3 12.4 22.5
30 107.5 19.6 54.2 23.3 29.0 25.4
33 141.7 22.7 80.5 26.3 49.7 28.3
40 179.6 25.9 110.4 29.3 74.2 31.4
• 45 221.0 29.0 143.8 32.4 102.3 34.4
SO 265.4 32.1 180.5 35.5 133.5 37.5
55 313.4 33.2 220.9 38.6 168.2 40.6
60 363.4 38.3 264.2 41.7 205.7 43.7
65 309.6 44.7 245.4 46.7
70 357.0 47.8 287.2 49.7
75 405.9 50.7 331.4 52.8
80 455.9 53.7 376.7 55.7

Table V Strength of the concrete compressive zone at

elevated temperature.

7. CONCLUSIONS

It follows from the above discussions that an explicit analysis of the

load bearing capacity of fire exposed concrete slabs with profiled steel
sheet is not necessary, if the required fire resistance is not over 30
minutes and the room temperature design complies with an approved method.
For a check on the other fire resistance criteria (insulation, integrity)
the simple verification rule for minimum slab thickness as presented in
chapter 5 may be used.
When the required fire resistance is over 30 minutes, additional fire
protection may be necessary. In this respect, preference appears to be on
additional reinforcement. The practical calculation rules presented in
chapter 6 allow for a simple verification whether the amount of additional
reinforcement is sufficient to meet given requirements of fire resistance.
The method of assessment is derived for normal weight concrete and gives
conservative solutions.

­142­
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This contribution is based on the Technical Note "Calculation of the

Fire Resistance of Composite Concrete Slabs with Profiled Steel Sheet
Exposed to the Standard Fire", prepared within Technical Committee 3 of the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork. The author is grateful
for the stimulating discussions in this committee. More particulary he
thanks S. Bryl and J. Kruppa for their important contributions.

REFERENCES

(1) 'Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Compsite Concrete Slabs with

Profiled Steel Sheet Exposed to the Standard Fire'.
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Committee T3, 1984.

(2) 'Fire resistance teste - Elements of building constructions'.

International Standard ISO 834, first 1975.

(3) 'European Recommendation for the Design of Composite Floors with

Profiled Steel Sheet'.
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Committee Til.
Constrado, London 1975.

(4) Muess, H.
'Brandverhalten von bekleideten Stahlbauteilen'.
Stahlbau-Verlage-GmbH, Köln 1978.

(5) Kruppa, J.
Echauffement des plancers béton â bac acier soumis ä l'incendie
conventional, CTICM-Paris, 1983.

(6) Pettersson, 0. and Witteveen, J.

'On the critical temperatures of steel elements derived for
conventional fire resistance tests and from calculations'.
Fire Safety Journal 2, 1979/1980, Elsevier Sequoia SA, Lausanne.

(7) 'FIP/CEB Report on Methods of Assessment of the Fire Resistance of

Concrete Structural Members'. FIP Commission on the Fire Resistance of
Prestreseed Concrete Structures, 1978.

(8) Comité Euro-International du Beton.

'Design of concrete structures for fire resistance'.
(First draft of an appendix to the CEB/FIP Model Code for Concrete
Structures), Bulletin 145, Paris 1982.

-143-
 FIRE RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE STEEL DECKS, FLOORS AND BEAMS

H.B. WALKER, M.Univ. C.Eng. M.I.C.E. M.I.Mech.E. M.R.Ae.S.

Constructional Steel Research and Development Organisation

Croydon, Surrey, United Kingdom

Summary

There has been a considerable upsurge in the United Kingdom in the

use of steel for the frames and floors of multi-storey buildings, largely
brought about by the relatively lower prices for steel and the faster
construction times that can be achieved. An important aspect is the use of
profiled steel decks and beams acting compositely together. Propping
during construction is not required, thus allowing following trades to
commence work without delay.

The performance of this floor system in fire has been a critical

factor, and this has now been established using relatively simple methods
based on an extension of current reinforced concrete design methods. The
advantages of using lightweight concrete are discussed.

Calculation methods approved by National Authorities based upon

Limit State conditions are given. Partial factors are listed as well as
tables for the thickness of concrete, temperature distribution and material
strengths at elevated temperatures.

Beams acting compositely with the floor via insltu welded

connectors are discussed and the different stress paterne for composite
and non-composite beams are explained. A computer model has been evolved
and the program output is presented graphically. Recommendations for the
protection of composite beams are given.

-144-
1. INTRODUCTION
Over recent years there has been a considerable upsurge in the U.K.
in the use of steel for the frames and floors of multi-storey buildings.
This has come about for a number of reasons, principally a change in the
relative costs between steel and concrete construction, the faster
construction times that can be obtained with steel, problems with the
Integrity of concrete construction and the relatively high interest rates
chargeable on the capital required for construction.
The Constructional Steel Research and Development Organisation, or
CONSTRADO as it is generally known in the U.K., has been very active in
this field, and has investigated several design aspects in depth. There
has been an active liaison with property developers and an extensive study
has been made of the costs and charges involved in constructing floors and
frames as well as for the complete building.
The fire resistance of steel-framed structures is always a matter
of concern to architects and engineers, and CONSTRADO has developed
considerable expertise in this field, and is able to demonstrate that this
functional aspect is simply achieved and is dealt with in a straight-
forward manner.

2. FLOOR SYSTEMS
Floors can be provided for steel-framed buildings in a number of
different ways. In the past ineitu concrete was very often used but this
requires formwork and props and can be a relatively slow process. Precast
concrete slabs is another method, but they have a number of problems and
require concrete screed topping with steel reinforcement, to give a level
floor which is capable of carrying the lateral shear loads from wind or
from earthquakes. Whilst in the U.K. a number of Important buildings have
been constructed using precast floor slabs, the trend now is towards the
use of profiled steel decks with concrete topping power-floated to a final
finish. This method is proving to be very fast and economic, and has an
inherent simplicity which appeals to the architect, engineer and
construction manager.
The profiled steel deck is used unpropped with supporting beam
centres between 2.4m to 3.6m centres. The steel deck is placed, and to
prevent movement due to wind, lightly fixed to the supporting beams by
means of self-drilling and tapping screws or by puddle welding, and then

-145-
shear connectors are insitu welded through the deck on to the beam flange
to enable the floor slab to act composltely with the support beams. Light
steel reinforcement mesh Is laid upon the deck and then the concrete
topping Is placed, being power-floated to a final finish, see Figure 1.

Figure 1. Arrangement of Floor

An important point to remember when considering the deck systems

is that the unpropped steel deck system is the only one which allows the
floor to be power-floated to a final flat finish during the Initial
construction stage. Precast concrete slabs must be screeded, and Insitu
concrete will deflect when the formwork is removed, necessitating a second
operation.
Lightweight concrete is very often used in preference to normal
weight concrete as it has several distinct advantages. Lightweight
concrete has better performance in fire than normal weight concrete, and
this enables the depth of the floor to be reduced. This reduction in
thickness, coupled with reduced weight, means that the resultant concrete
component of the floor is nearly half the weight when compared with normal
weight concrete. This allows a thinner gauge steel deck to be used, and
also reduces the load on the supporting beams, and then through the

-146-
collons, reducing their size as well as having an effect on the
foundations. The profile and thickness of the deck is determined by the
span and the weight of the wet concrete plus equipment in the construction
stage. Steel deck which has indentations in the sloping webs gives full
composite action independent of whether there is a chemical bond between
the concrete and the steel deck or not.

3. U.K. NATIONAL BUILDING REGULATIONS & STANDARDS

The National Building Regulations enable the architect to
determine the fire rating required for the building in terms of size of
the building and the use to which it has to be put. The materials that
are used in the building then have to meet the testing requirements set
out in British Standard BS.476. Alternatively, other methods may be used
to satisfy the Authorities, but they have to be backed up by calculations
and data. For composite floors and beams Part 8 of BS.476 has to be
complied with. This requires that when the element or sub-assembly is
tested in the furnace to the standard time/temperature curve, three
criteria must be satisfied. These are:-

3.1 Stability
This is the ability to support the load whilst the deflection is
limited to span/30 and the ability to support the load 24 hours after the
test.
This limiting deflection of span/30 is expected to be modified.
In the Draft European Code EEC 1202 a rate of change of deflection is
specified. This rate is such that the actual failure under test
conditions and the notional failure according to the code will occur very
closely to each other. It is expected that this criteria will be adopted
in a forthcoming revision to the British Standard.

3.2 Integrity
This is the ability to resist the passage of flame and hot gases
and is ensured with composite steel decks by the combined action of the
diaphragm formed by the steel sheet and the mesh reinforced concrete.

3.3 Insulation
This is the ability to resist the conduction of heat, and normally
means that the temperature on the top surface of the composite floor is

-147-
limited to an average of 140°C with no Individual value of more than
180°C. This Is normally ensured by the provision of an adequate
thickness of concrete.
It Is worth noting that In a composite steel deck floor the fire
reinforcement normally has much greater concrete cover than Is obtained In
a reinforced concrete slab. This means that the fire reinforcement is at
a comparatively low temperature and only suffers a minimal loss of
strength. For Instance, for one hour's fire resistance the fire
reinforcement temperature may be no more than 250°C and for two hours,
370°C.

4. CALCULATION OF FIRE RESISTANCE FOR COMPOSITE FLOOR

The methods given below which have been developed by Constrado are
based upon standard techniques for the design of steel reinforced concrete
and make use of existing British Standards and established publications by
the Institution of Structural Engineers. In extending R.C. design methods
at ambient temperatures to predict performances at elevated tempertures no
new theoretical concepts have been Introduced.
The calculation method compares favourably with actual fire tests
carried out in the standard European manner without external restraints.
For a calculation method to be usable by the Engineer it must be
accepted by the Building Authorities when designs are submitted for
Approval and because this method is only an extension of existing methods
this acceptance has been readily given.

4.1 Design Concept

A composite steel deck floor Is unique in being one of the few
elements in a building which is very largely designed on the basis of the
required fire resistance. The steel deck profile Itself is selected on
the basis of its ability to carry the weight of the wet concrete and
equipment during the concrete placing operation. The thickness of the
topping depends upon the thermal resistance of the concrete and the
maximum temperatures allowed on the top surface. With these conditions
met, and with the shear resisting indentations In the deck, there is
usually a high degree of imposed load-carrying capability, normally much
bigger than Is actually required by the building specification.
For office buildings it is normal to have suspended ceiling
systems and, whilst sometimes the celling systems can be made fire

-148-
resistant, it is usual for only the beams and column tops to be sprayed
with fire-resistant materials. It would be extremely expensive if it were
necessary to spray the soffit of the composite floor, an operation which
would also make it extremely difficult to subsequently fix the normal
suspension wires for carrying services and ceilings.
In order to meet the requirements of the Building Authorities it
is necessary to provide a method of calculating the strength of a
composite floor in fire. When a composite floor is tested in a furnace it
is usual for the steel deck to expand and separate away from the concrete.
With the trapezoidal-type profiles this tends to happen over the entire
surface, but with dovetail-type profiles the dovetail remains embedded in
the concrete and may contribute to the bending resistance of the floor.
However, the deck is usually discounted and the concrete, together with
the anti-crack/fire reinforcement mesh, is then considered as a reinforced
concrete slab and calculations are carried out in a manner appropriate to
that form of construction. The deck, however, plays another important
part in contributing to the fire resistance of the floor in that it acts
as a diaphragm preventing the passage of flame and hot gases, as well as
acting as a shield reducing the flow of heat into the concrete and helping
to control and contain the concrete spalling. As time and temperature
continue to increase the reinforcement will yield and the floor will hang
as a catenary with the reinforcement assisted to some extent by the steel
deck acting in tension supporting the loads. This catenary condition is
known to exist within the boundaries of the slab and will sustain higher
loads than the calculation method based purely on bending strength
currently being used and can be considered as providing an additional
safety factor.

4.2 Fire reinforcement

The arrangement of reinforcement within the concrete requires
careful consideration both from the structural and economic standpoints.
Some arrangements of the mesh are illustrated in Figures 2a, 2b and 2c.
Mesh can easily be obtained from the suppliers to match the pitch of the
steel deck at little extra cost.

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 -υ—υ—υ—Ό—π-
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION

Figure 2a. Simply supported design

rj Overlapping Mesh j

ENLARGED PLAN OVER SUPPORT

lote: The transverse wires are discontinued allowing the longitudinal wires to mesh together and lay side by side.

Overlapping
Mesh

TYPICAL CROSS SECTI ON

\
SECTION AT INTERNAL SUPPORT ISECT ON AT MID-SPAN
\Z7
Figure 2b. Continuous design using draped mesh

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 TZ!Z7—ţ-^J.
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION

Figure 2c. Continuous design using 2 layers of reinforcement

4.3 Limit State Principles

Design for fire is based upon ultimate Limit State principles, the
floor being considered in bending, either as a simply-supported or as a
continuous element.
The following partial factors which are taken from "Design and
Detailing of Concrete Structures for Fire Resistance", published by the
Institution of Structural Engineers, are suggested (see Ref.l).

4.3.1 Loads
Dead load Yfd - 1.05
Imposed load Tfi - 1.00

4.3.2 Materials
Reinforcement Y 1.00
mr -
Concrete ymr. - 1.30

4.4 Design Bending Moments f o r Continuous Construction

As the d e s i g n i s based upon u l t i m a t e c o n d i t i o n s r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
moments may be assumed. The bending moment diagram f o r any i n t e r n a l span
i s shown i n F i g . 3 a .

-151-
 MH

w
\ /.
MF
'/ MS
^

Figure 3a

The only condition is that:-

M + M
H S — MF> t'ie ^ ree bending moment.
Where:
MT, • Free bending moment per metre width
" £ (Yfd.Fd + Yfi-Wi)
8
- Hogging moment of resistance per metre width, kNm
- Sagging moment of resistance per metre width, kNm
- Beam centres (- floor span), m
- Total dead load, kN/m2
m Imposed load , kN/m

The bending moment diagram for any end span is:

Figure 3b.

As the ratio of Mjj to Mg is important, and this is a more complex

situation to analyse than that of Internal spans, a solution may be found
graphically or use may be made of the following approximate formula for
which within the stated range the maximum error is not greater than 2%.
(See Ref 2 Appendix).
O.AlMjj + 1.05MS >. MF
For 0.35 <_ MJJ <_ 3.3

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4.5 Concrete Thickness
The rise of temperature on the upper surface of the composite
floor at the end of the fire resistance period is limited to an average of
140°C with no local reading being more than 180°C, and this determines
the required thickness of the concrete topping. Lightweight concrete has
considerable advantages requiring on average only two thirds of the
thickness of normal weight concrete. The reduced volume can be placed
quicker and, combined with its lower density, means that the total load on
the floor is reduced. Concrete thicknesses based upon relative humidity
in the concrete of not greater than 75% are given in Tables 1 & 2.

Minimum insulation
thickness
(including
\ . ^ non-combustible
screeds)

Fire resistance V4 hour 1 hour 1 H hours 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours

Normal w i . concrete 65 90 105 115 135 150
Light wi. concrete 55 65 75 85 115 130

Table 1. Minimum I n s u l a t i o n t h i c k n e s s o f c o n c r e t e for t r a p e z o i d a l decks

( t h i c k n e s s i n mm)
Minimum insulation
thickness
(including

J7 Π SL non-combustible
screeds)

Fire resistance % hour 1 hour 1 % hours 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours

Normal wt. concrete 90 90 110 125 ISO 170
Light wt. concrete 90 90 105 115 135 150

Table 2. Minimum insulation thickness of concrete for re-entrant profile

decks (depth in mm, equals overall slab depth)

Distribution of Temperature Throughout a Floor Slab

Temperature varies depending upon the distance between the point
under consideration and the surface exposed to the fire measured normal to
the surface of the steel deck (see fig.4).

U \L
Figure 4. Measurement of depth of profile into concrete

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 The temperatures given in Table 3 are based upon data given in
reference 1, and are slightly conservative when compared with results from
actual fire tests.
Rr· resistance (hours)
Depth H 1 IM 2 3 4
into slab NW LW NW LW NW LW NW LW N W LW NW LW
10 470 460 650 620 790 720 880 770 • • • ·
20 340 330 530 480 650 580 720 640 • 740 • ·
30 250 280 420 380 540 460 810 530 700 630 770 700
40 180 200 330 290 430 360 510 430 800 520 670 800
50 140 180 250 220 370 280 440 340 520 430 600 510
Θ0 110 130 200 170 310 230 370 280 460 380 540 440
70 90 80 170 130 280 170 320 220 410 320 480 380
80 80 80 140 80 220 130 270 180 360 270 430 320
90 70 40 120 70 180 100 240 150 320 230 380 280
100 ΘΟ 40 100 80 160 80 210 140 280 190 380 270
N W ­ Normal weight concrete LW ­ Lightweight concrete
Temperature in deg. C " * " indicates a temperature greater than 800°C

Table 3· Temperature distribution through a concrete slab.

A.7 Material Strengths

The strengths of steel reinforcement and concrete both reduce as
temperature is increased and the relative values can be obtained by
multiplying the ambient temperature value by the Factor Kr given in Table
4 below:

For design at elevated temperatures the following stresses may be used.

Reinforcement:
Design strength, p r » Jjiir

Concrete :
Design strength, p_ ­ 0.67 f v
L _ — 'cu'^r

Where:
Reinforcement yield strength
f ­ Characteristic concrete cube strength
H^ ­ Factor from Table 4
0.67 ­ Effective average stress factor for concrete
(see reference 1)

­154­
 Tamp °C HY or MS' NormaP Light' wt.
Reinf. w t Cone. Cone.
Up to 300°C no reduction
300 1.00 1.00 1.00
350 0.91 1.00 1.00
400 0.81 0.91 1.00 1. M.S. reinforcement to BS4449: 1978
H.Y. reinforcement to BS4449: 1978
450 0.72 0.82 1.00 Mesh to BS44S3: 1969
500 0.62 0.73 1.00 2. Concrete to CP110: 1972
550 0.53 0.64 0.90
600 0.43 0.55 0.80
650 0.34 0.46 0.70
700 0.24 0.37 0.60

Table 4. Kr strength variation factor

Method of Calculation
As Limit State Methods are being used, calculations are carried
out to determine the maximum hogging and sagging moments which resist the
total moments applied to the composite slab by the factored loads·
Firstly, an estimate is made of the likely size of the wire, and
the maximum force in the fire reinforcement is determined·
Force in reforcement FR No. wires χ Area χ Κr-.Yr.

This must be balanced by an equal and opposite force in the

concrete.
0.67 'f .K A
cu r c

0.67 f cu .K r
Ac - Concrete area in compression
Yr - Reinforcement yield strength
fcu - Characteristic concrete cube strength
^ - Factor from Table 4
0.67 - Effective average stress factor for concrete
Ymr - Material factor for reinforcement strength
Ymc - Material factor for concrete strength
The effective area of concrete will vary dependant on the case being
considered as indicated in Figure 4a and 4b.

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 , fc
1*

Figure 4a. Section resisting 4b. Section resisting

hogging m oneri t sagging moment
When the effective area, and hence d c has been calculated the lever arm
h can be determined· The maximum hogging and sagging moments produced by
the slab can then be calculated. These may then be used in the formulae
given in 4.4 above.

5. COMPOSITE FLOORS AND BEAMS

For the type of construction shown in Figure 1. it is usual
practice to fire-protect the floor supporting beams by mineral spray where
a suspended celling will be used or by dry boards If the beams are to be
exposed. However, the steel beam acting compositely Figure 5a at room
temperature has a different stress pattern to a similar beam acting non-
compositely Figure 5b and the performance of the beam at elevated
temperature will depend upon which design condition is under
consideration. This is generally recognised by the North American Fire
Test Laboratories where the amount of protection on beams tested
compositely is also accepted for the same beams acting non-compositely.
However the amount of protection on beams tested non-compositely is not
accepted for the composite case. It is important to understand why this
difference occurs.

i i

Figure 5a. Composite beam 5b.

I
Non Composite beam

In the design of beams acting compositely at room temperatures the

beam, firstly has to carry the dead and construction loads, at which stage

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it acts non-compositely. After the concrete has cured and attained its
strength the composite beam is formed and is capable of resisting the
imposed loads. The supporting beam is, therefore, initially stressed as a
non-composite beam and then, subsequently, has additional stresses when
acting ccmpositely· The maximum allowable stress for the combined loading
can be as high as 90Z of the allowable yield stress for the material.
Conversely, a beam designed to act non-compositely will, at working load,
have a stress of about 65Z of the allowable yield stress. It will be seen
that, as the temperature of the beam increases, the allowable stress in
the lower flange of the beam reaches a critical temperature sooner for a
composite beam than for a non-composite beam.
Consideration also needs to be given to the effective width of the
concrete top flange of the composite beam. For normal design purposes at
room temperature an effective width of approximately one fifth of the span
of the beam may be assumed. In fire the composite floors spanning between
the support beams will deflect and the concrete may crack near the
supports. The amount of cracking will depend upon the degree of
reinforcement which is used over the supports. This will effectively
reduce the width of the concrete flange of the composite beam although, as
the concrete is unlikely to be operating at very high stress levels, may
not have a great effect on the moment of resistance of the composite beam
at elevated temperatures.
To investigate the stress pattern in composite and non-composite
beams for a range of temperature levels, and accounting for the various
factors mentioned above, an experimental computer model has been evolved.
The program takes account of the design condition, the temperature
gradient across the section, the variation in steel strength with
temperature and, for composite beams the reducing width of the concrete
compression flange, but the possible effect of differential expansion has
not been included. For any temperature distribution a linear variation of
strain is calculated at which the section can resist the applied moment.
The program output is presented graphically in Figure 6, where the stress
distribution across a composite beam and a non composite beam are shown
for the beginning, intermediate and failure stages of a notional fire
test. In both cases the thickness of the fire protection was the same.
The composite beam reached the runaway condition at a bottom flange
temperature of S00°C whereas the non composite beam was stable up to
550°C. The differing stress patterns between the two beam systems can

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 Tension li Compression Tension Compression

Boom Temperature

Intermediate etage
Bottom flange
370°C

Imminent failure

Bottom flange
550 C

Unpropped composite beam Non composite beam

Figure 6. Stress distributions during fire tests

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clearly be seen and the reduced time rating obtained for the composite
beam shows that, for similar fire ratings, a beam acting compositely
requires a greater thickness of fire protection than one acting non-
compositely.
As It is not practical to carry out individual calculations for
each composite beam application, it has been concluded that the amount of
additional fire protection may be assessed assuming that the lower flange
of the steel section does not rise above 500°C compared with 550°C
which is used for normal assessment purposes. For the effect of this on
any given fire protection system the manufacture should be consulted but,
in general terms, it will mean an increase in thickness of protection of
about 10Z. In lieu of any information from the protection manufacturers,
the next higher tabulated fire-protected period may be used. This means
one hour becomes one and half hours; one and a half hours becomes two
hours; two hours becomes three hours, and three hours becomes four hours.
It must be borne In mind that in a real fire the performance of
the composite floor system will be somewhat different to that obtained
under furnace conditions, and the suggested increases In protection are,
probably, conservative. However, they will ensure a high degree of
safety, but may well be modified in the light of further investigation and
research.

6. CONCLUSION
By the application of established conventional design methods
coupled with well documented data for fire tests reliable calculations
can be performed on unprotected composite floors. Composite beams present
a more complex problem but the recommended increase in thickness of the
fire protection should ensure more than adequate safety.
There is a research program currently under way In the U.K.
broadly based upon the methods outlined above which when completed should
enable an even more economic solution to be given.
For the longer term however, research work Is needed to establish
the effect of varying degrees of restraint which operate on a floor slab
in a real building. This will enable the amount of fire reinforcement to
be considerably reduced and make far faster construction times.
In the meantime the Architect and Engineer can specify composite
floors and beams with the knowledge, at least in the U.K. that their
performance in Fire can be safely predicted.

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 References

Design and detailing of concrete structures for fire resistance.

Institution of Structural Engineers
London, 1978.

Design recommendations for composite floors and beams using steel

decks.
Section 1 Structural
Section 2 Fire R e s i s t a n c e
Constrado
London, 1983.

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REPORT CM SESSION I ; DESIGN METHODS

Chairman : G.Th. HUPPERMANN

Reporter : H. WITTE

Research was reported from Sweden and the northern European countries on
calculations of steel temperatures, involving the development of mathema-
tical and physical models. For the mathematical models, the finite
element method was used, while the physical principles were based on
experiments. In Denmark, experiments were being carried out with insu-
lating materials made from mineral wool, calcium silicate panels and
gypsum, the resultant proposal featuring temperature-dependent values for
the conduction of heat in the insulating material. The average of the
ambient fire temperature and the temperature of the steel was recommended
as a reference temperature. From Germany it was reported that the effect
of the thickness of the insulating material as fire protection was
exponential rather than linear and the European Regulations were well on
the safe side. The authors of the European Regulations pointed out that
they wanted to develop simple formulae for practical use. It was always
possible to work out more accurate calculations. The European Regulations
did not introduce any restrictions. The same applied to the discussion on
European buckling stress curves which had been confined initially to the
"C" curve. The a, b and d curves could also be used if appropriate
evidence were available*

A few questions were raised on the corrective factor æ . This was used to
calibrate the calculations, in order to achieve the same level of safety
as in the laboratory tests carried ou hitherto. Limiting factors were,
for example, variations in yield points and the uneven distribution of
temperature over the cross-section of a beam.

On product developments :

With sheet section composite steel decks i t was pointed out that i t was
very important to know precisely the temperature changes in the deck
cross-section (vertical) and in the sheet (horizontal). Limiting factors
were, for example, the shape of the section, the humidity content and

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accidental air pockets. Full-scale experiments were expensive, which was
why several variants had been tested at the same time in an experiment
carried out in Great Britain. The results of experiments carried out in
Western Europe and the USA had also been evaluated and had proved to be
very varied. Other variants were reported from Germany, including the
possibility of considering additional reinforcement purely as a means of
fire protection reinforcement, and another case where the steel sheet
could act as lost casing in a fire.

Sumnary :

After the discussion on a few details, Professor Witteveen referred to

the aim of the work and of the conference and said that the papers had
set out simple and practical methods of calculation. The European Recom-
mendations for the fire safety of steel structures were engendering new
concepts: in order to assess fire safety, calculations were being made
and used instead of the results of tests, as previously. Calculations
were not possible in every case, but where they were possible, they
should be used in place of experiments. The authorities were asked to
accept these calculations in future. The discussion should not become
bogged down in matters of detail and the researchers should not be more
precise than was required by the nature of the problem.

Dr. Wuppermann summarized the findings of the discussions with an appeal

for the European Recommendations to be used as a means of eliminating the
national and regional differences in fire protection regulations. It had
been shown that buildings could be constructed safely of steel which, as
a construction material, had other advantages, such as its flexibility
and recycling.

Thanks were extended to the Technical Committee 3 to BCCS for its work
and to those who had presented papers and joined in the discussions.

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SESSION II : PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF
IMPLEMENTING SAFETY

Practical solutions by architects

Practical solutions by architects. Practical aspects of

implementing safety
A consultant's view of steel structures

How to reduce the cost of fire safety

Industrial buildings - fire losses and appropriate protective

measures
Report on Session I I

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 PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS BY ARCHITECTS

Klaus Schuwirth, Dipl.-Ing.

Rathnaustr. 12
3000 Hannover

1.0 General
1.1. The conflict between social reality and the built-up
environment.
1.2 "TECHNICAL ARCHITECTURE"-
Desirable objective or picture of fear?
(explanation by transparency)
1.3 Establishment of technical architecture by examples
(Architects and their w o r k ) .
1.4 Technical architecture and building materials.
2.0 Examples from the practice of Schuwirth & Erman, Hanover.
2.1 "HOSEG" office.
2.1.1 The site, the user, his wishes and requirements.
2.1.2. The design and logical development of construction
and materials (Steel and fire-safety).
2.1.3 The approval phase (authorities) and materialisation.
2.1.4. First experiences of the user of the building.
2.1.5. The reaction of public opinion.
2.2 Large laundry "BOCO"
2.2.1 Special problems of industrial buildings
-economic (low building costs and operating expenses)
-simple but attractive image
-minimum building time(low cost of finance and uninterrupted
progress of building)
-maximum flexibility (continuous production changes
to accommodate market requirements)
2.2.2 The plan and its materialisation (re building method,
fire safety, construction.
2.2.3 The result
-Image
-turnover
-environment
-public opinion.

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2.3. NORCONHAUS- Office at Berckhusenst. 150
2.3.1 The specific problem of speculative real estate.
2.3.2 The planning and its basis
-Contractor (requirements and financial arrangements)
-Architect (ideas and perseverance)
-Eingineers (construction and materialisation).
-Authorities (.Building and approval regulations)
2.3.3. The special problem of multi-storey steel buildings
with visible construction.
-fire safety
-approval and permission for special procedures
-performance and allocation of orders
-administration and coordination
-discussions between tenant and contractor.
2.3.4. The result - comments.
3.O. Future prospects for various projects.
-Hyatt Hanover (steel building and monument)
-Organisation for Music and Communication, Hanover
(high building and hall)
-Exhibition pavilion for Krupp exhibition ground at
Hanover (steel building as exponent of movement and dynamics
in industrial building.

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Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to begin my short
contribution with some words of the Viennese architect
Otto Wagner, a contemporary and colleague of Sigmund
Freud: "All modern creations must be consistent with-.
the new materials and requirements of the present time.
They must illustrate our own better democratic, self-conscious
technical and economic achievements and endure the practical
non-stop strain of man's thoughts- that is obvious".
This statement, although it was made 86 years ago, has not lost its
topicality. The attitude of mind that it expresses
is still as necessary as ever. The future of architecture
as we understand it is closely linked with the future
of our technical development, and will only retain its
present status if it succeeds in using this development
to its advantage.
EXAMPLE 1.

You will be surprised if I tell you that the contracting

director of our company is one of the leading conservationists
of ancient monuments is Lower Saxony, and is also a lecturer
on sacred building of the middle ages at the University
of Gottingen. He commissioned our office to design and
build a house for him that must clearly show the history
of the time of its construction and should have no offensive
pseudo-romantic features. As the site was thickly wooded
and our instructions were to avoid changing the surroundings,
the building was designed in prefabricated sections that
could be transported between the trees to the building
site, where a mobile, flexible container was erected.
The building is about a metre from the surrounding woodland
and appears to have sprung up naturally from the wild.
It is understandable that the neighbours and local inhabitants,
who were provoked during the building stage, became irritated
and tagged the building as "UFO", "Container" and "Space-
ship" .
A design of this kind for a h ouse that is suitable for
living purposes and compatible with the desires of those
who wish to integrate modern technology into their life—

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style, forces the architect to use compatible .materials
and methods. The building is a steel skeleton with
heat blocking elements, covered on the inside with textile
material. In front of these an anodised aluminium facade
is suspended, painted a reddish aubergine colour, which
forms an attractive contrast to the seasonal changes
in the green of the woods and produces fascinating reflections
as a result of the light and shade effects of the surroundings.
Fire protection of the building is conventional, with
reinforced concrete floors and cladding of the interior
of the frame by fire protection plates. Because of
the double shell structure, the fire regulations were
restricted to a 30 minute fire stability.

I need hardly stress that the building met with strong

opposition from the licensing authorities in the first
instance, and also provoked active discussion and opposition
from the local residents. This was welcomed by both
the contracting director and ourselves, as we believed
that provocation of the environment
by contemporary architectural innovation was overdue,
and only in this way can progress in this field be brought
about.

The building was the start of our association with structural

steelwork, which has continued up to the present time,
in which fire safety features have been developed in
a series of buildings.

EXAMPLE 2.

Our firm received an order to design an office building,

suitable for transportation to third world countries
or the near and far east, which provides an example of
modern design and construction for "Mobile Real Estate".

The building comprises two full storeys and a loft, and

aims to represent the field of activity of the user in

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that it can be placed on an unprepared site in the same
way as a large industrial container, raised about 1.5m
from the ground with an internal support system on a
raster 6X I4jn, and external wind bracing in the form
of a network, of steel ropes spanning the building.
The silvered plate glass facade covers most pf the building
and ensures that it merges into the surroundings.
The otherwise plain facade forms an almost frivolous
transparent shell for the office function, freely interrupted
by stepping and terracing of the facade elements in the
region of the stairwell. The external staircase is
like a gangway with a filigree special steel space frame.
It symbolises that this kind of building concept no longer
justifies the requirement to build for perpetuity, but
the design can be such that rapidly changing requirements
can easily be accommodated. Within the building, fire
protection is by flame protection, the ceilings being
of a reinforced concrete construction. The forces of
the wind braces are transmitted by special steel brackets
to the internal ceiling supports, and are the nucleus
of development. Building time is only 6 months.

EXAMPLE 3.
In 1983 we were commissioned to develop a marketing centre
for dressings on behalf of an international organisation.
In this case a span of 30 X 18 m was involved, with a
requirement for flexibility of the internal storage system.
At the same time good daylight was called for and a dust-
free atmosphere was required. For delivery, a number
of gates was provided for lorries and a platform for
nightly deliveries by rail from the main works. As
the building was in any case fitted with sprinklers because
of the high fire load of the materials being stored,
the authorities waived the requirement for protection
of the roof covering and roof structure. Only the inner
supports were built of steel sections and lined with
reinforced concrete. Here the possibilities of a combined

-168-
support were used and the large load span of the roof
surface obtained by lattice supports, which were vertical
In the glazed light sheds; in front of the building glass
canopies were cantilevered over the delivery and service
areas. The office and social area was arranged centrally
between the ramps, with a full glass frontage. The building
clearly shows that with the help of steel buildings
there is the possibility of maximum flexibility due to
wide spans that can be achieved by contemporary filigree
construction, but still provides an imposing structure
for large surface industrial buildings without substantially
increasing the cost. By prefabricating and assembly,
building time can be reduced to less than 6 months.

EXAMPLE 4

Another client is the Electrolux company, which owns

a number of large laundries throughout the world, and
who required a new building for a new site in Hanover.
In industrial building, the socalled level building method
is frequently adopted as an ostensibly simple and economic
solution, and unfortunately in many cases the structures
are built over, with serious consequences in regard to
collapse. We have shown that it is quite feasible to
produce improved and durable designs without neglecting
cost aspects.

The building comprises a main shop, 8 m high, 65 m. long

with a 45 m span. The main structure consists of four
lattice supports spanning the width of the building,
from which the roof purlins are suspended. In the interior
there is a two-storey U-shaped building, which encloses
the main laundry area. The ceiling is installed as
a sectional structure, which remains safe in all regions,
and is protected by flame-resistant paint. For fire protection
of the outer fascia, the authorities waived the usual

-169-
exhaustive testing, as the heat checking of the roof
was effective and non-combustible, and the distance
of the fascia supports from the building guaranteed the
flame protection of the inner shell of the facade.
The ceiling covering is a linked structure of metal elements.
The curtained facade is of aluminium pillar frame construction,
divided by blue enamel and plate glass. The under-ceilings
are of white painted steel frames double glazed with
sparkling safety glass. The colouring and shape of
the building clearly show that it is a place of work,
for the cleaning of textiles. Light structures with.
wide spans are. undoubtedly attainable by steel buildings
and there is an added advantage in the possibilities
of short building times and alleviation of transport
and removal problems. The project was started in July
19 83 and completed in December of that year.

EXAMPLE 5. .

It has been demonstrated that by contemporaty building

construction it is possible to use the advantages of
steel structures with very small building materials.

The building concerned was for a firm supplying dental

products. In the building, a central control system was
installed, with automatic feed. For this, a support-free
room was required, 30m X 30 m, to accommodate the office
and social area. The building structure was of two
tubular steel pylons outside the building, from which
the roof purlins for the central section were suspended
by ropes. Fire protection of the external pylons, which
remain untreated, was achieved by the fireproof inner
shell of the building facade. Protection of the tension
ropes is achieved by the insulating material of the roof
covering. The office section is also protected by tubular
steel supports, connected to compound supports and, together
with the fire protection, meet the static regulations.

-170-
The outside of the building is of self-coloured oxidised
aluminium.

This type of design is not only artistically exciting,

and compatible with our social standing, but also provides
onlookers with the opportunity of learning and understanding
the static design and efficiency and thus serves our
desire to bring the environment together with technical
buildings and to accept the often strong suspicion based
on ignorance.

EXAMPLE 6

This office and administration building shows very futuristic

elements in regard to steel construction and fire protection
methods, and should make clear where our office sees
the short term use and development potential of the material
"Steel in building construction".

The director of a Hamburg real estate company built a

spectacular building for rental to national and international
organisations.
The unusual structure and design were intended to demonstrate
the possibilities of new structures and designs. The
structure is conventional, with a reinforced concrete
sectional basement and a ground floor steel structure
2
with a surface area of 1 200m and four upper storeys
2
with a surface area of 6 50m . The steel roof supports
for the upper floors are about 2 m in front of the glass
frontage., and attached to a freely visible framework
over the roof, spanning the whole width of the building.
The weight is then transferred to four pylon supports.
The stability of the building ia guaranteed by a reinforced
concrete staircase tower. The ceiling construction
is a futuristic mixture in the form of trapezoidal steel
sections joined together, serving as enclosures and also
reinforcing the area. The support structure is of beams
with welded dowels and plates. The combination of materials

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enables a particularly economical celling construction
and an exceptionally rapid method of construction.
Similarly, the removal of heat from the concrete in case
of fire allows an unprotected view of the ceiling surface
in a fire-safe structure.

A completely new method of building is provided by the

fire safety system for exterior unclad steel sections
(hanging struts and pylons). The cross section is a
round steel tube with an inner tube for water circulation.
In case of fire, water from a tank is circulated rapidly
for at least 90 minutes. By this means, the costly and
unsightly cladding for fire protection can be avoided.
Only the visible framework sections, which are created
in the form of an artistic space frame, are normally
coated with plate elements.

This integrated fire protection system was developed

for the research group HKW" -Hflnug, Klingsch and Witte,
Wiesbaden, and was described by Prof. Klingsch in his
paper yesterday.

The development of this project by our company clearly

demonstrated to us that collaboration with national and
international specialists in the construction field should
be further intensified in regard to fire safety techniques,
to enable a short term exchange of information as only
in this way can the further development of structural
steelwork be kept abreast of general developments.
Whilst approval for individual buildings of this kind
is still required, from the main licensing office in
Berlin, we hope that in the near future normal licensing
procedure will be accepted and that horizontal elements
will be protected by an integrated water cooling system.

Despite its lavish facade and building quality, the building

is only slightly more expensive than a conventional structure,
and has the advantage of an extremely short building

-172-
time of only 11 months. This can be explained by the
simplification of inspection procedures which permits
uninterrupted operation.

The model photograph displayed shows some alternative

features that may be expected in the near future. The
project described here is a competitor's design for an
exhibition pavilion for a world company in the field
of industrial technology. It demonstrates the state
of present day technology and thus completely reveals
the range of current techniques, with the objective of
offering a hitherto unknown wealth of use and experience-
potential, with a highly artistic design. The building
itself comprises two filigree lattice spaceframes with
internal water cooling, which lead, at a distance and
a height of 35 m, to a vertically rotating steel wheel
track, in which three tubular steel and glass structures
are located and which run in turn, satellite fashion,
in a channel inside the display hall, using a magnetic
system. Whilst the curious visitors to the exhibition
are transported through the pavilion· on a moving pavement
or escalator, the specialist visitor can visit the surrounding
body of the hall, uninterrupted by exhibition personnel.
All this, combined with the height of rotation, adds
up to an exceptionally interesting view of the exhibition,
and the design is made clear inside the building by light
reflections and light changes. The overall effect is
enhanced by supporting the main body of the building
on stilts over a shallow tank of water, which is illuminated
with changing colours to give numerous special attractions
and effects, in addition to he continuous movement of
the objects.

This kind of project offers the possibility of applying

new techniques to specific qualities of the building
concerned, including modern steel and industrial technology,
and water technology.

-173-
Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to thank you for your
attention, and to conclude with a comment of our eminent
colleague Walter Gropius at the 1911 Engineering Congress:
"The range of pictures shown does not pretend to be complete,
but nevertheless proof is perhaps offered that an industrial
prefabricated building need not always be merely a necessary
evil, but can be a reflectiion of the best influences
of our time".

-174-
 PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS BY ARCHITECTS
Practical aspects of implementing safety
Gabriele Abbado, Architect
INSO SpA, E.N.I. Group - Florence, Italy

1. INTRODUCTION

The phenomenon of fire is made up of a large number of interconnected

variables, each of which can contribute to determining whether a fire
can break out, how it develops and what are its consequences.

Previous speakers have discussed the topics of standards and regulations,

design and research, while economic aspects will be tackled in subsequent
papers.

The aim of this paper, on the other hand, is to identify the architectural
variables which characterize the design, construction and use of buildings
incorporating steel structures, viewed from the fire safety standpoint.

Its scope does not therefore include assessment of a large number of

factors, such as human reactions (e.g. fear and panic) the general "active
safety" measures taken with respect to the risks of fire, for example the
automatic alarm and firefighting systems and the rapidity with which the
emergency services arrive on the scene, and the conditions in which fire
breaks out, for example as a result of short circuits, arson, terrorism
or vandalism, or the improper use of cooking or heating appliances.

Neither are the rules governing the behaviour of users taken into considera-
tion, even though such rules are connected with the general problems of
the correct design for maintenance purposes.

A no ther topic excluded from this presentation is the reaction to fire of

the secondary structures and non load-bearing components of the building.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

If a fire prevention system is to be valid from a technical standpoint, it

must not just satisfy general requirements relating to the safety of

-175-
buildings during the design and construction phases and in building
management.

Such requirements govern merely the correct layout and proper design of
access points, lifts, staircases and escape routes, as well as early fire
detection and alarm systems and the use of materials with good fire-
endurance properties, such as strength, reaction to fire and the production
of non-toxic fumes.

There are, however, other aspects connected with town planning which
have to be considered before the specifically architectural parameters
and make it possible to set more clearly in perspective which prevention
system should be preferred.

The density of the built-up areas envisaged in the town plan determines the
height and population density of the buildings in relation to the building
styles allowed in each zone.

In general, the economic forces exploiting the centres of urban areas tend
to increase the population and building density in city centres, with the
resulting pyramid-shaped progression in building height, in direct pro-
portion to the cost of land.

This state of affairs, which has prevailed for the last 40 years, is
challenged by the sound theories of Lewis Mumford and Giuseppe De Finetti,
which demonstrate that low buildings are more suitable for expensive
areas since they use the available space more efficiently.

It is sufficient to bear in mind the amount of space occupied in a muLti-

storey office or appartment block by the lifts and service shafts and, con-
versely, the efficient use of space on the middle or low floors of commercial
premises.

Even if the speed of the lifts i,s increased geometrically, the maximum
height of a building, which must not cause the evacuation timetoexceed
5 minutes, cannot economically exceed 300 m, while Wright's design for a
one-mile-high skyscraper remains a useless dream.

The indirect costs in terms of energy, transport, safety, management and

-176-
maintenance caused by the congestion of the habitat cancel out the initial
benefit.

Moreover, the greatest saving in space is obtained through horizontal

building design, not only for commercial premises but also in the case of
service buildings, offices, health facilities and educational premises.

In this context, the conditions in which the environmental factors enter

into account are of interest as regards the variables of temperature, humi-
dity and wind, in addition to the size, span and location of the compart-
ments and rooms in comparison with the main load-bearing structure.

3. DISCUSSION

In order to economically ensure that steel structures display adequate

fire safety the simplest method is to avoid having to protect them with
any fire-resistant material, by reducing the fire loads to extremely low
levels (lower than 20 kg/m ) .

This is achieved in various ways; the commonest method is to divide the

building into homogeneous compartments, so as to obtain safe external and
internal areas which allow the building to be evacuated only partially in
the event of a fire.

The fire load of each homogeneous compartment should not be above class 15,
while the building management arrangements should include checks to ensure
that dangerous substances and materials, which could jeopardize the theore-
tical calculation, do not accumulate therein.

In the example of the hospital, each part of the two-storey building is

served by staircases and lifts. The staircases are smoke-proof and each
area is in contact with the outside or with inner courtyards.

The ward area, which is composed of four compartments, is separated from

the health services area by a multi-level gangway, which is built with an
independent structure and in which fire can be sealed off by automatic
compartmentali zat i on.

-177-
This system is used in Italy in applications of the Oxford Method, for
hospital structures designed by working groups: at Casalmaggiore Cremona
the head of the group and coordinator is Giulio C. Daolio and at Ostia
Lido in Rome, the architects are E. Monaco and A. Martini.

3¿2_0yTER_STRUCTURES

The use of steel in buildings, although well-accepted in anti-seismic

structures, still gives rise to doubts concerning its reaction to fire.
This is due partly to the lack of a sound body of regulations in the
industrial field and also the scarcity of both general and specific
information.

If the materials which are to be relied on for the safety of the buildings
must have good fire-resistance properties and well-known thermal properties,
it is difficult to see what other material than steel has been characterized
with greater precision as regards its behaviour at different temperatures,
whoever is carrying out the tests.

It is therefore necessary to analyse the factors that could militate

against the more widespread use of steel in construction.

It is also necessary to describe all the situations in which steel is

the only material capable of providing proper solutions to the present-day
problems created by current architectural styles (for example canopies and
roofing for stations and service stations).

Moreover, such architectural styles are also of interest to the fire

insurance business, which is endeavouring to encourage building systems
that involve less exposure to fire.

One of the most successful applications of structures that are external

to the building is without doubt the administrative centre of John Deere
and Co. at Moline (Illinois) which was designed by the architect Eero
Saarinen. This architectural concept gave birth to other styles, such as the
one adopted for the Hotel Jolly at Villa Borghese, Rome, built in 1972 on
a design by the architects Vincenzo and Edoardo Monaco. The outer structure
does not require any fire protection, since it stands clear of the outer
wall.

-178-
The variables deriving from the distance between the outer ualL and the
outer structures have already been taken into consideration in two
5 9
publications by Arnault, Ehm and Kruppa and Mrs M. Law .

The inner parts of the structures are clad with panels of compressed mineral
wool which act as flame barriers and heat insulation, by separating the
internal environment from the thermal bridge constituted by the IPE 300
girders.

Integration with various other functions of the building components providing

fire protection constitutes another economically attractive solution to the
problem of fire safety.

Fire protection can be integrated with the following functions: heat insula-
tion, sound absorption, soundproofing and corrosion protection of the steel.
By way of an example, vertical structures are protected by intumescent
paints, which are applied on top of a coat of anti-rust primer. The Liceo
Classico Rinaldini at Ancona was damaged by arson in 1978: the fire lasted
for 70 minutes, reaching high temperatures that exceeded 600°C and
destroyed the aluminium window-frames.

The school is a three-storey structure designed by architects P. Castelli

and L. Cristini and is highly earthquake-resistant, like all the buildings
erected by the Firm INSO at Ancona.

The fire was lit on the first floor, in the headmaster's study, which is
located at one corner of the building where the load-bearing columns, had
they yielded, would have caused the entire building to collapse. The intumes-
cent paint prevented the collapse temperature from being reached.

The structures retained their integrity to such an extent that, after

cleaning, they were re-coated with the same paint, which has been tested
under fire for up to 120 minutes at an officially-approved testing centre ' '
by the Milan company Protect.

Other fires took place in 1981 and 1983 in steel structures coated with
heat-insulating materials by way of fire protection (sprayed mineral wools
supplied by the firm Davidson SpA, Milan).

-179-
A short circuit caused a fire at the Ristorante Motta at Bologna Cantagallo,
on the A1 motorway. The fire persisted some two hours after the arrival of
the fire brigade, damaging the superstructures. The basic structures are
still in existence today, and the present Autogrill was rebuilt on them,
after they had been re-calculated on the basis of a design drawn up by
Mr Martinez of the Milan Polytechnic.

Part of the upper structures were demolished in order to allow the architec-
tural appearance to be modified, but the original main HSA and AE girders in
the bridge over the motorway were maintained and covered with another
similar f ire.protection material.

In February 1984, another fire damaged the two uppermost storeys of the
Chemistry Faculty of the Milan State University. The steel structures,
which were covered with Limpet fibres, withstood a fire that lasted two
hours.

3¿4_SPECIAL_STRUCTyRES
After the construction of the Pittsburg headquarters of the US Co. in 1969
with water-irrigated structures, other similar structures have been erected
in Georgia, Idaho and California.

In Europe, the headquarters of the German Association of Steel Constructors

in Düsseldorf was built on this principle .

The only drawback is cost, since water-irrigated pillars offer virtually

unlimited fire resistance.

One way of off-setting the higher initial costs of irrigated structures is

to integrate such fire protection with a solar energy collection and
storage system. Cladding with slabs of extruded polycarbonate causes the
greenhouse effect to take place and provides heat insulation for the entire
column/beam system.

In order to avoid excessive fluid pressures, the system can be designed for
a three-storey building or for multiples of three stories. Each set of
storeys has its own expansion and degassing tank.

-180-
The variables deriving from the distance between the outer wall and the
outer structures have already been taken into consideration in two
5 9
publications by Arnault, Ehm and Kruppa and Mrs M. Law .

The inner parts of the structures are clad with panels of compressed mineral
wool which act as flame barriers and heat insulation, by separating the
internal environment from the thermal bridge constituted by the IPE 300
girders.

3¿3_CLAD_STR¡JCTyRES

Integration with various other functions of the building components providing

fire protection constitutes another economically attractive solution to the
problem of fire safety.

Fire protection can be integrated with the following functions: heat insula-
tion, sound absorption, soundproofing and corrosion protection of the steel.
By way of an example, vertical structures are protected by intumescent
paints, which are applied on top of a coat of anti-rust primer. The Liceo
Classico Rinaldini at Ancona was damaged by arson in 1978: the fire lasted
for 70 minutes, reaching high temperatures that exceeded 600°C and
destroyed the aluminium window-frames.

The school is a three-storey structure designed by architects P. Castelli

and L. Cristini and is highly earthquake-resistant, like all the buildings
erected by the Firm INS0 at Ancona.

The fire was lit on the first floor, in the headmaster's study, which is
located at one corner of the building where the load-bearing columns, had
they yielded, would have caused the entire building to collapse. The intumes-
cent paint prevented the collapse temperature from being reached.

The structures retained their integrity to such an extent that, after

cleaning, they were re-coated with the same paint, which has been tested
under fire for up to 120 minutes at an officially-approved testing centre ' '
by the Milan company Protect.

Other fires took place in 1981 and 1983 in steel structures coated with
heat-insulating materials by way of fire protection (sprayed mineral wools
supplied by the firm Davidson SpA, Milan).

-179-
A short circuit caused a fire at the Ristorante Motta at Bologna CantagalLo,
on the A1 motorway. The fire persisted some two hours after the arrival of
the fire brigade, damaging the superstructures. The basic structures are
still in existence today, and the present Autogrill was rebuilt on them,
after they had been re-calculated on the basis of a design drawn up by
Mr Martinez of the Milan Polytechnic.

Part of the upper structures were demolished in order to allow the architec-
tural appearance to be modified, but the original main HSA and AE girders in
the bridge over the motorway were maintained and covered with another
similar fire.protection material.

In February 1984, another fire damaged the two uppermost storeys of the
Chemistry Faculty of the Milan State University. The steel structures,
which were covered with Limpet fibres, withstood a fire that lasted two
hours.

3¿*_SPECIAL_STRyCTURES

After the construction of the Pittsburg headquarters of the US Co. in 1969

with water-irrigated structures, other similar structures have been erected
in Georgia, Idaho and California.

In Europe, the headquarters of the German Association of Steel Constructors

in Düsseldorf was built on this principle .

The only drawback is cost, since water-irrigated pillars offer virtually

unlimited fire resistance.

One way of off-setting the higher initial costs of irrigated structures is

to integrate such fire protection with a solar energy collection and
storage system. Cladding with slabs of extruded polycarbonate causes the
greenhouse effect to take place and provides heat insulation for the entire
column/beam system.

In order to avoid excessive fluid pressures, the system can be designed for
a three-storey building or for multiples of three stories. Each set of
storeys has its own expansion and degassing tank.

-180-
The problem to be solved is the chemical composition of the anti-freeze
mixture which must not corrode the steel.

In the case of irrigated steel structures integrated with a solar energy

collection and storage system, an economically viable cost/benefit ratio
can be achieved, and this modern architectural style could take a share
of the market.

It. CONCLUSION

It has been demonstrated for more than 20 years that in steel structures
with a fire load of less than 20 kg/m , the steel does not have to be
coated or protected and that even a fire load of 25 kg/m is not hazardous.

In the case of structures belonging to higher fire classes, a wide range

of f ire-protection systems can be used which have demonstrated optimum
fire-endurance properties in actual fires.

The European market, on which this conference is focussing, should attempt

to use steel to a greater extent in the construction industry, in order to
help overcome the crisis in the European steel industry.

The official authorities of the EEC Member States should bring themselves
into line with Japan and the United States as regards regulations, and
in particular those relating to anti-seismic structures.

As far as the construction of buildings in earthquake areas is concerned,

a more widespread use of steel in all types of architecture should be
encouraged, as in Japan.

European regulations are paving the way for the harmonization of national
18-28
requirements relating to the application of ISO standards in
national laws and in Community provisions which have been incorporated
into national regulations.

-181-
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Curt F. Kollbrunner: "L'attuale e futura costruzione ad ossatura

metallica". Alta Autorità della Comunità Europea del Carbone e dell'
Acciaio, Congresso Acciaio 1964: "I progressi nelle costruzioni in
acciaio", Lussemburgo, 28-30 Ottobre 1964.

2. George E. Danforth: "Costruzioni in Acciaio", Alta Autorità della

Comunità Europea del Carbone e dell'Acciaio, Congresso Acciaio 1964:
"I progressi nelle costruzioni in acciaio", Lussemburgo, 28-30 Ottobre 1964

3. L.F. Donato - L. Sampaolesi: "Gli acciai e la sicurezza delle costruzioni"

Ed. ITALSIDER, Genova 1971.

4. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche: "Principi per una normativa tecnica

sulla sicurezza contro il fuoco dei fabbricati con struttura di acciaio",
Bollettino Ufficiale CNR, Norme Tecniche, Anno 7°, n" 87, Roma 1973.

5. P. Arnault, H. Ehm, J. Kruppa: "Evoluzione delle temperature nelle

colonne esterne sottoposte a incendi", Documentation CECH 3-7/4/7F.
Centre Technique de la Construction Métallique, Puteaux, 1974.

6.. S. Cuomo: "Elementi di resistenza al fuoco delle strutture d'acciaio e

loro protezione", Liguori editore, Napoli 1975.

7. Mommertz, Pethier, Weineck: "Protezione antincendio delle colonne di

acciaio con raffreddamento ad acqua", comunicazione n° 13 dell'Istituto
di Ricerche della Associazione Tedesca del Costruttori in Acciaio,
Düsseldorf.

8. I. Tiezzi: "La sicurezza dell'incendio nell'edilizia, alti fabbricati",

EPC Edizioni di Protezione Civile, Roma 1976.

9. M. Law: "Design Guide for Fire Safety of Bare Exterior Structural Steel,
1° Theory and Validation, 2° State of Art", OveArupi Partners, London 1977.

10. A. Cascarino: "La funzione della rivelazione e segnalazione degli incendi

nella prevenzione incendi" Antincendio e Protezione Civile n° 4 Aprile 1977.

-182-
11. I. Tiezzi: "I costi della protezione antincendio" EPC Edizioni di
Protezione Civile, Roma 1978.

12. F. Hart, W. Henn, H. Sonntag: "A rchitettura A cciaio, Edifici Civili",

Deutscher Stahlbau­Verband, Italsider, Genova 1979.

13. G. Nava, Ν. Dalumi, G. Scotti: "Comportamento al fuoco e compatibilità

di smalti di varia natura, quali finiture per cicli di vernici intumescenti
contro il fuoco", rivista A cciaio/CISIA , n° 5, 1981.

14. G. Nava, Ν. Dalumi: "Comportamento al fuoco delle antiruggini quali

fondi per cicli di vernici intumescenti contro il fuoco", Rivista
Acciaio/CISIA, n° 1, 1981.

15. N. Dalumi, P. Setti: "Comportamento al fuoco delle strutture protette

con materiali intumescenti", conferenza "Giornate Italiane della
Costruzione in Acciaio del C.T.Α.", Perugia 1983.

16. I. Tiezzi: "La nuova legge di prevenzione incendio in Italia", Conferenza

tenuta al Congresso della A ssociazione Europea degli Ufficiali Professio­
nisti del Vigili del Fuoco (European A ssociation of Professional Fire
Brigade Officers), Milano 1983.

17. S. Cuomo, G. De Martino: "La sicurezza contro l'incendio degli edifici

a strutture in acciaio", Monografia n° 6 della Ricerca "Il comportamento
delle strutture portanti in acciaio". Ricerca Nuova Italsider ­
Comunità Europea, Genova 1983.

18. Circolare n° 12 del 17/5/80 del Ministero dell'Interno: "Reazione al

fuoco dei materiali impiegati nell'edilizia, Specifiche e modalità di
prove e classificazione".

19. Circolare n° 91 del H/9/61 del Ministero dell'Interno: "Norme di

sicurezza per la protezione contro il fuoco dei fabbricati a struttura
in acciaio destinati ad uso civile".

20. Decreto Presidenziale 29/7/83 n° 577.

21. Decreto Ministeriale 30/11/83 del Ministero dell'Interno.

­183­
22. A ustria: "Norma ONORM B 3800".

23. Francia: "Decreti e circolari raccolti in ­ Sécurité contre les incendies

brochure η. 1011 du Journal Officiel de la République Française".

24. Germania: "Deutsche Normen DIN 4102 ­ Caratteristiche di comportamento

al fuoco di materiali e componenti per l'edilizia".

25. Gran Bretagne: "Norm British Standard BS 476 ­ Fire Tests on building
materials and structures".

26. Scandinavia: "Norme Nordiska Kommittén for Byqqmertãnnuelser ­ Metodi

NKB Nordtest fire numerati da NTF 101 a NTF 109".

27. Stati Uniti d'A merica: "Regolamentazione federale norme A NSI/A STM D­E".

28. Svizzera: "Regolamentazione federale standard SNV 520183/2 ­ Uso dei

materiali combustibili nell'edilizia. Metodi di prova".

r 1B4­
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1. Casalmaggiore-Cremona Hospital

G. Daolio, Engineer

Fig. 2. Ostia-Lido Hospital, Romp

E. Monaco and A. Martini, Architects

-185-
 FIG. 3. Jolly's Hotel,Rome
E. and V. Monaco, Architects

FIG. 4. Liceo Classico Rinaldini, Ancona

P. Castelli and L. Cristini, Architects

-186-
FIG. 5. Liceo Classico Rinaldini, Ancona
P. Castelli and L. Cristini, Architects

FIG. 6. Liceo Classico Rinaldini, Ancona

P. Castelli and L. Cristini, Architects

-187-
 FIG. 7.
Liceo Classico Rinaldini,
Ancona, P. Castelli and
L. Cristini, Architects

FIG. 8.
Liceo Classico Rinaldini,
Ancona, P. Castelli and
L. Cristini, Architects

-188-
 ■** ­ «*i*.

FIG. 9. Liceo Classico Rinaldini, Ancona, P. Castelli and L. Cristini,

Architects

FIG. 10. Autogrill Motta, Bologna Cantagallo, Mr Martinez, Engineer

­189­
FIG. 11. Autogrill Motta, Bologna Cantagallo, Mr Martinez, Engineer

FIG. 12. Autogrill Motta, Bologna Cantagallo, Mr Martinez, Engineer

-190-
 FIG. 13
Autogrill Motta,
Bologna Cantagallo
Mr Martinez, Engineer

FIG. IA
Autogrill Motta,
Bologna Cantagallo
Mr Martinez, Engineer

-191-
FIG. 15. Autogrill Motta, Bologna Cantagallo, Mr Martinez, Engineer
11

FIG. 16.

Laboratories at the Chemistry

Faculty of the Milan State
University

-192-
FIG. 17. Laboratories at the Chemistry Faculty of the Milan State Univer-
sity

-193-
 A CONSULTANT'S VIEW OF STEEL STRUCTURES

M. LAW

Ove Arup Partnership, London

Summary

Calculation methods and design manuals give scope for better use of
traditional methods of fire protection, the development of new methods
and the definition of fire exposure and structural behaviour in fire.
They are ideally suited for international application. Particular topics
of interest include calculation of fire resistance for steel with cladding
and for composite steel and concrete decks and columns. Water-filled
hollow sections, identification of the circumstances where unprotected
steel may be used and the calculation of external fire exposure can all
lead to economies and may allow the steel structure to be expressed. Case
studies of recent steel framed buildings illustrate the points discussed.

-194-
1. INTRODUCTION
The conventional methods of satisfying the requirements of building
regulations for the fire protection of structural steelwork are straight-
forward and well accepted. New protection methods and new ways of using
calculations for the design of traditional methods can also be straight-
forward; acceptance is being gained more readily than in the past and such
acceptance is eased by the provision of design codes and manuals. This
paper discusses these recent developments in relation to a number of
steel-framed framed buildings.

2. Cladding of columns and beams

A most welcome development in this field is the acceptance of calcu-
lation methods for the determination of the cladding thickness needed to
limit the temperature rise of the structural steel to a specified
'critical temperature' . It is thus possible to determine the protec-
tion needed for a wide range of section sizes without being required to
suffer the expense and delay of many standard fire resistance tests. As
a recent example, this approach has been adopted for the Hong Kong and
Shanghai Bank. The critical temperature itself can also be calculated ;
it is not necessarily the often-quoted 550°C, since its value depends on
the stress, mode of failure and type of steel. Calculation of the
critical temperature is essential for building elements which, because of
furnace limitations, cannot be subjected to the standard test; examples
are the internal trusses of Centre Pompidou, Paris, and the hangers of
the Central Bank, Dublin. Such calculation approaches should help to
break down the barriers between countries, because they can take into
account national variations in, for example, load levels and material
properties.

3. Profiled steel and concrete decks

Ribbed steel decks acting compositely with concrete are a popular
form of construction but unless the steel is protected from fire then,
for periods of fire resistance exceeding 30 minutes, it must be assumed
that it has no structural function. The favoured solution is to incor-
porate steel reinforcement, for fire purposes only, in the concrete.
Most test data have been on proprietary systems and the results have not
always been easy to generalise. It has however been possible to use

-195-
 (2)
guidance issued for concrete structures and fire , as for example, in
the Water Research Centre, Swindon. Lightweight aggregate concrete can
offer advantages and both lightweight and normal weight concrete are
dealt with in a guide which has just been published . This guide gives
no test results but an opportunity for comparison will become available
when the ECCS manual is published.

4. Composite steel and concrete columns

In the UK, for fire resistance periods of up to 2 hours (which
covers most buildings) it is usual to have an all-steel or all-concrete
structural solution, although there has been some interest in concrete-
filled hollow steel sections, particularly if this leads to a reduction
in column diameter. As with the steel/concrete decks, for fire resis-
tance periods exceeding 30 minutes it is assumed the steel has no
structural function. Where appropriate, the concrete can incorporate
fire reinforcement, as for example in the Water Research Centre.

5. Water-filled hollow sections

An attraction of water-filling, as a method of keeping the steel
cool during a fire, is that the steel itself is exposed to view. One
early example is the US Steel Headquarters in Pittsburgh, where the
structure of weathering steel is displayed externally. Other examples
of external water-filled steel are the Centre Pompidou and Bush Lane
House, London (in stainless steel to avoid maintenance). In both these
examples the external structure maximised the floor area available. With
adequate water storage a hollow section can be of smaller diameter than a
concrete column of the same fire resistance and, once again, floor area
is maximised. However, the anticorrosion and antifreeze additives can be
expensive for low-rise buildings and this is one reason for the relative-
ly few buildings which use water-cooled steel. A design manual related
(4)
to the standard fire existence test is available but for external
columns it is preferable to calculate the fire exposure according to
their location and the fire load of the building as discussed below.

6. Unprotected steel elements

Where it can be demonstrated that public safety is not at risk,
structural fire protection need not be required. An example is the Royal

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Exchange Theatre, Manchester. In most countries, the structure of a
single storey building needs no fire protection, provided there is
negligible risk of fire spread to adjacent buildings, and likewise the
roof of any building may be unprotected. An example is the Garden
Festival Building, Liverpool.
When the fire load is low it may be possible to show that if a fire
occurred a steel structure would not reach its critical temperature.
This is already accepted for car parks, where there is a low fire load
and a low probability of fire spread from one car to another. Other low
fire load, low fire risk buildings which might also be in unprotected
steel are transport terminals and sports stadiums; these usually contain
large circulation areas and little in the way of fire load. An example
is at Ibrox Park, Glasgow. It would be very useful to have general
guidance on structural requirements for these types of building.
It is also accepted that structure external to the building is
likely to reach a lower temperature than the internal structure; based on
a technical study design manuals have been published which
show how to calculate external fire exposure and structural temperatures.
This method was useful in the design of the Central Bank, for example.

7. Case studies
The buildings mentioned below have been chosen to illustrate some of
the aspects discussed above.
(9)
Bush Lane House, London, UK
Architects and engineers: Arup Associates
This building provides 8 office floors, above a plant room at first
floor level, the ground floor area being left free for use by London
Transport. In order to provide maximum floor area within planning and
other constraints, the floor loads are transmitted by an external steel
lattice to the lift core and three columns. To avoid corrosion and
maintenance problems the lattice is exposed stainless steel and is water-
filled for fire protection. The patterns of water flow, maximum potential
steel temperature and the amount of water storage were all established by
calculation, as a standard fire resistance test could not be carried out.
Central Bank Offices, Dublin, Eire
Architects: Stephenson Gibney and Associates
Engineers: Ove Arup S Partners, Dublin

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 This eight-storey block of offices has floors supported on twin re-
inforced concrete cores and 12 external hanger points round the perimeter.
The hangers are of Macalloy steel bars and for architectural reasons it
was essential to avoid very thick cladding. This was achieved by calcul-
ating the external fire exposure and demonstrating that the critical
temperature would not be attained with the thin layer of cladding
provided. The critical temperature itself was established by an analysis
of the mode of failure and taking into account the steel characteristics,
since a standard fire resistance test was not possible.
Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
Architects: Piano S Rogers
Engineers: Ove Arup s Partners
This six-storey building, which is an arts centre, has a steel
structure rising above a concrete sub-structure. The main lattice
girders, most of which are internal, have cladding to give 2h fire
resistance, but as it was not practical to subject them to a standard
fire resistance test the critical steel' temperature was established by
calculation. Much of the rest of the structure is exposed externally.
Calculations showed that some elements, by virtue of their distance from
the windows (7.6m) did not need fire protection. Others are protected by
fire resistant shields on sprinklers, and the main columns, at 1.6m
distance, are water filled.
(12)
Digital Equipment Company, Reading, UK
Architects and engineers: Arup Associates
This steel-framed building combines a single storey manufacturing
area and a two-storey office area within a steel-clad envelope. Under
Building Regulations, only the wall separating these two uses and the
floor of the upper storey offices are required to have fire resistance,
the rest of the structure being unprotected steelwork. The structure has
a number of 7.2m square bays which form a series of roof pyramids
supported by a central column. The upper level of the offices is open to
the floor below and overlooks the central 'street'. The external walls
and the roof are of galvanised steel insulated sandwich panels.
Engineering Research Centre, Water Research Centre,
„ . . (13) (14)
Swindon, UK
Architects: Architects Design Partnership
Engineers: Roughton and Fenton

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 This two-storey building accommodates research laboratories,
offices, an experimental test hall and various communal facilities. The
client required a maximum floor area within the budget and the ability to
adapt and rearrange the working areas. To this end a component cladding
panel system hung on a steel frame was used and most of the columns were
placed outside the building envelope. The standard of fire resistance is
1 hour.
The columns are 457mm diameter circular hollow sections, concrete
filled. The original intention was to use water filling for the fire
protection but the cost of the additives was considered to be too great.
The columns carrying axial loads only are filled with mass concrete while
the columns required to carry substantial bending moments are filled with
reinforced concrete designed as a column according to British Standard
(2)
CP110 with a partial safety factor of 1.05 for accidental damage . The
external columns have the same standard of fire resistance as the
internal ones and do not rely on any protection from the external wall
panels.
The first floor slab is a concrete deck with bare ribbed steel
acting as permanent formwork and fire reinforcement being contained in
the concrete. The steel beams are protected with mineral spray.
Gateway Two, UK
Architect and engineers: Arup Associates
Gateway Two is an office building with 5 storeys of offices built
round a central atrium. The galleries in the atrium have a profiled
steel deck acting as permanent formwork for the concrete slab so that
they could be built without scaffolding. An exposed steel structure
carries the galleries, lifts and roof. Pneumatically operated roof vents
are controlled to respond to wind and temperature conditions during
normal use and are also linked automatically to smoke detectors so that
they act as smoke vents in the event of fire. These features of the
atrium were accepted by the authorities on the understanding that the
atrium would be used for circulation only during normal office hours;
some social uses are also permitted in the evenings and weekends when the
offices are empty.
The Govan Stand, Ibrox Park, Glasgow, UK
Architect: Τ M Miller and Partners
Engineers: Thorburn and Partners

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 This stand, at Glasgow Rangers Football Club, is a two-tier steel
and concrete construction. Columns within the structure were protected
with lightweight blocks but horizontal members were left unprotected.
The latter were estimated to have 40 min fire resistance, on the basis of
results of fire resistance tests, the values of the section factors for
the steel beams and an assessment of the actual structural behaviour
during a fire. By measuring fire loads and ventilation an 'equivalent
(18)
time of fire duration' was calculated to be 32 min. The saving in
costs of conventional fire protection was estimated to be over £40,000.
Liverpool Festival Building, Liverpool, UK
Architects and engineers: Arup Associates
This building is designed for the International Garden Festival 1984
and is essentially a steel-framed vault 140m long by 60m wide with
polycarbonate cladding. At each end of the vault there is a 30m diameter
half-dome, aluminium clad, with pressed steel baked enamel internal
lining panels. Being a single storey building, the structure does not
need fire resistance. The steelwork can therefore be left exposed. The
building will be converted after the Festival into a Leisure Centre, the
concrete structure of which will be contained within the glazed steel
vault.
(19)
The Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester, UK
Architects: Levitt Bernstein Associates
Engineers: Ove Arup S Partners
This open-stage auditorium, stands within the Great Hall of the
Manchester Royal Exchange. There is a stage and seating for 450 at the
level of the Exchange floor and seating for a further 300 people is
provided by two galleries suspended from tubular steel trusses. A fire
engineering appraisal of smoke generation and crowd movements established
that people could escape readily and therefore the theatre remains an
open structure without fire cladding.

References
1. ECCS. "European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel
Structures. Calculation of the Fire Resistance of Load Bearing
Elements and Structural Assemblies Exposed to the Standard Fire".
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1983.

-200-
2. Design and detailing of concrete structures for fire resistance.
Interim guidance by a Joint Committee of the Institution of
Structural Engineers and The Concrete Society. The Institution of
Structural Engineers, London, 1978.
3. Newman, G.M. and Walker, H.B. Steel framed multi-storey buildings.
Design recommendations for composite floors and beams using steel
decks. Section 2. Fire resistance. Constrado, Croydon, 1983.
4. Bond, G.V.L. "Water cooled hollow columns". Constrado, Croydon,
1975.
5. Ove Arup s Partners. "Design guide for fire safety of bare exterior
structural steel. Technical reports". American Iron and Steel .
Institute/Constrado, January 1977.
6. Law, Margaret, "Fire safety of external building elements - the
design approach". Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Second Quarter, 1978, pp 59-74.
7. American Iron and Steel Institute. "Firesafe structural steel. A
design guide". Washington D.C., 1979.
8. Law, Margaret and O'Brien, Turlogh. "Fire safety of bare external
structural steel". Constrado, Croydon, 1981.
9. Eatherley, M.J. "The design and construction of Bush Lane House".
The Structural Engineer, February 1977, No. 2, Volume 55, pp 75-85.
10. McSweeney, M.F. "New HQ for Central Bank". Irish Engineers, Vol. 31,
No. 2, February 1978, pp 3,5,7-8.
11. Ahm, P.B. et al. "Design and Construction of the Centre National
d'Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou". Proc Instn Civ Engrs. Part 1,
1976, 66, Nov. 557-593.
12. The Architects Journal, 4 May 1983, pp 51-66.
13. The Architects Journal, 24 February 1982, pp 47-65.
14. Fenton, R.F. Personal communication.
15. The Architects Journal, 3 August 1983, pp 26-34.
16. Smith, Ian. Fire engineering and the design of sports stadia.
Building with Steel, Vol. 9, No. 2, December 1982, pp 10-13.
17. Framed in Steel 6. the Ibrox Stadium Redevelopment. British Steel
Corporation, November 1981.
18. ECCS. Fire safety in constructional steelwork. CECM III-74-2E,
1974, Chapter II.
19. Morreau, P. and Baldock, N. "Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester".
The Structural Engineer, July 1978, No. 7, Vol. 56A, pp 189-197.

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BUSH LANE HOUSE CENTRAL BANK OFFICES

CENTRE POMPIDOU (SIDE VIEW) DIGITAL EQUIPMENT COMPANY

-202-
 GATEWAY TWO

LIVERPOOL FESTIVAL BUILDING (MODEL)

ROYAL EXCHANGE
THEATRE

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 HOW TO REDUCE THE COST OF FIRE SAFETY

L. FRUITET
Inaénieur-Conseil de l'Office Technique
pour l ' U t i l i s a t i o n de l'Acier

Summary

The protection of structural frameworks against fire too often escalates

their costs. These costs can be markedly reduced by a careful analysis of
the risks, and the structural behaviour, by designs more suitable for
security and, when judged necessary by different means of protection. This
economy can be carried as far as the elimination of all special protection
against fire, for all or part of the framework of a building. One must
also consider the costs of maintenance, upkeep and the conditions for
repairs and alterations.

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1. TOTAL OR PARTIAL ELIMINATION OF PROTECTION

It is too commonly believed that all steel structural elements incur

danger in case of fire, if they are not specially protected. There is no
foundation for this belief, in numerous cases i.he absence of protection
does not constitute a danger to the occupants. Either collapse of the
structure is not feared, or any collapse cannot reach people in the fire
area itself or in other parts of the burning building.

1.1. When no stability to fire requirement is stated

Regulations concerning the security of people exclude for some buildings,

even when the public are admitted, the necessity for fire stability of the
framework. This is generally the case for single storey buildings and for
certain others with a few floors, for which evacuation can by very rapid
and easy access for help. This disposition avoids costly protection, but
is matched by conditions elsewhere which reinforce the security
arrangements, requiring for example the incombustability of the framework
material (which is given without expense by steel structures) or the
existance of automatic fire detection. Another favourable element parti-
cularly interests us : the visability of the roof trusses from the ground
(for single-storey buildings) or the top floor. This is in effect a very
favourable arrangement for the rapid and efficient intervention of safety
personnel and also gives large economies.

However, it is interesting to question the reasons for these arrange-

ments, since they lead in certain cases to the possibility of structural
collapse. It is necessary in effect to consider that the high temperatures
reached by building materials (higher than 500°C for steel) at the moment
of loss of strength bringing collapse, which compare to even higher tempe-
ratures in the areas containing them, are completely incompatible with the
possibility of there being living persons present. It is not to these
people that the falling structure can be a danger but the consequences
of its collapse to other parts of the building may be occupied or contain
safety personnel.

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This observation leads us to an analysis of the risks, which consists of
imagining the existance of a fire in a given area of the building and of
calculating the forseeable consequences of this fire, in particular where
it concerns the eventual collapse of the structure. This procedure leads
us to the distinction between principal and secondary frameworks.

1.2. Secondary framework

We designate as "secondary" (from the point of view of stability to

fire) the elements of the frame, who's destruction will not entail that
of other elements of the structure, situated outside the zone of the fire.
Figure 1 gives a schematic example of the distinction between principal
and secondary elements of a framework. This sketch shows a cross section
of a building, composed of two parts :

- multi-storey section where the portal frame construction gives

transverse stability, and comprising discontinuous mezzanine floors.

- a single storey lean to building.

The building is divided into separate compartments by fire resistant

walls. One can imagine therefore that a fire can develope in any one of
these compartments without reaching the other compartments under a
reasonable time lapse. The elements of the framework of the burning
compartment will be considered as secondary as they will not affect the
stability of the other compartments. It is again, for example for the
framework of the mezzanine floors whos collapse would not endanger the
general stability. So far as the lean-to section is concerned we will
consider 2 cases :

1st) In the first case, the framework (posts and beams) of this lean-
to do not form part of the stability of the whole structure, (for example,
the fixings of the posts to the beams are articulated). These elements are
therefore secondary.

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 2nd) In the second case, the fixings of the beams of the lean-to into
the exterior posts are 'cast-in' (rigid joints), forming semi-portals
which form part of the stability of the entire building. They are then
"principal elements" of the frame.

The figure indicates the principal elements in full lines and the
secondary by fine lines, in both parts of the sketch.

The analysis can next be refinded by calculation, in the second case

above, for example one can check if, according to the basis of calculation
assumed in case of fire, the forces applied to the building make the
framework of the lean-to necessary for the general stability. Should
the framework of the multi-storey building be sufficient to ensure
stability, the elements of the lean-to can be qualified as "secondary"
as in the first case of figure 1.

A general method of analysis discriminating between principal and

secondary elements can be as follows : -

1st) Section the building into compartments (separated by fire resistant

barriers) or into 'zones' (for buildings with large surface areas) in each
of which a fire can be contained.

2nd) From the elements of each compartment or zone select those which
in collapsing, can bring down the elements of other compartments or zones
of the building, or the fire barriers.

- either by rule of thumb (example, the columns of a multy-storey

building, the bracing between several zones);

- or by calculation as detailed in the above example.

At the end of such an analysis it can be decided to finally protect

only the principal elements. These elements are generally the most massive,
which makes protection easier and cheaper, the protected surface area
being less, relative to the weight of steel.

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 For example, at the School of Architecture, Nantes, France (Fig.2) the
cost of protection by paint initially envisaged for the whole of the
steel structure, would have cost 15% of the price of the structure itself,
the cost was reduced to 8% by analysis of the principal elements, only
these being protected (5).

In the case of buildings of large surface area, it is particularly

interesting, having divided the surface into zones (even not isolated
by fire barriers), to ensure independent stability of these zones, in
such a way that a fire localised in one zone does not risk bringing
collapse to unaffected zones, like a pack of cards (domino effect). The
so called "Autostable" systems, comprising modules independent one from
the other, are much more certain and justify the absence of any special
protection.

1.3. Principal elements of the structure, where the stability to fire

can be judged sufficient without special protection.

It is known that unprotected steel structural elements only rarely

give a 30 minutes stability to fire. One can conclude that it is
necessary to protect all principal elements whenever there is a requirement
of more than 15 minutes stability to fire. It is appropriate however to
examine the true significance of these degrees of stability to fire.

Let us recall first that it is completely erroneous to compare degrees

of stability to fire expressed in time (hours or minutes), with a real
evacuation time or access for help. The times determined by tests on
structural elements in a laboratory furnace can be very much lower or
very much higher than the exposure time of the same element in a building
affected by fire. This is proved by laboratory tests of normal fires, even
though these are simplified in comparison to conditions in a real fire.

The degree of stability to fire only constitutes a comparison scale,

between different solutions, as to the resistance to high temperatures.

-208-
 One of course chooses, between two acceptable solutions, the one offe-
ring the greatest resistance, i.e. the one with the highest degree of
stability. But is it not right to reduce the protection to the point where
they become useless, that is to say when destruction is not feared. As
is will shown by natural fire tests, in which are accurately measured the
incendiary charge (calorific potential per square metre, or cubic metre)
the ventilation coefficient taking into account the degree of permeability
of the walls to heat, one always achieves a maximum temperature, as much
in the furnace atmosphere as on.the structural element itself. Whilst ever
the maximum temperature of the element is lower than the critical tempe-
rature 0 M 0_ , destruction cannot be achieved, regardless of the degree
of stability. Structural steel e"'ements sited in conditions identical to
or better than a given locality present no risk of failure and all supli-
mentary protection is useless. This observation is particularly useful
for areas of low calorific potential (swimming pools, gymnasiums, school
class rooms etc.)

One has shown (2) that large volumes offer very mach more favourable
conditions than do small volumes simulated in laboratory furnaces, all
other conditions being identical. In these large volumes there is rarely
any risk of attaining the critical temperature of steel.

There are two recent examples of these analysis methods which have
avoided all surface protection from the steel framework, in^buildings
intended for the use of large numbers of the public.

The first example is that of a multi-sports hall at Meriadec, near to

Bordeaux (France) (Fig. 3) (3).

To meet the regulations all the four 60 M span portal beams must give
al 1/2 hour fire stability and the elements of the roof structure 1/2
hour rating.

The estimation of the calorific potential within the volume of the hall
2
gave the following values, in Kg of wood per M .

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- Minimun potential (used a skating rink) = 8.5
- Maximum potential (used a multi-sports) = 12.4

Comparison of critical temperatures (calculated for the 49 most popular

elements) with the maximum temperatures reached in a natural fire test
with 15 kgs of wood per square metre, showed that destruction could not
be achieved for any of the unprotected structural elements.

From this it is concluded that the steel structure of a building can

ensure their working throughout the life of a fire without special
protection. The saving in cost realised was 800,000 FF. Nevertheless,
it was necessary to increase the size of several beams to attain the
required critical temperatures, which lead to an additional steel weight
of 1,800 kg (on the total of 528,200 Kg for the building).

The second example concerns a sports hall of Bercy, Paris (Fig.4). The
tri-dimensional roof structure of crossed beams was left without surface
fire protection, whereas strict application of the regulations requires
a protection corresponding to 1 1/2 hours (90 Mins.) (4) fire resistence.

It will be noticed that in these two examples, the margin of safety

obtained is still very large, because of the large volumes and the wide
distances between a possible fire and the principal structures.

Exterior structures can also be left without obvious special protection,

or have only partial protection on the faces exposed to the facade. Figure
5 shows the solution adopted for the-exterior structure of a UNESCO
building in Paris, very h]gh office building, for which the general regu-
lations require a stability to fire of 2 hours. A series of systematic
tests, carried out since by CITICM (France) for the CECA, will without
doubt, allow still further reductions in those partial protections. They
show, in a general way, that the critical temperatures of unprotected steels
cannot be attained whilst ever the columns are not sited directly in front
of openings and close to the facade.

Finally, the steelwork of a structure can remain exposed in many composite

constructions :

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- Columns with hollow profiles filled with concrete, with or without
bracing;
- Composite columns steel/concrete;
- Composite and flagged floors.

Most often the stability to fire so obtained does not require any r
special protection, to the extent that steel/concrete is used for every
day protection, without the occurance of a fire.

It is seen from the examples above that in numerous cases the steel
framework, even the principal elements, can be used without special pro-
tection, or with reduced protection without risk. Which must give conside-
rable reduction in costs, at the same time ensuring maximum protection to
the parts of the construction where it is justified.

We must now examine the most economical solutions for the elements which
must be protected.

2. ECONOMIC PROTECTION

The application of surface insolators to structural elements enables

the degrees of stability desired to be obtained in the most economical
manner; the least costly is the spraying of mineral fibres, of vermiculite
cement or of plaster (see table fig. 6 ) .

Protection by sheets or shells of similar materials fixed mechanically

or by adhesion facilitates surface alterations more easily. It must not be
forgotten that ease of alteration is an important advantage for metallic
constructions and fire protection must conserve this asset.

Suspended ceilings or partitions, used for insolating can constitute

sufficient barrier to protect the steel elements against fire, in return
for some cheap precautions.(Flame resistant walls, or even simple incombu-
stable screens can suffice).

It is always advisable to avoit the chimney effect and horizontal

connections between compartments, produced by double walls run for some

-211-
distance, which have caused in several circumstances particularly serious
accidents, by propogating asphyxiating fumes and fire itself across
entire buildings (Pailleron college, Paris; GEAI dwellings, Rouen, France).

Frequent divisions by simple incombustable walls should be sufficient

to avoid these propagations and make buildings, much, safer.

The calculation methods for heating of steel in accordence with a given

law of temperature variation (see 2.1 and 2.2.) enables the thickness of
protection to be modified, and therefore its costs, by adapting it as
closely as possible to the particular conditions of the construction
elements and of their use in each building, without resorting to costly
tests.

Supplying water to hollow steel sections is an interestina solution

which can be economical if the architectural designs incorporate this idea
from the outset. The architecture of a building must not be governed by
security to fire, but it must integrate this problem from original concep-
tion, in order to obtain the most economic solutions. Adaptations after
the event are often difficult and costly.

Water sprays, possibly using sprinkler systems although still little

used, can often be very interesting. The spray heads must be arranged to
reach correctly the zones containing the elements to be protected, or
those elements themselves.

Intumescent paints, the price of which per square metre is rather high,
often allows one to avoid aestetic coverings, without finishing up by
abusing their use for all the buildings.

3. UPKEEP AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTION

The premise of global cost requires taking into account in the economics
of a project, besides the construction costs, those of the upkeep and
maintenance during the life span of the work, and also the alterations
which may be needed, including the cost of demolition. Fire protection must
be selected, taking into account this idea, as it concerns its own upkeep

-212-
and maintenance, those of the elements it protects and the facility for
alterations that we have already mentioned.

Some protections are more fragile than others. Nevertheless, it is not

appropriate to exagerate these problems as has been done for example with
intumescent paints. It is not necessary, contrary to what has been said,
to periodically recoat completely. An enquiry by CITICM (France) has shown
that, for all cases studied, the intumescence was as good, if not better
several years after application as at the beginning. Only wear of degreda-
tion due to humidity are to be feared and in those cases the repairs
are almost always limited to small affected areas.

Possible alterations of the building during its useful life pose the
problem of the adaption of the protection initially selected to the new
conditions. All changes to the use of an area or entire building necessitate
a re-study of the fire protection system, and not only the fire stability
of the structure.

In these cases, dismountable or easily transformable protection gives

reductions in the cost of alterations. It is not therefore always the
cheapest protection at the time of construction which will in the end be
the most economic.

Revisions to the security system will be eased by the existance of a

"Safety Register" containing the particular details of the fire stability
of the structure and the conditions which caused their use.

It appears to us essential, for the security itself, that the occupants

of the building are perfectly informed as to these provisions and bear in
mind any constrainte on usage they entail. Without doubt this care would
often let us avoid the grave consequences of many fires, without it being
necessary to put up the costs of buildings for an illusionary absolute
security in every condition imaginable, often to the detriment of an easy
and correct use.

-213-
4. CONCLUSION

Taking into account, from the birth of the design of a building,

security to fire and the judicious use of systems of stability for steel
structures often gives a considerable lowering in the costs required for
this security. In numerous cases, favourable solutions can be found by
the Architects and Engineers, in economic and perfectly safe conditions,
provided that the application of general regulations to the particular
situation do not blindingly clash, but are matched by accurate analyses
of the risks and bear in mind the results of much careful research which
has been carried out over the last few years.

It is to be hoped in particular that the requirements of the degree

of stability to fire are revised to take account more precisely of the
true construction conditions and the different areas, as well as their
use.

This would certainly lead to an appreciable reduction in protection

costs and at the same time better real security, the protection being
better adapted to the most effective places.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

(1) CTICM - C. AIMONE - CAT - J. KRUPPA - G. LAMBOLEY

Stabilité au feu des charpentes métalliques. Matériaux de protection.

(2) Essais d'incendies naturels dans un grand volume à la Villette

(Paris, France) J. KRUPPA 1983

(3) OTUA - Revue L'Acier pour Construire No. 82-1

(4) OTUA - Revue L'Acier pour Construire No. 83-4
(5) OTUA - Revue L'Acier pour Construire No. 77-1

-214-
 ^Kl>^ ^7<1X^

1st case 2nd case

Fia. 1.

VUE AXONOMÉTRIQUE D'ENSEMBLE

ECOI£ D'ARCHITECTURE DE NANTES

Fiq. 2.

-215-
 Plan of half building : roof Plan of half building :
Gangways
Scale : 1/500 2mm = 1m Scale : 1/500 2mm = 1m

Fig. 3. Mériadek I c e - r i n k , Bordeaux

-216-
 Diagrammatic general plan
- structure

Scale : 1/1000 1mm = 1m

Diagrammatic section A-A

! Scale 1/1000 1mm = 1m I
Fig. A. Bercy Indoor Stadium Paris
I 77.00 m I 1
126.00 m ,

-217-
 Fig. 5.

UNESCO VI PARIS

PROTECTION PRODUCTS STABILITY COST IN FF

(a) per m'
(Aug 1982)

INTUMESCENT PAINTS

interior 1/2 h 42 to 83
1 h 260
exterior 1/2 h 210

SPRAYED PRODUCTS (b) 1/2 h 38 to 66

1 h 43 to 100
1 1/2 h 45 to 220
2 h 45 to 250

SHEET PRODUCTS 1/2 h 91 to 150

1 h 109 to 150
1 1/2 h 132 to 186
2 h 205 to 325

(a) The stability is given from standard tests on working to the

maximum cold load to French design.

(b) The costs are very variable according to the surface finish
required.
Fig. 6.

-218-
 INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS - FIRE LOSSES AND APPROPRIATE PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Dr. J. Thor

Swedish Institute of Steel Construction

Sunmary

Industrial fires can be estimated to account for two thirds or more

of the total fire lose. Therefore it is very important that the parameters
that are decisive for fire spread and large fire losses in industrial buil-
dings are recognized so that appropriate fire protective measures can be de-
scribed. A traditional fire protective measure luce high fire resistance of
the load bearing structure can not be expected to reduce the fire losses
significantly. This conclusion is based on results from comprehensive fire
investigations of industrial fires. Also results from some full scale tests
in a large fire compartment centered with computer calculated results leads
to the same conclusion. A technique for cost benefit analysis of different
fire protective measures is also demonstrated by same examples.

-219-
1. INTRODUCTION
The total number of fires In Sweden per year has been estimated to be
in the order of 30 000. Only a snail number of these fires (a few hundred)
becane so called large fires, defined as fires with a total loss of at
least SEK 300 000 (50 000 US Ş). However, these few fires account for the
majority of the total fire loss. Mareover most of these large fires are
industrial fires. An estimation has shown that industrial fires account
for about two thirds or more of the total fire loss (fig 1 ) . In rough terms,
the same proportion may probably be expected in most industrial countries.
If we wish to reduce the total fire loss we must learn more about in­
dustrial fires and those parameters that are decisive for fire spread and
large losses In industrial buildings. With this knowledge we can then des­
cribe the appropriate protective measures.
Fire engineering design has traditionally been concerned with passive
fire protective measures where measures such as high fire resistance of
the load bearing structure has been given high priority and relied upon.
However, the possibility of reducing the fire loss in industrial buildings
through high fire resistance of the structure is somewhat debatable.

2. FIRE INVESTIGATIONS
2.1 Investigations in Sweden
Fire statistics can be used for many purposes. The possibility of
using the fire statistics of to­day to determine the influence on the spread
of fire and the fire loss on a single parameter, for instance the fire re­
sistance of the load bearing structures, is however very limited. The rea­
son for this is that the spread of fire and the fire loss often depends
not only on a single parameter but on a lot of different parameters, many
of which are statistically connected and dependent on each other, for In­
stance the type of activity, the type of building, the area of building,,
the alarm system, the sprinklers etc. In order to draw any reliable con­
clusion about a single parameter from statistics only, data must be collec­
ted down to a very detailed level and comprise a very large number of fires.
This probably means that data have to be collected over a great number of
years. During this time there will for instance be changes in industrial
planning, changes in building design, changes in building materials and
combinations of materials. When enough data have been collected the value
of the data may therefore be limited due to all the changes that have taken

­220­
place In the meantime.
to other way of learning more fron industrial fires is by thorough in­
investigation and analysis of real fires. Such an investigation and ana­
lysis was carried out by the Swedish Institute of Steel Construction for
all industrial fires in single storey buildings in Sweden during 1975 with
a loss of SEK 200 000 or more (1).
There were 69 such fires, for each of these fires data were collected
concerning the:
. Type of occupancy in the building
. Type and amount of fire load
. Design of the building and its structures
. Presence of sprinklers, fire alarm and fire ventilation
. Origin and spread of fire
. Detection and fighting of fire
. Extent and cost of damage to the building and its contents
From the analysis that followed it was found that, on average, the
loss of contents accounted for about 50 %, the loss of profit due to stop
in production for about 30 % and the loss of building for about 20 % of
the total loss (fig 2 ) .
Due to the traditionally high priority given to passive fire pro­
tection and the design of building the fires were divided into the follow­
ing four categories according to the type of building:
number
of fires
C = Concrete structure and roof of conrete or aerated concrete 23
S = Steel structure and roof of steel sheet 14
Τ = Halls of masonry and timber roof structure 14
O = Others, which can be combinations of the other types or
semidetached buildings of different types 18
69
As can be seen, there are more fires in pure concrete buildings than
in pure steel buildings, which does not mean that concrete itself gives
rise to more fires than steel. The explanation in the greater number of
fires in concrete buildings is primarily due to the larger number of pure
concrete buildings compared with pure steel buildings within the stock of
the existing industrial buildings in Sweden. However, of more interest than
the number is the cost of fire damage.

­221­
 The average direct fire loes for these four building categories is
shown in fig 3. Ihe loss is divided into loss of building and contents res­
pectively. Starting with diagram a) it can be seen that the category Τ
­ which means a building with a very combustible roof structure ­ amazingly
enough represents the lowest average loss. Ihe explanation is that this
type of building in average is very small compared with the other types.
Hence the average loss will be relatively small in spite of the fact that
the loss often is total. Even if the fire load is low and the original fire
is small the very combustible roof structure often gives cause to a rapid
fire spread and a total loss. This fact is reflected in diagram c) giving
the average loss referred to the area of the primarily damaged room or rooms
when the largest fires of the analysis have been excluded.
Ihe building structures with the highest fire resistance will nor­
mally be found in category C but also to a relatively large extent in cate­
gory 0. According to fig 3 differences in fire resistance seem to be of
no significance for the average loss, this is not too surprising taking
into consideration that the value of the building itself normally accounts
for a minor part of the total value. An explanation to the very high ave­
rage loss in category 0 is that these objects often consist of very big
complexes of semi­detached buildings where possibilities have existed for
the fire to spread between the different buildings.
After the investigation of the fires of 1975, similar investigations
have been carried out for 1976 and 1977 by the Swedish Fire Protection
Association. Ihe same tendency as concern the different type of buildings
could be noticed (fig 4 ) .
Ihe analysis of the industrial fires further showed that the fire load
had a great significance for the fire loss. In the investigations the fires
were divided into three groups according to the fire load. Ihe fire load
was defined as high, medium or low. In all cases where the fire load was
high the loss was total, independent of the type of building or type of
structure. The number of fires and the corresponding loss within the three
fire load groups can be seen in table I. High fire load accounted for 20 %
of the fires but for 60 % of the losses. Low fire load accounted for 50 %
of the fires but for only 10 % of the losses. The reason for the large fire
loss within the fire load category "high" is primarily due to the rapid
fire spread and flashover. Often as not flashover occurs a few minutes
after the outbreak of the fire. The total amount of energy released after

­222­
flashøver in an industrial building of ordinary size is of such magnitude
that no fire­brigade can extinguish it.

Table I. Average number in percentage and the corresponding loss of fires

in single storey industrial buildings in Sweden which had high, medium and
low fire load respectively

Fire load Number Loss

% %
High 20 60
Medium 30 30
Low 50 10

Summing up the Swedish analysis it could be concluded that the type

of load bearing structure had no significance on the fire loss as long as
the buildings were mainly built of incombustible materials which did not
contribute to fire spread. More specifically, there was no difference in
fire loss between steel framed buildings and concrete buildings. The fire
load on the other hand snowed a very great significance on the fire loss.
The same is true for large complexes of semi­detached buildings where fire
spread very often occured between the different buildings.

2.2 Investigations in other countries

In Finland an investigation of industrial fires has been carried out
as a diplom thesis at the Tempere university of Technology (4). The in­
vestigation comprises all fires in Finland in single storey industrial buil­
dings with a loss of more than 250 000 FIM (40 000 US Ş) during the year
1975­1980 insured by three of the largest insurance companies in Finland.
The number of fires was 95.
In table II the average loss is given for different building types and
fire load.

­223­
Table II. Survey of fire lose in industrial buildings in Finland during
1975-1980 (4)

Fire load Building Average loss

Number
type of fires Loes of building Loss of building
and contents
IO 6 FIM FIM/m 10 FIM FIM/m

> 400 MJ/m2 Steel 3 2.90 1930 1.37 910

(High) Ooncrete 2 3.17 1420 2.46 1110
Timber 9 9.29 3270 3.35 1180
Others 8 9.99 5530 2.69 1490

100-400 MJ/m2 Steel 5 1.37 1330 0.92 890

(Medium) Ooncrete 4 1.38 1410 0.84 860
Timber 12 1.07 2390 0.43 950
Other 18 1.88 2490 0.69 910

< 100 MJ/m2 Steel 2 0.64 670 0.52 540

(Low) (tonerete 5 0.64 760 0.30 360
Timber 12 1.16 2130 0.44 810
Others 15 1.28 1420 0.62 690

In table III the number of fires and the corresponding loss within
the three fire load groups are sunned up. The table should be compared with
table I concerning the Swedish investigations.

Table III. Average nunber in percentage and the corresponding loss of fires
in single storey industrial buildings in Finland uhich had high, medium
and low fire load respectively

Fire load Number Loss

% %
High 23 64
Medium 41 22
Low 36 14

-224-
 Similar conclusions as from the Swedish investigations can be drawn
from the Finnish investigation i.e. there is no significant difference in
fire loss between steel frame buildings and concrete buildings. Ihe fire
load on the other hand has a great influence on the fire loss.
Also in Norway a survey of large fires recently has been carried out.
Again similar conclusions as above could be drawn.
For the time being there are two comprehensive investigations of in­
dustrial fires going on in Europe within the frame of BCSC. One is carried
out in France by CTICM and one is carried out in the Netherlands by ΊΝΟ.
Results from these two investigations can be expected during 1984.

3. FIRE TESTS AND THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

Normally there is a great difference between a fire in a small fire
compartment for instance a hotel room, and a fire in a large fire compart­
ment, for instance a large open single storey industrial building. In the
first case flashover will occur shortly after the outbreak of fire. In
order that the fire shall be confined within the compartment of fire origin
the surrounding structures must fulfil certain requirements. A fire engi­
neering design of these structures based on the stage after flashover there­
fore is relevant. Mostly this stage is described by the standard fire curve.
As long as the fire is confined within the compartment of fire origin, the
possibility of extinguishing the fire also is good.
In the case of fire in the large fire compartment the conditions,
however, is quite different. In the early stage of fire or as long as the
fire is small compared with the size of the compartment the standard fire
curve does not describe the situation accurately. The gas temperatures'
caused by the fire is much lower due to the mixing of the combustion pro­
ducts by cold air entrained into the hot plume rising from the fire. The
problem is not the temperatures but the production of smoke. The smoke even
from a small fire may rapidly fill the compartment and damage the goods
and make the fighting of fire difficult if the building is not equipped
with a sufficient fire ventilation.
The fire must be extinguished during its early stage, either by
sprinklers or by the fire brigade. If not the fire will grow if there is
enough of fire load in the compartment or if for instance the roof is com­
posed of combustible materials in such a way that the roof can contribute
to fire spread. The fire growth will sooner or later, depending on the rate
of fire growth, result in flashover of the whole compartment. The total

­225­
energy output will then be of such magnitude that the fire brigade can not
extinguish the fire until all the combustible materials are consumed. The
loss of the contents and most often also of the building will be total.
This demonstrates that it is irrelevant to base the requirements of the
structures in a single storey industrial building on the traditional con­
cept of standard fire. Before flashover has occured the temperature is low
and most type of structures can withstand its effect. After flashover has
occurred the fire can not be extinguished until all the combustible mate­
rials are consumed and the loss is then total. This can be seen as a sim­
plified physical explanation of the main results from the fire investiga­
tions of industrial buildings, i.e. there is no significant difference in
fire loss between different types of structure as long as they do not con­
tribute to fire spread.
In france some interesting full scale fire tests were carried out
last summer in an outranged hangar building. Ihe main object was to study
the temperature effect on steel structures by local fires in the building
(5). Ihe area of the fire compartment was 28 χ 39 m that is about 1 100 m .
The height of the compartment was 9.5 m (fig 5 ) . Five tests were carried
out and the fire load varied between 2 000­4 000 kg of wood. Ihe fire load
2
was distributed on an area between 39 and 150 m . That means a local fire
2
load density of 450­850 HJ/m . As a comparison it can be mentioned that
2
the mean fire load in office buildings is in the order of 500 to 600 MJ/m .
2
Ihe fire ventilation in the tests varied between 11 and 22 m .
A lot of measurements were made of the gas temperatures and of the
temperatures in the steel structures. Also observations were made of the
smoke production and the height of the clear layer above the floor. In none
of the tests there were any high steel temperatures recorded. Normally the
maximum steel temperatures were in the order of 100­300 C, that is well
below the critical temperature of steel.
A computer proyiaii has been developed in Sweden which make it possib­
le to calculate the gas temperatures and smoke filling from local fires
in large compartment (6). In data for the calculation are for instance the
size of the fire compartment, the fire ventilation, the size or the growth
of the fire.
Ihe computer program has been used to compare the results from the
French full scale tests. Ihe agreement between the observed and measured
smoke production and temperatures and the calculated results is good. An

­226­
example can be seen in fig 6 for test number 1 vaiere the calculated height
of the clear layer above the floor is given as a function of time. At the
test it was observed that the height of the clear layer was at least 3 m
which is also demonstrated by photographs fron the test.
Measured and calculated gas temperture for the same test is given in
fig 7 as a function of time. Ihe temperature is measured close to the ceil-
ing above the centre of fire. The fire load ves 2 000 kg wood distributed
2
on an area of about 60 m . In the same figure also the measured steel tem-
perature in a roof beam above the centre of fire can be seen.
Ihe computer progrjn makes it possible to simulate different fire
situations in large fire compartment, for instance different rates of fire
growth and its effect on smoke filling, temperatures and time to flashover
can be studied. Ihe rate of fire growth is defined by the doubling time.
A doubling time of 2 minutes for example means that the fire size is doub-
led every second minutes. With a high rate of fire growth, which today can
be expected in many industrial activities, calculations show that flashover
may occur within only a few minutes (7). This again is in agreement with
the experience from the fire investigations (1), (2), (3).

4. POST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT FIRE PROTECTIVE MEASURES

Of great interest for industrial buildings is to compare the cost
and benefit of different fire protective measures. Let us therefore study
some different protective measures for an industrial building according
to fig 8 (3). Alternative 1 means no fire protective measures at all. Alter-
native 2 means one of the following protective measures.

2 a) Sprinklers are installed, which are expected to extinguish a fire

in a very early stage
2 b) A partition is built, which is expected to cut the fire loss in
half in case of large fire
2 c) Ore whole building is built with high fire resistance in such a
way that it is expected that the building without too much of
repairs can be used after a large fire (a rather unrealistic
assumption)

-227-
 The following definitions are nade

ρ = Probability that a large fire will occur during the life time of
the building in case of no fire protective measures
ρ = Probability of success of sprinklers according to 2 a)
ρ = Probability of success of the partition according to 2 b)
ρ » Probability of success of the fire resistance according to 2 c)
Β » Value of building
C = Value of contents

As concerns the loss in case of fire the following is assumed.

for a total damage, which is supposed to occur for a large fire in
alternative 1 and in alternative 2 if the protective measures fail, the
loss can be expressed as B+C.
If alternative 2 a is successful the loss is supposed to be 1 % of
the total value, that is (B+C)/100. This loss corresponds for instance to
2
smoke damage. The 1 % loss will for a building of about 2 000 m be in the
order of 100 000 SEK.
If alternative 2 b is successful the loss after a large fire is
supposed to correspond to half the total value, that is (B+C)/2.
If alternative 2 c is successful the loss after a large fire is
supposed to be B/10+C. The 10 % loss of the building corresponds to the
cost of cleaning an repainting the building.
The above assumed losses are the losses given that a fire occurs and
given that the protective measures succeed or fail.
If we multiply these losses with the corresponding probabilities we
will get the expected losses (8). A sumnary of the probabilities, the
losses and expected losses for the different alternatives can be found in
table IV.

­228­
Table IV. Sirmary of probabilities, losses and expected losses for the
different alternatives according to fig 8 (3)

Alternative Probability Loss Expected loss

1 Po wc P 0 (BK:)

2 a) success (B4C)/100 P O P S (BK:)/IOO

PoPs
failure
(1 P0(l­P8)(BtC)
Po ­Ps>
2 b) success (B+C)/2 pj? (B+O/2
failure
Po(1­Pp> P0(l­Pp)(B+C)

2 c) success B/10+C P O P R (B/IOK:)

POPR
failure
P0(1­PR)(B+C)
PO(1"PR)

The expected loss for alternative 2 a, 2 b and 2 c respectively in

relation to the expected loss for alternative 1 according to fig 8 can be
seen in fig 9. The figure is based on the assumption that the probability
of success for each protective measure is 90 %, that is ρ = ρ = ρ = 0.9.
S Ρ R
Under the above mentioned assumptions the expected loss in case of
sprinklers is reduced to about 11 % and in case of a partition to about
55 % of the expected loss in case of no fire protective measure at all.
In the alternative with a fire resistant building the expected loss reduc­
tion depends on the value of contents C to the value of building B. for
a C to B ratio of 6 the expected loss is reduced to about 90 % of the ex­
pected loss in case of no fire protective measure at all.
The sprinkler installation gives the biggest reduction of the ex­
pected loss. However, it is not evident that this alternative always is
the best one. The costs of the fire protective measures as well as the pro­
bability of a large fire most also be taken into consideration. A resonable
level as a basis for discussion of the cost of a protective measure is that
the measure will not cost more than the expected loss is reduced. By pre­
ference the cost should be less than the expected loss reduction. This is
illustrated in fig 10. At the vertical axis is given the maximum acceptable
cost for sprinklers S, for a partition Ρ and for the fire resistance R,
in order that the cost will not exceed the expected loss reduction accord­
ing to the assumptions in the example above. The costs are given in rela­
tion to building cost Β and the probability ρ that a large fire will occur

­229­
during the life time of the building.
If for instance the value of contents is 5 times the value of buil­
ding and we estimate the probability of success of the sprinkler installa­
tion to 90 %, that is ρ = 0.9 fig 10 gives

S/Bpo^5

If the probability that a large fire will occur during the life time
of the building is estimated to 10 %, that is ρ « 0.1 we will get

S<» 0.5 Β

The result implies that the cost of a sprinkler installation S in

this case could be about half that of the building cost without exceeding
the expected loss reduction.
If the probability of success for the partition or for the fire
resistance is estimated to 70 % fig 10 gives under the same assumption as
above

P«*0.2 Β and
R*¿0.05 Β

By the demonstrated technique it is thus possible to make at least

rough estimations of the cost to benefit of different fire protective mea­
sures for industrial buildings.
Again similar conclusions can be drawn as from the fire investiga­
tions, for instance an increase of the fire resistance of the load bearing
structure can not be expected to reduce the fire loss very much. The oppo­
site, however, may be true for sprinklers and partitions.

­230­
(1) Sedin, G and Thor, J: Basic information from an investigation of in­
dustrial fires. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction, Publication
61, 1978

(2) Thor, J and Sedin, G: Some results from an analysis of industrial

fires in Sweden. Swedish Institute of Steel Construction, Publication
56, 1977

(3) Thor, J and Sedin, G: Fire risk evaluation and cost benefit of fire
protective measures in industrial buildings. Swedish Institute of
Steel Construction, Publication 64, 1979

(4) Private communication with P. Mäkeläinen, Finland

(5) Kruppa, J and Lambohey, G: Contribution a 1'etude des incendies dans

les bâtiments de grand volume realises en construction métallique.
CTICM, Sept 1983

(6) Hägglund, B: Simulating the smoke filling in single enclosures. FOA

Report C20­513­D6, Oct 1983, Stockholm

(7) Hägglund, B: Hazardous Conditions in Single Enclosures Subjected to

Fire ­ a parameter study. FOA D6 42H, Nov 1983, Stockholm

(8) Baldwin, R and Thomas, Ρ Η: Passive and active fire protection ­ the
optimum combination. Fire Research Station, Fire Research Note No
963, London 1973

­231­
 tZD Not Industry
E333 Industry

all loss>200000
SwCf.

F m.
23 14 18
SwCr/tn» b,

îff. 8lHoss>200000Sw.Cr SwCryhrr"

ν'*

m i
SL
23 14 14 IB
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 yesr
Fig. 1 : The percentages of the annual large direct fire Fig. 3 : The direct fire loss of all large fires in Sweden
ω losses in Sweden in industry and other sectors respecţi­ in single storey buildings during 1975 divided with respect
ro
vely during a period of ten years (1) to type of building C,S,T and 0 respectively. The loss is
given as the average loss within each category. The number
of objects can be seen under each colmnnBTOLoss of buildings
1 Loss of contents

M.Sw.Cr.
8H
Fig. 4 : Estimation of
the average fire loss for
Fig. 2 : The average losses 5" 1975 1976 1977 all large fires in single
of the building, the con­ 8torey industrial buildings
tents and the loss of pro­ during 1975, 1976 and 1977
fit due to stop in produc­ respectively within the
tion for all the analysed four building categories
fires (2) C,S,T and 0. The number of
ffl SÖQ SÖQ objects can be seen under
23 M V» 18 25 18 5 20 11 7 2 IS each column
 Plan

Height >/////////////////////////'//////////////////////////.
(m)

10 15 20 25 30 Time
(min)
ι

28m
Fig. 6 : Calculated smoke f i l l i n g and height of clear
layer above floor in test number 1

Fire load 2000­4000 kg wood

^ Fire area 39­150 m2

measured gas temp

calculated gas temp
» measured steel temp
"Ν.
Section

60 Time
(min)
Fig. 5 : Full scale fire tests in France (5) Fig. 7 : Measured and calculated temperatures
 1 I I
?a IÆ. I Lié: 8
Different fire protective measures
1 ■ No measures at all
?h I i I 2a ■ Sprinklers
2b » A partition
2c Β H 2c ­ High fire resistance of the
whole building

Fig. 9 :
% Expected loss for the fire protective
100· measures 2a, 2b and 2c according to
... pyO.9 fig. 8 in relation to the expected
loss in case of no fire protective
/' measure at all. P_, Ρ is the proba­
­­PÌ.­0.9 b Ρ
50 bility of success for the sprinklers,
Ί' the partition and the fire resistance
respectively. Β " value of building.
­ft­05 C ­ value of contents.
ι >
5 10C/B

R/Bp0

Resistance
/R.­0.9

­Q5
τ—i—i—ι—ι—ι—ι—ι—η
5 B
C/

Fig. 10 : The maximum acceptable cost for sprinklers S, for a partition Ρ

and for fire resistance R respectively in order that the cost will
not exceed the expected loss reduction.
Β » value of building, C ­ value of contents ρ ­ probability that
a large fire will occur duting the life time of the building p_,
p_, p„ ­ probability of success of the sprinklers, the partition
and the fire resistance respectively.

­234­
REPORT ON SESSION II : PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF IMPLEMENTING SAFETY

Chairman : Ing. Italiano TIEZZI

Reporter : G.M.E. COOKE

Dr J Kruppa

I would like to provide some information about four recent French fire
teste carried out in a large building. In one test 2 tonnes of wood were
spread over 39 m of floor area, corresponding to a high fire load density
of 30 kg/m . Flames 4 to 5 m high produced combustion gas temperatures
of 900°C at 5 m height whereas temperatures in steel beams 9Ì m above
floor level reached only 35O C. In another test the contents of a
modern building, which often involves a mixture of synthetic and cell—
ulosic combustibles, were simulated using 3 m of expanded polystyrene
slabs together with 1 tonne of wood to give a fire load density of
26 kg/m . In this test, flames reached the roof at 9Ì m but only £or
a short period producing combustion gas temperatures of up to 1100 C
but only 300 C in the steel members, The test results indicated that
uninsulated steel members could be safely used in large buildings of
low fire load density such as museums and theatres, but the tests should
only be regarded as the beginning of a study of the effect of fires in
large buildings.

Prof V ELingsch
I have the impression from the lectures by Miss Law and Dr Abbado that
water cooling in England and Italy is very expensive. In Germany we are
also faced with low temperatures, eg. - 30 C, but we are able to achieve
an economic system by eliminating interconnecting pipework and this was
illustrated in Mr Scnuwirth's lecture which described two recent German
projects in which costs of the water cooling system were not at all
critical.

Miss H Law

The economics depend upon the particular design of the building, and the
new method of water oooling described by Prof ELingsch is an advance on
existing methods. The system used in the Bush Lane office project I des-
cribed was competitive with conventional encasement but for 2 storey
buildings such as the Water Research Centre it was found to be expensive.
Inventive engineers can find better ways of providing fire protection,
and the use of rational design manuals stimulates designers to provide
safer and more cost effective buildings than in the past.

Sr G Abbado

In response to Professor ELingsch I would Bay that we need to know the

life span of the fire protection system so that the costs can be correctly
amortized.

Mr E Schuwlrth
Making a comparison of costs for water cooling and conventional encasement
is difficult. In the Hanover project, difficulty of encasing the steel
trusses and suspension rods on site meant that using water filled sections
reduced the costs substantially.

-235-
Dr H Witte

It was interesting to hear Mr Abbado say that solar energy can be gained
and stored in water filled external eteel members. There are two German
projects in which water filling is used both for fire protection and
heating. Work by Blume in Berlin has shown that water cooling can be used
to help reduce the costs of air conditioning.

Mr Roux
Too much emphasis has been placed on the amalgamation of commercial and
industrial risks of fire and other types of risk. The heat potential of
contents in these buildings is very specific and this means that some
generalisations are invalid. The use of an industrial building can change
during ite lifetime and this presents a problem at design stage because
the fire resistance of the structure or the rating of the sprinkler system
may be adequate initially but inadequate at some latex stage. It has been
suggested that the provision of heat and smoke outlets meanΒ that less
money need be spent on fire resistance methods, but can we rely on these
outlets working in all fire conditions? We must be cautious about accep­
ting calculations which allow a reduction in one part of the fire precau­
tions (eg reduced fire resistance or compartmentation) when another part
of the fire precautions is added (eg. automatic sprinklers). Insurers
have always defended the use of sprinkler installations for impe fling
fires but we are very concerned about changes in use in the building which
can give rise to rapidly developing fires which may not be controlled by
the sprinkler installation.

Mr Sette

Italian research on intumescent paints, to be published shortly, has

shown that the amount of fire protection achieved varies and depends on
the type of fire exposure and the thermal inertia of the underlying metal.
More research is needed to correlate the performance of intumescents
under the ISO 834 exposure and in real fires.

Mr L Pruitet

Mr Roux said that fire protecting systems should be adaptable to allow for
changes in the use of the building, and I agree. Building users must be
made aware of safety limitations of their building because the alternative
approach of providing large safety factors to allow for unforeseen future
uses of the building is not economically viable or sensible. On a separate
point I would like to say that one cannot compare durations of exposure in
the standard fire resistance test and the real fire.

Miss M Law

We have just heard that a real industrial fire is very different from a
standard fire and most experts would agree. What we really need is a fire
engineering approach in which the fire behaviour is calculated, based on
experimental data, and the structure is then designed to suit. However,
regulations are based on the standard fire, and only in industrial build­
ings do major structural failures occur. For these types of building a
fire engineering approach should be used, but the regulation authorities
believe only in the standard fire.

­236­
Dr J Kruppa
I would like to support Miss Law. Yes, the present regulations are a
problem in that they state means of achieving goals which axe not defined.
If we can adequately define the objectives then it should be possible for
the engineer or fire expert to adopt the best solution. However we must
have an objective method of deriving the best solution and it is here that
risk assessment has a part to play.

Mr Τ Giddings
British Steel Corporation has been interested for many years in the use of
intumescents, particularly thin coating eystems, for providing fire protec­
tion. In my experience the limit is 1 hour fire resistance and I was
therefore interested to hear Dr Abbado mention a system which has approval
in Italy for 120 min. Could he provide information on the size of steel
protected and the thickness of system used?

Dr G Abbado

lhe intumescent paint used in the Ancona building provides a fire resis­
tance of 1 hour, whereas the test certificate is for 2 hours, the diff­
erence being the thickness used. I do not have the information requested
by Mr Giddings but I can provide a report at a later stage.
Prof V Klingsch
I would like to dampen optimism over the international exchange and accep­
tance of fire test results. In my lecture yesterday I showed that one may
get 30 min in °ne test laboratory and 100 min in another for identical
specimens. I aleo showed a paint which basically gave 30 min fire resis­
tance but with marginal alterations could give over 100 minutes: massivity
of the steel profile was an important factor.
Mr Demartino
I do not think all the problems associated with thin soft fire protecting
coatings have been solved. Such coatings ehould also provide corrosion
protection, thermal insulation, sound deadening and resistance to noise
transmission, and, of course, be economical.

Mr F Borchgraeve

In concluding thie session I would like to say that in considering the

design of steel framed buildings we have to find ways of integrating fire
safety into all buildings ­ Industrial buildings, dwellings, theatres for
example. Biis means considering all aspects of safety from both View­
pointe ­ the viewpoint of the designer on the one hand and the approving
authority on the other. We' must consider what happens during the life of
the building and what the user wants of his building before we can safely
design the fire precautions.

­237­
SESSION I I I : FUTURE PROSPECTS

Application on the computer to model structural f i r e endurance

Computer aided f i r e resistance for steel and composite structures

Requirements of f i r e resistance based on actual f i r e s (Swedish

approach)

A probability based f i r e safety concept

Report on Session I I I

-239-
 APPLICATION OF THE COMPUTER TO
MODEL STRUCTURAL FIRE ENDURANCE

David C. Jeanes, P.E.

Senior Engineer

American. Iron and Steel Institute

1000 16th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C., United States

Summary

The rational approach for the design of building structures to resist

the effects of fire has developed significantly over the past decade. Work
sponsored by many research and industry organizations have resulted in the
development of analytical methods to predict fire growth and development,
heat transfer to and through the structural frame, and structural response
of the building. An evaluation of the published work is now being conducted
to develop the appropriate methodology for an engineering design of struc-
tural fire endurance. As part of this process two computer models. FIRES-T3
and FASBUS II, have been applied to predict heat transfer and structural
response of steel framed floor systems, respectively. An evaluation of these
models has demonstrated their ability to predict the extent of the fire
exposure and the corresponding performance of the structural assembly.

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 INTRODUCTION
The analysis of structural fire resistance is a complicated process
because of the many variables involved. These variables include fire growth
and duration, temperature distribution in the structural elements, Interaction
between the building components, changes in material properties, and the
influence of loads on the structural system. For this reason the building
codes and regulation in the U.S. have relied on standardized test methods (1)
to specify fire endurance requirements. Fire endurance times are assigned by
the building codes for various portions of the assembly, depending on its
relative significance to the overall structural stability.The primary
objective of the test methods is to determine the length of time that a
structural assembly will withstand exposure to the test conditions.
While this approach provides a reasonably simple solution to an otherwise
complex problem, it does not provide the designer with a prediction of actual
structural performance.

Until recently the designer has not played a part in accessing structural
fire endurance requirements. The structural design would be made independant
of any consideration of the thermal effects of the fire. Fire protection
would then be added on to the completed assembly in acccordance with the
established test ratings. With costs of the fire proofing representing as
much as 20% of the cost structural frame and with attempts to define
structural conditions in the test furnance the engineer is becoming
increasingly more concerned with the proper design for fire endurance.
A more realistic fire endurance analysis can be made based on established
engineering principles. Using appropriate computer models, this approach has
become Increasingly more practical. With the development of this technology
the designer Is better able to evaluate the influence structural response on
the performance of supported utilities and systems the effect of compartment

-241-
size and "real" fires on exposure severity, and the potential damage to
unexposed portion of the assembly.

DEVELOPING A METHODOLOGY

The development of a method for the rational determination of structural

fire endurance 1s a complex process.To evaluate all aspects of the problem the

solution needs to consider three distinct components: the fire exposure, the
transfer of heat from the fire to the structure, and the response of the
structure. The solution Is not only complicated by the many variables
defining each of these components but by the expertise necessary to assess
each one. Combustion chemistry tells us the way fires grow. Thermodynamics
explains how heat is transferred from the fire to the structure. Metallurgy
defines the effects of high temperatures on the properties of the structural
steel. Statistical methods help identify the probable risk. The building
authorities specify the level of acceptable performance. A proper design
method needs to account for the combined effect of all the prescribed
conditions.
In order to develop the engineering methodology a program was initiated
at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (Worcester, Massachusetts) (2). The
initial objective of this program was to establish a systematic approach which
defines the Interrelationship associated with each of the three components of
the fire problem and identifies the many design parameters. Once this was
done a survey was Initiated to examine the state-of-the-art technology now
becoming available to the designer. Computer models which represent the most
significant work, have been identified Figure 1. Those models selected to
address various aspects of the solution evaluated are now being evaluated to
verify their acceptability, Figure 1. In general, 1t presently appears that
the solution to each component of the problem, fire growth, heat transfer and

-242-
structural response, can be reliably solved independently of each other.
As the development of this process continues certain of the computer
models will be used to conduct sensitivity analyses. From these analyses the
key design parameters can then be identified. Statistical methods will then
be applied to evaluate the probability of certain exposure conditions
developing and the Influence of the these conditions in combination with other
loads on the structure. Once these studies have been completed it Is
anticipated that a significant simplification In the analysis will be realized
resulting In a design method for fire endurance Integrated as part of the
basic engineering calculations for steel structures.
Several computer models under study as part of this developing
methodology provide for the evaluation of heat transfer and structural
response. The use and application of two models as "tools" for evaluating
structural fire endurance of steel framed floor systems are discussed In the
following sections.

HEAT TRANSFER MODEL

The ability of a building to remain stable during exposure to a fire has
for a long time been equated to temperature rise in the exposed structural
elements. This approach Is based on the fact that the mechanical properties
of the structural materials are reduced as the temperature of the material is
raised to some critical level. The changes 1n material properties most
significant to structural performance are: yield strength, modulus of
elasticity and coefficient of thermal expansion. The critical level 1s
generally defined as the temperature at which the yield strength of the
material Is reduced until It nearly equals the design strength and therefore
reduces the factor of safety to near unity. However, using temperatures as
Input, a structural analysis can be made to more accurately predict
performance.

-243-
 The fire endurance test has been run repeatedly over the past years for
various size members, types of fire protection materials and thicknesses of
application. From this data base certain systems and materials have
demonstrated consistantly reliable performance. By characterizing the
properties of these "proven" materials numerical techniques for solving the
heat transfer problem can be approached with reasonable confidence.
The factors influencing the heating of a structural member include: the
thermal properties of the materials, the surface area exposed to the fire, and
the Intensity and duration of the fire. Each of these factors, inherently
present In a fire test, must be specifically defined in modeling the heat
transfer.
FIRES-T3 Model
The computer model (3), FIRES-T3 (Fire REsponse of Structures - Thermal -
3_ Dimensional Version) is a three dimensional finite element heat transfer
program. It 1s suitable for use in evaluating the temperature distribution
history through solids of composite materials such as fire protected
structural steel and reinforced concrete. A limitation of the present version
however, is that it cannot model heat transfer through cavities 1n the
assembly.
The model allows for consideration of the nonlinear characteristics of
the thermal properties of the materials and the heat transfer from the fire
environment. The solution technique requires an iterative intergration
process within each time step throughout the exposure period. Accordingly,
the program user must exercise judgement as to the appropriateness of the
solution as the analysis progresses.

The principal factors influencing its effective use are the layout of the
finite element mesh and the selection of the time-step size. Both factors
need to be dimensioned so that sufficient detail is available in the region

-244-
and over the time period for which the thermal analysis can be expected to be
most sensitive.
From a user point of view, the FIRES-T3 model allows for consideration of
the following design parameters, Figure 2:
1. Material Properties - the thermal properties (thermal conductivity
and specific heat) and density of materials are considered with
respect to their change in value at elevated temperatures. (Effects
of internal heat generation can also be considered).
2. Fire Environment - the time-temperature history of the heated
environment is considered by specifically defining the temperature at
each time step during the solution. Therefore, the fire exposure
curve can take any form (ie. constant temperature, linear change,
El 19 curve or natural burning).
3. Heat Transfer - the heat transfer process due to the fire exposure is
modeled as convection and radiation in the fire boundary and as
conduction through the member. The emissivlty of the flame and
surface, view factor, and surface absorption are considered In
calculating radiation effects. Convection Is modeled using a
convection factor and power of convection. Conductivity is computed
using the appropriate material properties.
4. Geometry - the shape and size of the structural element can be
considered In one-, two-, or three dimensions. This is accomplished

by drawing a mesh representing the shape and arrangement of materials

of the element and describing this arrangement in terms of the
coordinates of each of the nodal points in the mesh.
The output of the FIRES-T3 analysis provides a listing of the calculated
temperature at each node, the average temperature of each element in the mesh,
and a summary of the test conditions at that point in the analysis.

-245-
 In order to evaluate the accuracy of the FIRES-T3 program, the program
was first used to model assemblies for which actual test data was available.
This approach allowed for confidence to be established in the model without a
need to be able to specifically understand all modelling techniques used.
Predictions were made of the heat transfer through steel beams with
direct-applied fire protection material from assemblies tested at Ohio State
University, Underwriters Laboratories and the U.S. National Bureau of
Standards. The modeling was done using the nodal mesh Illustrated in Figure
3. The results demonstrated favorable agreement between the predicted and
recorded average section temperatures and the temperature profiles through the
sections, Figures 4.
As a result of the satisfactory agreement demonstrated by this modelling,
a series of analysis were conducted in order to develop data useful as design
aids. This was done by analyzing different size steel beams with direct
applied fire protection thicknesses of 1/2, 1, and 1 1/2 inches. The beams
were selected to cover a range in W/D values from 0.5 to 2.5. The fire
exposure used in the analysis was the ASTM El 19 time-temperature curve over a
four hour period. The results of this series of analysis have been compiled
and presented as "Fire Endurance Time versus W/D", Figure 5. This general

form of the data utilizes the W/D characteristic of the beam as the basic
design parameter. The data presented is based on the average section
temperature for the 1000F (538C) criteria.

STRUCTURAL RESPONSE MODEL

The structural fire endurance of a building system Is a measure of its
ability to resist collapse during exposure to a fire. The approaches used to
make this measurement range from the use of standardized laboratory tests to
the application of engineering methods. In either method a certain level of
damage is acceptable provided it does not result in the collapse of any part

-246-
of the assembly or contribute to the spread of the fire. The influence of a
building fire on the structural steel frame is not often significant until or
unless the fire becomes fully developed, therefore, the period of fire growth
1s not usually considered as part of the structural fire endurance time period.
The analysis of the structure exposed to a fire can be accomplished using
the established principles of engineering mechanics applied 1n conventional
design practices. The analysis, however, needs to recognize the continuingly
changing properties of the materials at elevated temperatures. Those
properties which are most significant to structural performance are: yield
strength, modulus of elasticity, and coefficient of thermal expansion.
Studies have been made to characterize the changes in these properties with
temperature. Utilizing this data structural fire endurance can be determined
by repetitive calculations. Because of the ability of the computer to quickly
solve these dedious types of problems, modelling techniques have been
developed making it possible to provide this kinds of analysis for steel
framed floor systems.

FASBUS II Computer Model

The computer model, FASBUS II (FIRE Analysis of Steel Building Systems)
is a structural analysis program specifically designed to analyze the fire
endurance of steel framed floor systems, Figure 6. The model utilizes the
finite element method where beam elements and non-conforming triangular plate
bending elements are used to represent the frame and slab, respectively,
Figure 7.
The incremental solution used by the model provides for consideration of
changes In temperature, with corresponding changes in material properties,
throughout the exposure period. Using an Iterative process the model
determines the displacements necessary to bring the structure to a point
static equal i bri urn under the loads and conditions Imposed.

-247-
 As with any engineering analysis, the designer must have a basic
understanding of the problem being solved and the solution techniques
applied. Accordingly, the user of the FASBUS II computer program should have
a basic knowledge of structural mechanics, an understanding of the modeling
techniques and a familiarity with both methods of building construction and
the thermal effects of a fire. With this background the user will be able to
more accurately define the physical characteristics of the problem and express
them in terms identifiable to the computer model.
From a user point of view, the model provides for consideration of the
following design parameters:
1. Geometry of Structural Elements - In addition to the layout of
the framing members, detailed description of the structural
elements is permitted which Includes shape and placement of
the steel beam sections, deck profile and reinforcement
locations.
2. Material Properties - Non-linear changes 1n the yield
strength, modules of elasticity, and coefficient of thermal
expansion with respect to material temperature are inputted
directly (material models within the program allow
consideration of the elastic/plastic character of steel and
cracking or crushing of concrete).
3. Loads and Restraint - Provision is made for the direct Input
of point loads (any direction) and uniform vertical loads
acting on the floor system. The resistance of structural
elements connected to the assembly, such as columns and
braces, can be modeled.
4. Time-Temperature Exposre - The shape of the temperature
profile with respect to time of exposure for up to five
groups of elements In the model can be specified. Such

-248-
 profiles are based on either measured or calculated data
which reflect the nature of the fire exposure being
considered.
The results of.a successful analysis provide the designer with
predictions on deflections and rotations across the floor system and stress
and strain conditions within the structural members.

Because the engineering approach represented by the computer model 1s a

significant departure from the laboratory test methods contained In the
building codes, a substantial evaluation of the computer model was necessary.

The analysis of data collected from a large scale test program conducted at
the U. S. National Bureau of Standards provided the basis for this evaluation
(6). The test program provided for the measurement of the response of a
structural system representative of actual building construction, when a
portion of that assembly 1s exposed to fire. This was accomplished by
recording vertical and horizontal deflections of the frame and floor slab and
temperatures on the exposed structural components. The actual test assembly
consisted of a two story-four bay structural steel frame with a concrete and
steel deck floor slab Figure B. A total of three tests were conducted on the
assembly which Included both controlled exposure fires (ASTM El 19) and a free
burning "real" fire.
Evaluations of the fire exposure conditions recorded during each of the
tests have been made using the finite element mesh illustrated In Figure 9.
Comparisons made between the record and predicted performance for each set of
test conditions demonstrated good agreement for both the deflected shape of
the floor assembly and level of damage to the concrete slab and steel frame.
These comparisons for a 90 minute exposure to the ASTM E119 time-temperature
curve are Illustrated in Figure 10.

-249-
 APPLICATION OF THE MODELS

Once the computer models have been developed and adequately validated
they can be considered as engineering "tools" in the design of the structural
elements. The computer models, FIRES-T3 and FASBUS II, are more specifically
analytical programs than design programs. As such, the models are used to
evaluate a certain set of exposure conditions of a particular structural
assembly. Using the results of the analysis the designer can then determine
the acceptability of the predicted performance.
The scope of the analysis must first be determined. This Includes
identifying the assembly or portion thereof to be modeled, the temperature
conditions of the exposure, the distribution of live loads (or load
combinations) and the types of materials and construction represented. The
structural assembly to be analyzed must then be redefined in the form of the
element types included 1n the model. The size of the elements Is determined
by the dimensions of the "nodal mesh" Into which the assembly Is divided. The
spadai position and dimensions of the elements, defined by the nodal
coordinate system therefore, should match that of the actual assembly.
The application of the analytical techniques for determining structural
fire endurancce are permitted within the U.S. building codes under the general
provisions for "alternates" to the prescribed code requirements. To exercise
the provisions, the designer must produce evidence sufficient to satisfy the
Interests of the responsible building official. The specific requirements for
a particular case will therefore vary according to the level of Interest and
expertise of the individual of f i cal reviewing the analysis.
Typical of the acceptance of most new design approaches to the
engineering requirements of a structure Is the need for a project significant
enough to warrant the interest of the designer. The following 1s a brief
description of a successful analysis, using the two computer models described

-250-
above, which resulted in In establishing a change to the fire protection
requirements on portions of a structural frame.

Evaluations of An Office Building

The first application of the analytical approach represented by the

FIRES-T3 and FASBUS II computer nodels was first made on a 42 story office
building located on the West coast of the U.S. (7). The interest of the
designer developed when he considered the exccessive f1 reproofing requirements
placed on the large spandrel beams of the building frame. The specific beams,
which were designed to carry earthquake forces, provided substantial bracing
to the structure through moment connections at the columns. Despite the
structural conditions, fire endurance requirements specified by the code to be
based on a standard fire test rating of a simply supported beam significantly
smaller in size than those in the structure. In addition, the code required a
three hour rating on columns and these beams, because of their function in
stabilizing the columns.
The building designer was only Interested in evaluating the spandrel
beams, thereby limiting the analysis to the assembly shown in Figure 11.
Using a direct applied fireproofing thickness of 3/4 inch (1.9 cm) a FIRES-T3
analysis was conducted on each of the spandrel beams of size W33xll8 and
larger. The results of the analysis after 1-1/2 hours and 3 hours of exposure
for the W33xll8 beam predicted a high point temperature of 1490F (810C) and an
average section temperature of 1300F (705C), Figure 12.
Using the predicted temperature history conditions a structural analysis
was made using FASBUS II. The modelling considered only the gravity loads
supported by the beam thereby ignoring the higher design stress levels only
considered to occur during an earthquake. The influence of the frame columns
were modeled as equivalent stiffnesses applied to the ends of the beam. From
the results of the analysis the vertical deflection and elongation of the beam

-251-
could be examined over the course of the exposure period, Figure 13. In
addition, the stress levels across the beam section could be evaluated to
determine the development of plastic material conditions.

The combination of the heat transfer analysis and the structural response
modeling provided evidence satisfactory to the building official. As a result
the thickness of the fire protection material on all the spandrel beams equal
to or larger than the beam analyzed were reduced to 3/4 inch (1.9 cm). This
limited analysis of the structures fire endurance resulted in a savings of
over $250,000.

SUMMARY

The development of an engineering method for calculating structural fire

endurance of steel buildings is now under development In the U.S. Based on a
study of these design parameters, a systematic approach has been defined which
Identifies the various components of the design problem and their
Interrelationship. Examination of the state-of-the-art technology available
for addressing each of the design parameters is now being accomplished.
Because of tne complexity of the problem computer models are commonly required.

Two computer models, FIRES-T3 and FASBUS I I , have been developed to

predict heat transfer and structural response, respectively. As a result of a
substantial evaluation of each of these models their validity to accurately
predict structural fire endurance of typical steel framed floor constructions
has been established. The application of these models to actual building
constructions has demonstrated their value as an engineering "tool".
With the continued development of a engineer solution these and other
computer models are being used to identify and evaluate each of the
parameters. The most significant of these parameters will be used to
developed a concise and optimum design. I t Is anticipated that the design of
structures to resist the effects of a building f i r e will eventually become a
routine part of the structural design of the building frame.

-252-
 REFERENCES

1 ) "Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Constructions and

Materials", ASTM El 19, Annual Book of Standards, Part 18, pp.
941-967, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1982.

2) Fitzgerald, R.W., Development of an Engineering Method to Calculate

the Fire Resistance of Structural Steel Frames, Status Report to
American Iron and Steel Institute, Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
December 1982.

3) Iding, R.J., Bresler, B. and Nizamuddin, Z., "FIRES-T3, a Computer

Program for the Fire Response of Structures-Thermal", Report No. UCB
FRG77-15, University of California, Berkeley, October 1977.

4) Chiapetta, R.L. et al, "The Effect of Fire Temperatures on Buildings

with Steel Frames", Final Report IITRI Project J8095, Chicago, ILL.,
April 1972.

5) Iding, R.H. and Bresler, B., "Effect of F1re Exposure on Steel

Framed Buildings", Report to American Iron and Steel Institute, WJE
No. 78124, Wiss, Janney, Elstner and Associates, Inc., Emeryville,
CA., March 1982,

6) Jeanes, David C , "Predicting Fire Endurance of Steel Structures",

Preprint 82-033, American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE
Convention, Nevada, April 16-30, 1982.

7) Bresler, B., Iding, R., Amin, J., and Laws J., "Evaluation of
Fire Proofing Requirements for a High-Rise Steel Building" paper
presented at the AISC National Engineering Conference, Memphis, TN.,
April 1983.

FIRE HEAT STRUCTURAL

GROWTH TRANSFER RESPONSE

E-119 UNPROTECTED COMPUTER

ÍUHNACE MODEL
STEEL;
COMPUTER M O D U S
FASBU5 II
HAOVIG INSULATED
(DENMARK) STEEL;

MEMBRANE AIMLYIICAL VCIIiriCAllON niLiAUiuir DESIGN

MC IMOD
PROTECTED
ANALYSIS METHOD
POST · FLASHOVER IlltOHCIICAl
STEEL
F WE STUDIES

COMPUTER MODELS:
COMPUI ER IfMJOELS
FIRES T3 exPUOMCNIA!
HARVARD
TASCF 2 IESI
COMHF H

APPROK IO

COMPF II

PflE-H ASHOVEÍ1
FlKC
Fig. 1. DEVELOPING A DESIGN METHOD FOR FIRE
COMPUI Ell M O W I S ENDURANCE OF STEEL THE IDENTIFICATION
SMI I I I IOIUO SIA1E)
HARVARD OF SOME APPROPRIATE COMPUTER PROGRAMS.

-253-
 Mat'I Prop.

Fire Expo. |-
Computer Model
Temperatures
Heat Tran, ρ FIRES T3

Geometry

FIGURE 2 The I n p u t / O u t p u t Data C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the FIRES-T3

Computer Model

MESH FOR BEAM

THERMAL ANALYSI S

FIGURE 3 F i n i t e Element Model Used f o r FIRES-T3 A n a l y s i s

of S t e e l Beams with D i r e c t Applied F i r e P r o t e c t i o n

-254-
 1500 BEAM: W12 χ 27 (W/D = 0.63)
F ι REPROOF I N G : 7/8" T H I C K (rcNCKOTE)

1000 ­

500

— FIRES­T3 PREDICTION
O TEST DA TA

0
­ ι —
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 TIME, Hours
F i g . 4. Comparison of FIRES-T3 p r e d i c t e d temperature with recorded t e s t
data

-Γ -
-r- ­ ι
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 ¡a
W/D of B:
2.5

Fig. 5. Fire protection thicknesses for steel beams based on average

section temperature of 1000F

­255­
 TEMPERATURE
PROFILES
STRESSES
MATERIAL
PROPERTIES COMPUTER STRAINS
ANALYSIS
(FASBUS II) DEFLECTIONS
GEOMETRY
STRUC/ELEM ROTATIONS

LOADS AND
RESTRAINTS
FIGURE 6 The Input/Output Data Characteristics of the
FASBUS II Computer Model.

a. Beam Element

b. Slab Element

FIGURE 7 Types of Finite Elements Used in the

FASBUS II Computer Model.

-256-
 STEEL DECK ROOF

TRUCTURAL
STEEL FRAME

T I E ANGLES CONCRETE/STEEL
DECK FLUOR SLAB

INDIVIDUAL FOOTI
FIRE COMPARTMENT

FIGURE 8 S t r u c t u r a l F i r e E n d u r a n c e T e s t Frame a t t h e U . S .
N a t i o n a l B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s (NBS).

wv = LOCATION SPRINGS TO SIMULATE COLUMNS

FIGURE 9 F i n i t e E l e m e n t Mesh Used t o Model NBS T e s t Frame.

-257-
 ♦ TEST DA TA
• FA SI1US DA TA ( J T S . P I N N E D )
o FA SBUS DA TA ( J T S . F I X E D )
o

FIG. 10a
' Vertical deflection
a t the' c e n t e r of the
t e s t bay during the
loo course of the test.
TIME, MINUTES

+ TEST DA TA
• FA SBIIS DA TA ( J T S . PINNED)
• FA SBIIS DA TA ( J T S . FIXED)
FIG. 10b
Vertical deflection across
c e n t e r of t e s t bay f l o o r
s l a b (a 90 m i n . , El 1 9 ) .

+ TEST DA TA · FA SBUS DA TA ( J T S . PINNED)

FIG. 10c
Lateral deflection
I of test floor frame
] (a 90 min., E119) .

t£^­r_
­258­
CRACK DATA:
■ FASBUS (STRESS!
4 PULSE ECHO DAT FIG. lOd

—­ VISUA L
(SHRINKAGE, Comparison of
AND STRESS) recorded slab
crack data
(after test) .

Figure 10. Comparison of FA SBUS II predictions with test data.

ufa ι ;­­­ _■?_. .--ytiìr*

¿φ. ­FLOOK. LEVEL ABOVE-^Ά Üííu

I I
I I
I
ι / /I ι 41
I T
_i_L
+_L
\ \ \ \
\ \ \1
■tør
\
-ΐΊ-otx. Levee &EUM/-^n
\
u
FIG. 11 . Portion of 42 story office building analyzed
using FIRES­T3 and FA SBUS II.

­259­
 W3ixiia w/d-1.21
LOCATION ík HOURS 3 HOURS
Srs T
l 980*F 1480-F
T
2 990"F U90*F (810 O
Τ
3 990*F U40-F
Τ
4 790T 1190T
Τ
5 • 630*F 990T
Τ
6 °0"F 200'F

(^ 'AVG STEEL 870*F 1300"F

3/4" Monokote FireproofIng

FIG. 12. Temperature predictions in W33xU8 spandrel beam

using FIRES­T3.

2¿> I20 iSo iea

EXPOSURE TIME, MINUTES
FIG. 13. Structural response of W33xll8 spandrel beam predicted
using FASBUS II.

­260­
 COMPUTER AIDED FIRE RESISTANCE FOR STEEL AND
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES.

3.C. DOTREPPE J.M. FRANSSEN 3.B. SCHLEICH

Senior Research Associate Research Assistant Department Manager
National Fund For Scientific Research (Belgium) ARBED-Recherches
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Liège, Belgium Luxembourg

SUMMARY.
In order to improve the evaluation oí the fire resistance of steel and
composite structures an E.C.S.C, research has been introduced. One part of
this research consists in developing a numerical model for the analysis of
these types of structures in a fire environment. This model is based on the
finite element method using beam elements with subdivision of the cross
section in a rectangular mesh. The structure submitted to increasing
temperatures is analyzed step-by-step using the Newton-Raphson process. A
comparison between theoretical and experimental results is made for a
composite beam. A further calibration of this numerical model will be
achieved by the end of 1984, when new practical test results are available
for columns, beams and frames, according to the aforementioned research
program.

-261-
1. INTRODUCTION.
The standard fire resistance test according to ISO 834 has been used
quite intensively to determine the fire resistance of structural elements.
Nevertheless in its present form the test procedure has several shortcomings,
for instance concerning the heating and restraint characteristics. This last
point may be considered as the main weakness of - the standard test, since the
structural response is highly dependent on the conditions of restraint due to
the building system and the end conditions.

Therefore the need for analytical predictions of thermal and structural

responses has grown more and more intensively. During the last decade there
has been important progress in the development of analytical methods for the
calculation of the behaviour of structures under fire conditions. In several
countries the practical evaluation of the fire resistance can now be made
through simple methods of calculation.

This type of method is already available for almost all steel elements,
but it is not yet applicable to all composite and concrete elements. This is
due to the fact that the concept of critical temperature cannot be applied to
all cases. It is then necessary to use tables and empirical relationships based
on tests and experience.

Though all these methods are very useful for the designer, the element
will probably behave differently in a real structure if a fire occurs. It has
been found that very often the protection of this element appears
exaggerated.

To improve the prediction of fire resistance, it is necessary to have a

very powerful numerical tool, i.e. a computer code able to simulate the real
behaviour of the structural element in a fire environment. This type of
analysis should lead to an improvement of the competitivity of steel and
composite constructions.

Therefore a research called REFAO/CAFIR (7) has been introduced by

ARBED and accepted by the ECSC authorities. This research contains an
experimental part and a theoretical one.

The tests will be executed in various European laboratories, but the

experimental part of the research will not be discussed in the paper.

-262-
 The theoretical part is realized in the Department of Bridges and
Structural Engineering of the University of Liège. The code is based on the
computer program presented in (5). I t must be developed in such a way that
it can be applied to all types of protected and unprotected steel and
composite (steel-concrete) structures.

2. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNI NG THE BEHAVI OUR OF COMPOSI TE

STRUCTURES UNDER FI RE CONDI TI ONS.

Considerable progress has been achieved recently in the field of

composite construction elements and their individual behaviour under fire
conditions. Composite beams (1, 8) as well as different composite column
types (16) have been tested in several countries. Simplified calculation models,
based on real fire test calibration, have been developed enabling architects
and engineers to perform a quick analysis of composite columns for instance.
Even if these methods are limited to given application fields depending on
tests, they however permit right now a practical design in many situations.

A very typical example of these fire test calibrations is the "reduced

composite cross section" method of ARBED presented in (14). This method has
been developed for the so-called AF-columns, i.e. rolled profiles, concreted
between the flanges (see fig.l). I t should be underlined that the fire
endurances measured (3) and those computed according to this simplified
calculation method are in good agreement (see fig.2). Besides a catalogue (12)
and diagrams for AF 30/120 columns based on rolled Η-profiles have been
established. These most practical design tools give immediately the adequate
composite section (including rolled Η-shape, concrete and reinforcing bars) in
function of the axial load, the column length and the required time of fire
exposure (see fig.3).

In spite of the undoubtedly very high practical value of these simplified

calculation models, it must be recognized, however, that problems arise as
soon as the real situation is outside the application field covered by tests.
So it will be difficult to find the adequate answer for very long or slender
columns under fire conditions or to analyze special types of composite cross
sections (see fig.4). Another important problem is the M/N interaction
behaviour of composite columns (see fig.3) for which solutions are given
(6, 13) at ambient temperature. No answer is available for this interaction

-263-
Method of 'reduced composite *·
cross section' for
AF 30/120 columns

FIG. 2. Comparison of fire endurances

measured from tests and computed according
to the simplified calculation method, for
AF columns (3)

Ncr g(MNl
10
r
90
""^T.*>
ni

Ll<")

FIG. 3. Ultimate buckling loads of ARBED HEAA composite sections after

90 min. of exposure to iso fire jCT. 235 N/mm;ß=45N/nrwfi )

-264-
 Fire retardant point

I2

Fire r e t a r d a n t paint \

FIG, k· Special types of composite cross sections able to support axial

loads and bending moments according to yy or/and zz axes

N/Npl

FIG. 5. M/N interaction diagram

for AF composite columns at ambient
temperature

ideally plastic \\\\

with strain
limitation VM/kfeiy
-I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1—*—I U
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 IjO W

COMPRESSION H 12)
WEB CRACKED CONCRETE ÍS)

FIG. 6. Internal
stress diagram
due to the tempe-
rature field in a
composite AF
section, after
120 min. of ISO
fire according
to (10)

-265-
behaviour at high temperature, in which case oí course the simplified model
approach is unsuited.

Besides it should be noted that the simplified calculation models do not

cover the effects of the internal thermal stress field of a composite cross
section. However the highly differential temperature field, created under fire
conditions in a composite cross section, leads to strong internal stresses (fig.6)
which undoubtedly affects the load bearing capacity.

For these reasons a numerical model is needed in order to allow an

exact thermal and mechanical system analysis without any restrictions as to
the geometry of the cross-sections, the building structural system, the load
combinations, etc.

3. NUMERICAL PROCEDURE FOR THE ANALYSIS OF STEEL AND COMPO-

SITE STRUCTURES UNDER FIRE CONDITIONS.

3.1. Basic knowledge for the theoretical analysis.

Before the development of the fire the element is submitted to

external loads corresponding to the situation existing in a real building.
Therefore the structural behaviour of the element at ambient temperature
under static loads must be analyzed. This is rather simple for steel beams
where the material is assumed to be perfectly linear elastic. Some
complications arise for columns where second order effects must be taken
into account.

For composite or concrete structures the problem is much more

complicated since the stress-strain characteristics of concrete are no longer
linear elastic and cracks appear for small tension stresses. Therefore a
step-by-step analysis taking into ' account material and geometrical non
linearities is used as a general procedure for this first part.

To analyze the structure during the development of the fire two

distinct problems must be solved :
- a thermal problem consisting in the evaluation of the temperature
distribution in the element ;
- a mechanical problem consisting in the evaluation of the structural
behaviour due to the temperature increase calculated hereabove.

-266-
 To solve these problems analytically it is necessary to collect data
about thermal and mechanical properties of the materials used, i.e. steel and
concrete. Furthermore, due to the high temperatures reached, the variations
of temperature affect significantly the properties of these materials and this
must be taken into account in the numerical model.

The thermal properties, i.e. the thermal conductivity λ , the heat

capacity c, the density ρ , the thermal diffusivity a = λ/c ρ and the thermal
strains will not be discussed here. The models adopted here are essentially
the same as those described in (5).

Concerning mechanical properties simplified methods for the evaluation

of the fire endurance require only the determination of the classical
characteristics, i.e. ultimate strength in tension and compression, yielding
stress and modulus of elasticity. I n a step-by-step numerical procedure these
characteristics are not sufficient and information concerning the instantaneous
stress-strain relation, creep and relaxation are necessary.

Experimental investigations (9) (15) show that thermal creep and

relaxation of concrete and steel have a non negligible influence. This is
mainly true for elements where compression has a significant effect like
columns, while in elements where bending is determinant like in beams and
slabs it has been proved (5) that creep does not influence very much the
failure mechanism and the fire endurance.

Creep and relaxation models have been proposed for both materials (9)
(15). These types of models should be introduced in the program in the near
future. Up to now these effects are taken into account by adopting "smooth"
stress-strain diagrams for concrete (figure 7.a) and steel (figures 7.b and c).

3.2. Temperature distribution in the element.

The first problem to be solved is the modeling of the environment

created by a fire. The variation of external temperature is usually given by
the standard temperature-time curve defined in I SO 834, but other types of
equations can of course be introduced in the program.

The density of heat flow transmitted to the element is a problem

quite involved. Usually it is divided in a convection part and a radiation part

-267-
 300t
400
.500
.000
J 700
.eoo

20 β 4 as·«* 4 50­1Ö4

α) concrete

■β 2­IO­
iff 3 2­10­3
b) structural and hot­rolled c ) cold­worked reinforcing steels
reinforcing steels

Fig. 7 : Models presently adopted for the variation with

temperature of the stress­strain diagram of
the materials

"T
b(i*i)
|Q3T

Q
!<»I m!
b(D

4­­Í­
I J ??. —i bO­D

— «(M) • (I) ■ (IO) ­

Fig. 8 : Heat balance between adjacent elements

­268­
and is written as follows

* = h (Τ - Τ) + σ ε (Τr* - Τ, Λ) (1)
e ο es e
Τ : surface temperature of the element
Τ : temperature of the fire environment
h : coefficient of convection
°" : Stefan-Boltzmann constant
o
e
: resultant emissivity factor between the environment and
the surface of the element.

The coefficient of convection and resultant emissivity are temperature

dependent and are influenced by many parameters. Nevertheless one of the
authors has shown (5) by numerical experimentation that constant values can
be adopted for most cases.

In order to calculate the distribution of temperature in the elements

the equation of heat conduction must be solved. In the case of fire problems
the thermal properties of steel and concrete are temperature dependent and
numerical methods must be used. In this approach a system of finite
differences equations is obtained by expressing the heat balance between
adjacent rectangular elements (figure 8).

The following possibilities can be considered in the program :

- composite section ;
- variation with temperature of the thermal properties ;
- holes in the cross section ;
- evaporation of free water.

3.3. Solution strategy for the thermomechanical analysis of the structure.

In the finite element method a conventional engineering structure is

considered as an assemblage of structural elements interconnected at a
discrete number of nodal points (fig.9).

If the force-displacement relationships for the individual elements are

known i t is possible to derive the properties and study the behaviour of the
assembled structure.

-269-
 VT??­ 'λν/t

Element 1 2 3 4 t
nodes 1 2 3 4 5
ifrs> ­O O O O O O ­o—o—o—o o­ wfe

Figure 9 : Discretization of the structural element

'Λ Λ / Λ 'X/> Λ Λ > « xyx/ « / / <*/ /y; »

2Z2ZZ2ZZZZ2ZZZZZZZ

i
Figure 10 : Discretization of the cross section for a composite element

­270­
 The basic equation of the method can be written :
{F e > = (K) . {u} (2)

{F } : vector of nodal forces applied to the structure

(K) : structure stiffness matrix ; depends upon geometrical and
material properties of the elements
{u} : vector of nodal displacements.

After solving the system (2) and determining the nodal displacements,
the displacements at any point within each element can be defined as a
column vector {f} :
{f} = (N) i u > e (3)
in which (N ) are in general functions of position
{u} represents a listing of nodal displacements for a
particular element.

With displacements known at all points within the element the strains
at any point can be determined. These will always result in a relationship
which can be written in matrix notation as :

{e} = (B) . {f} (4)

Using the appropriate material properties the stresses {σ} can be calculated
as functions of strains.

Because of material and geometrical non-linearities, an iterative

approach is essential. Before fire occurs the loads are applied step-by-step
and when the external temperature increases the time is divided into time
increments At.

Stress-strain relations in the materials are non-linear and moreover they

vary with temperature. Since it is also desired to take large displacements
into account the stiffness matrix has to be actualized at each step of the
loading and at each time increment during the development of the fire.

In the problem to be solved the materials are subjected to initial

strains due to temperature changes ( e J and to creep effects ( ε ) ; at the
o cr
present time creep effects are not yet taken into account in the model. Thus
the stresses will be caused by the difference between the total s'trains ( e.)
derived from the nodal displacements and the initial strains :

-271-
 σ ( ε ) = oier
■ "Γ -- ε„
ε
θ -" ς.,)
% (5)
σ
When the internal nodal forces {F. } are calculated by integrating the internal
stresses (5) and compared with the applied nodal loads {F ], it can be
observed that equilibrium is not reached.

Thus, at every stage, the difference between the internal forces and
the applied ' loads is determined at all nodes of the structure. These
unbalanced residual forces are then redistributed throughout the structure to
restore equilibrium. This combined with the actualization of the stiffness
matrix gives rise to the Newton-Raphson process. Successive iterations take
the form :
(r) , .(r) (r)
{AF
e\ = (K\ · {Au}
i (6)

, .(r) tk
IK L : structure stiffness matrix updated at the beginning of the r
iteration in the i increment taking into account the changes in
material and geometrical properties,
(r)
<*Fe>i unbalanced residual nodal forces.

The main originality of this program lies in the discretization of the

cross section, which is divided into subslices forming a rectangular mesh
(fig. 10). The discretization of the cross section is chosen in order to be the
same as in the thermal analysis. Therefore the temperatures, strains and
stresses can vary from one subslice to another. Thus the integrals appearing
in the equations and the properties of the cross sections are computed in a
discretized way.

4. COM PARISON BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND EXPERIM ENTAL RESULTS

FOR A COM POSITE BEAM .

To demonstrate the accuracy of the numerical results which can be

obtained from the described procedure, a composite Τ beam has been analyzed
and the theoretical results compared with test results obtained at the
Technical University of Braunschweig (3).

The loading and heating system is presented in figure 11. The beam is
loaded and heated symmetrically. The thermal program is applied according to
the ISO R 834 Recommendations. The dimensions of the cross section and the

-272-
FIG. 11. LOA
D ING AND HEATING SYSTEM

u (i),l»,fl,ffi,g),fi*ffl,g)|
i&hr 2 3 ί, 5 6 7 β ¡9
1

VI ! S Q ΖΖΖΖΖΖ2Ϊ
Ί
FIG. 12. ELEMENT AND SECTION D IVISION I

rrA//ts/i/r7t?7.

­273­
 •c S-* •C . •C
s'
/ A
/
•00 MO

', no ¿..­'
s
»0

/ t'
1

/ ' s
■00 MO ­­ •ΛΛ

// // ir*

MO / BO'
/ Λ
«00 '/ rip
liI 100 /; /,
I fi
u 100 I I

•s 100'
Ι,
ki /
»*«
too

«
t
j0 ' 40 I0 0D «B 1B
tl· ini
V Ut 1
>9 10 ID M I go no
t l · η)
tIO
J 10 Μ I0 α ιη τ
M
t
M
·
mimi

I) bl c)

TEST
FIG. 13­ TEMPERATURES CURVES
PROGRAMM

t (min.)

TESTS
PROGRAM

FIG. l U . D EFLECTION CURVE

­274­
reinforcement arrangement are indicated in figure 11. Because of the
symmetry only one half of the cross section has to be considered for the
division in subslices and only one half of the length of the beam is
subdivided in 8 finite elements (see figure 12).

Figures 13.a and b show the temperature increase in the steel profile.
There is a good agreement between theoretical and experimental results,
though the resultant emissivity factor of steel seems to have been chosen a
little low. The accuracy of the numerical results is very good for the
temperature increase in the reinforcing bars (figure 13.c).

In a simply supported composite beam submitted to a fire test, the

steep thermal gradient on the cross section produces large deflections even at
the beginning of the test when the stiffness properties of the materials
remain unchanged. Figure 14 shows that the numerical procedure can simulate
this behaviour (taking into account the underestimation of the emissivity
factor).

Some numerical problems have still to be solved in order that the

simulation can be carried on for the whole fire test duration. This should be
done in the very near future.

5. CONCLUSIONS.

A numerical procedure for the analysis of the structural behaviour of

steel and composite structures under fire conditions has been presented. It is
based on the finite element method using beam elements with subdivision of
the cross section in a rectangular mesh. The structure submitted to increasing
temperatures is analyzed step-by-step using the NEWTON-RAPHSON process. A
comparison between theoretical and experimental results has been made for a
composite beam. There is a good agreement between theoretical and
experimental results, but some parameters have still to be calibrated and
some transformations have still to be made in order to ensure convergence
when the structure is submitted to increasing temperatures.

The development of this numerical tool will lead to an improvement of

the prediction of fire resistance and to a better understanding of the
behaviour of steel and composite constructions under fire conditions. It is
intended to analyze the influence of several factors such as real fires and

-275-
special fire conditions, second order effects, creep and relaxation, thermal
restraint and deflections. With this knowledge it is planned to show that very
often the protection of these types of elements could be reduced, or that a
given steel or composite structure behaves better under real fire conditions
than assumed up to now.

R E F E R E N C E S

(1) ARNAULT, P., EHM, H., et KRUPPA, 3.

Résistance au Feu des Poutres Mixtes (Isostatiques et Hyperstatiques).
CTICM, Paris, février 1976.

(2) FREY, F.
L'Analyse Statique Non Linéaire des Structures par la Méthode des
Eléments Finis et son Application à la Construction Métallique.
Thèse de Doctorat, Laboratoire de Mécanique des Matériaux et de
Statique des Constructions, Université de Liège, 197S.

(3) KORDINA, K., WESCHE, J., WALTER, R., und HASS, R.

Amtliche Materialprüfanstalt für das Bauwesen. T.U. Braunschweig -
Untersuchungsberichte und Prüfungszeugnisse Nr. 77150R, 80341, 80644,
831009, 831016, 831025, 831032.

(4) SCHNOBRICH, W.C.

Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures by using the Finite Element
Method - The Solution of Non Linear Equations. Corso di
Perfezionamento per le Costruzioni in Cemento Armato, Politecnico di
Milano, 1978.

(5) DOTREPPE, 3.C.

Méthodes Numériques pour la Simulation du Comportement au Feu des
Structures en Acier et en Béton Armé. Thèse d'Agrégation de
l'Enseignement Supérieur, Université de Liège, 1980.

(6) MASAHIDE TOMII, and KEN3I SAKINO.

Inelastic Behaviour of Concrete Filled Square Steel Tubular
Beam-Columns. Proceedings of the USA-Japan Seminar on Composite
Structures and Mixed Structural Systems, 1980.

-276-
(7) DOTREPPE, 3.C., FRANSSEN, 3.M., et SCHLEICH, J.B..
Analyse de la Résistance au Feu des Structures en Acier et Mixtes
Acier-Béton, Assistée par Ordinateur (REFAO/CAFIR). Recherche CCE
7210-SA/502, Rapports techniques N°l, 2 et 3, ARBED-Recherches,
Luxembourg, 1982-198'».

(8) HERSCHELMANN, F.
Untersuchungen Ober konstruktive Massnahmen zur Verbesserung des
Feuerwiderstandes von Stahl-Verbundträgern. Bericht, Institut für
Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz, T.U. Braunschweig, April 19S2.

(9) ANDERBERG, Y.
Behaviour of Steel at High Temperatures. RILEM Committee 44-PHT,
1983.

(10) CHARL1ER, R.
Analyse de la Charge Critique d'une Colonne Mixte AF 30/120 par le
Programme FLAMB 15. Rapport interne, Service de Mécanique des
Structures, Université de Liège, juin 1983.

(11) E.C.C.S.
European Recommendations for the Fire Safety of Steel Structures.
ECCS Technical Committee 3 - Fire Safety of Steel Structures,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983.

(12) 3UNGBLUTH, O., und HAHN, 3.

Traglastenkatalog für ARBED AF 30/120 - Verbundstatzen auf
Walzträgerbasis, 1983.

(13) KLINGSCH, W., und NOWAK, R.

Verbundstützen - Interaktionsbeziehungen für Kaltbemessung.
Forschungsbericht, Lehrstuhl für Baustofftechnologie und Brandschutz,
Bergische Universität Wuppertal, 1983.

(14) SCHLEICH, 3.B., LAHODA, E., LICKES, 3.P., and HUTMACHER, H.

A New Technology in Fireproof Steel Construction. International Review
ACIER-STAHL-STEEL, Nr.3, 1983.

-277-
(15) SCHNEIDER, U.
Behaviour oí Concrete at High Temperatures. RILE M Committee
44-PHT, 1983.

(16) SCHLEICH, J.B.

Dimensionnement des Colonnes Mixtes. Conférence Internationale
"Sécurité au Feu des Constructions en Acier : Conception Pratique",
C.C.E., Luxembourg, avril 1984.

-278-
 REQUIREMENTS OF FIRE RESISTANCE BASED
ON ACTUAL FIRES (SWEDISH APPROACH)

O. PETTERSSON, Prof. Dr.

Division of Building Fire Safety and Technology,

Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden

Summary

A rational, analytical approach to a fire engineering design of load

bearing steel structures is described. The method of design is directly
based on the natural compartment fire concept and on strictly defined func-
tional requirements and performance criteria. The method is permitted to be
generally applied in Sweden, as one alternative, since more than ten years.
For facilitating the practical application, a comprehensive design basis
has been worked out in the form of diagrams and tables for a direct deter-
mination of the maximum steel temperature during the relevant compartment
fire and the corresponding design load bearing capacity of the fire exposed
structure. The design basis is presented in a manual which has been given
type approval for practical use by the National Swedish Board of Physical
Planning and Building. The design procedure has recently been further de-
veloped in order to arrive at a design method in regard to fire exposure
which is in principal agreement with modern loading and safety philosophy
for the non-fire state.

-279-
1. INTRODUCTION
In Sweden, an analytical design of fire exposed load bearing structures
and partitions is officially approved for a general practical application,
as one alternative, since more than 10 years (1). The design is directly
based on the thermal characteristics of the fully developed compartment
fire as a function of the fire load and the geometrical, ventilation and
thermal properties of the compartment. For facilitating the practical app-
lication of the design method, diagrams and tables have been systematically
produced and published in the form of manuals (2), (3), giving directly, on
one hand, the temperature state of the fire exposed structure, on the other,
a transfer of this information to the corresponding load bearing capacity.
In its latest form, the design method is probability based.

2. LIMIT STATE CONDITION

Generally, the design criterion in a structural fire design requires
that no limit state is reached during the relevant fire exposure. Depending
on the type of application, one, two or all of the following limit state
conditions apply:

* limit state with respect to load bearing capacity,

* limit state with respect to insulation,
* limit state with respect to integrity.

For a load bearing structure, the design criterion implies that the minimum
value of the load bearing capacity R(t) during the fire exposure shall meet
the load effect on the structure S, i.e.

min[R(t)] - S > 0 [2.1]

For a separating structure, the design criterion with respect to insu-

lation reads

T.. -max[T (t)] > 0 [2.2]

lim s

where T. . is the maximum temperature of the unexposed side of the struc-

ture, acceptable as concerns the requirement to prevent a fire spread from
the fire compartment to an adjacent compartment. T (t) is the highest tem-
perature on the unexposed side of the structure at time t of the fire pro-
cess. The supplementary limit state condition regarding the integrity func-

-280-
tion has to be proved experimentally, when decisive.

3. PHYSICAL MODEL. FIRE EXPOSURE

The physical model for the fire design is shown summarily in Fig. 1
for a load bearing structure. The design starts by a determination of the
fire exposure, given by the gas temperature­time curve of the fully deve­
loped compartment fire. In the individual application, the fire exposure
then can be obtained either by heat and mass balance calculations for the
fire compartment or directly from a systematized design basis of the type
exemplified by Fig. 2 (1). The fire load density q, the ventilation of the
fire compartment expressed by the opening factor Α\ΛΓ/Α and the thermal pro­
perties of the structures enclosing the compartment are the decisive fac­
tors.

FIRE LOAD DENSITY

FIRE EXPOSURE

FIRE COMPARTMENT

STRUCTURAL DA TA TEMPERATURE STA TE

MINIMUM
_·» LOA D BEA RIN6
CAPACITY R m

LOAD EFFECT
AT FIRE S

Figure 1 : Physical model for an analytical fire engineering design of load

bearing structures, based directly on the exposure characteristics of the
fully developed compartment fire

The gas temperature­time curves in Fig. 2 apply to a fire compartment

with specified thermal properties of its surrounding structures, fire com­
partment type A. The surrounding material roughly corresponds to an average
of brick, concrete and aerated concrete. Fire compartments with enclosing
structures of deviating thermal properties can be transferred to fire com­
partment type A by using fictitious values of the fire load density q, and
the opening factor (ΑνΊΓ/Α ) , according to the approximate formulae

­281­
 QiSOO MJ/m1

Figure 2: Gas temperature­time curves for a fully developed compartment

fire as a function of the fire load density q and the opening factor A\Zh"/A..
A is the total opening area, h is a weighted mean value of the height of the
openings based on their size, and At is the total internal surrounding area
of the compartment, including openings. Fire compartment type A (1)­(3)

qf ­ Kfq ; (Av/n"/At)f ­ KfAv/h"/At [3.1]

In (1) ­ (3), the coefficient K. is given for different types of fire com­
partments defined by their surrounding structures.

The fire load density q is defined by the relationship

-¿- Σμ m H (MJ­m ) [3.2]

A v v v

where m » total mass of combustible material ν (kg), Η ­ net calorific value

ν ° ' V
of combustible material ν (MJ­kg ) and μ ­a fraction between 0 and 1,
giving the real degree of combustion for each individual component of the
fire load.

The gas temperature­time curves according to Fig. 2 are applicable to

fire compartments of a size representative of dwellings, ordinary offices,
schools, hospitals, hotels, and libraries. For fire compartments with a

­282­
very large volume - for instance, industrial buildings and sports halls -
the curves, and the corresponding heat and mass balance equations behind
the curves, give an unsatisfactory description of the real fire exposure.
At present, there is no validated design basis available for the determi-
nation of the fire exposure in compartments with a very large volume.

Returning to the physical model, as shown in Fig. 1, in the next step,

the fire exposure is transferred analytically to transient temperature
fields in the exposed structure and then a determination is carried out of
the time variation of the load bearing capacity R(t).

A comparison between the minimum value R of R(t) during the relevant

m
fire process and the load effect at fire S decides whether the structure
can fulfil its required load bearing function or not during the fire, as
specified by the limit state condition according to Eq. [2.1].

For a separating structure, the physical model gives the transient

temperature state, defining the maximum value, max[T (t)], of the highest
temperature on the unexposed side of the structure during the relevant fire
exposure. The corresponding limit state condition follows Eq. [2.2], as
concerns the required function of insulation. The limit state condition
with respect to the integrity function has to be proved experimentally,
when required.

4. PROBABILITY BASED DESIGN

For the probabilistic model to be integrated with the physical model,
different levels of ambition can be distinguished:

* an accurate evaluation of the failure probability, using multi-dimensio-

nal integration or Monte Carlo simulation,
* an approximate evaluation of the failure probability, based on first
order reliability methods (FORM), and
* a practical design format calculation, based on partial safety factors
and taking into account characteristic values for action effects and re-
sponse capacities.

For practical purposes, an accurate evaluation of failure probability

is not possible. Also, the FORM approximations are too cumbersome for every-
day design and the more simplified practical design formats have to be used.

-283-
 Fig. 3 illustrates a practical design format calculation for a fire
exposed load bearing structure (4)­ (6). From the design fire load density
q, and the geometrical, ventilation and thermal characteristics of the fire
compartment, the design fire exposure is determined either by energy and
mass balance calculations or from a systematized design basis. Together
with the structural design data, the design thermal properties and the de­
sign mechanical strength of the structural materials, the design fire ex­
posure provides the design temperature state and the related design load
bearing capacity R, for the lowest value of the load bearing capacity during
the relevant fire process.

FIRE EXTINGUISH­
MENT, F I R E F I G H ­
f\ t DESIGN THERMA L
PROPERTIES
DESIGN
MECHANICAL
STRENGTH

Η,,ΙΤΙ.Μ^Τ),..
TING CH A R A CTE­
RISTICS

1 1 1
DESIGN LOA O
F I R E COMPA RTMENT JESIGN F I R E DESIGN FETTGFLDTU—
BEARING
CHARACTERISTICS EXPOSURE TEMPERATURE FFECT AT FIRE
CAPACITY
r­t STATE „■S(G d .O d i
» ■«(»ο1·Η<Ι2···Ι

DESIGN F I R E LOA O
f
STRUCTURAL
1

DENSITY DESIGN
DATA

if V
Τ

Figure 3: Procedure for a practical design format calculation of a load

bearing structure, exposed to a natural compartment fire

The design format condition to be proved is

R [4.1]
d"Sd­°
V
where S, is the design load effect at fire. Depending on the type of prac­
tical application, the condition has to be verified for either the complete
fire process or a limited part of it, determined by the time necessary for
the fire brigade to attack the fire under the most severe conditions or by
the design evacuation time for the building.

The probabilistic influences are considered by specifying characteris­

tic values and related partial safety factors for the fire load density,

­284­
such structural design data as imperfections, the thermal properties, the
mechanical strength and the loading.

The functional requirements to be laid down for the fire design must
be differentiated with respect to such aspects as the occupancy, the height
and volume of the building, and the importance of the structure or struc­
tural member to the overall stability of the building. This can be done by,
for instance, a system of safety classes with allocated failure probabili­
ties, affecting the design strength. The effect of the probability of
occurrence of a postflashover compartment fire, the fire brigade actions
and an installed fire extinguishment system, if any, can be accounted for
principally in the same way. An alternative solution is to include these
influences in the determination of the design fire load density and the de­
sign fire exposure, as indicated in Fig. 3. This latter way is chosen in
the Swedish probability based design method by dividing the structures or
structural members into categories with a related differentiation of the
design fire load density and the length of the fire process, to be consi­
dered in the design. The presence of an approved sprinkler system then is
taken into account in a very simplified way by a transfer of the structure
or structural member to the next lower category.

5. TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS AT FIRE EXPOSURE

For a fire exposed, uninsulated steel structure, the energy balance
equation gives the following formula for a determination of the steel tem­
perature­time curve Τ ­ t (Fig. 4)

F
ΔΤ ­ — 5 — . ­i ( T ­ T ) At (°C) [5.1]
s p e V t s
s ps s

where
ΔΤ ­ change of steel temperature ( C) during time step At (s),
α ­ coefficient of heat transfer at fire exposed surface of structure
(Wm"2­0C_1),
_3
ρ ­ density of steel material (7850 kg­m ) ,
s . .
c ■ specific heat of steel material (J­kg · C ) ,
F » fire exposed surface of steel structure per unit length (m),
8
2
V » volume of steel structure per unit length (m ) ,
T ­ gas temperature ( C) within fire compartment at time t (s).

­285­
Figure 4: Fire exposed, uninsulated steel structure. T t » gas temperature
within fire compartment, T 8 ­ steel temperature at time t

Eq. [5.1] presupposes that the steel temperature T_ is uniformly dis­

tributed over the cross section of the structure at any time t.

The coefficient of heat transfer α can be calculated from the approxi­

mate formula

5.77e_ r Τ +273 , Τ +273 4

α ­ 23 +
Τr ­
ν
­Ττs LΙ| χ ) 4 ­ (ν ­ 8
100 '
­) ]
100
(W.m­2.V1) [5.2]
t
t 8 *■
giving an accuracy which is sufficent for ordinary practical purposes, ε
is the resultant emissivity which for practical applications can be chosen
according to the following table, giving values which are generally on the
safe side.

1. Column, fire exposed on all sides

2. Column, outside a facade
3. Floor structure, composed of steel beams with a concrete
slab on the lower flange of the beams
4. Steel beams with a floor slab on the upper flange of the
beams
4a Beams of I cross section with width/height ^ 0.5
4b Beams of I cross section with width/height < 0.5
4c Beams of box cross section and trusses

More accurate values of the resultant emissivity ε can be determined

for alternative 4 ­ steel beams with a floor slab, supported on the upper
flange of the beams ­ from the diagrams of Fig. 5 and 6, applicable to
floor structures with the flames completely below the steel beams and reach­

­286­
ing the slab, respectively. For the emissivity of the flames e , the value
0.85 is to be inserted, if not any other value can be proved to be more
correct.

0.5­
_,—'/­

B h
0.5 1.0 "/n 0Λ 1.0 /

Es-Ebj-0.1

\—r

X XT
Ceiling or flam«»

« e

Figure 5: Resultant emissivity ε for steel beams with a floor slab, sup­
ported on the upper flange of the beams. Flames completely below the steel
beams. EJ,J ­ emissivity of the slab, ε 8 » emissivity of the steel beams, ct ■
­ emissivity of the flames. I cross section, box cross section

» »
» ·
■wffwm

Ì17) %¡)í

it
1
' ' ι ' ' ■ ' ι .».
0.5 '.o lyh

Figure 6: Resultant emissivity ε Γ for steel beams of I cross section with a

floor slab, supported on the upper flange of the beams. Flames reaching the
slab. et ­ emissivity of the flames

­287­
 At a given gas temperature­time curve T ­t of the fire compartment,
the steel temperature T can be directly calculated from Eqs. [5.1] and
[5.2] with regard taken to the temperature dependence of c and a. Such
ps
computations have been carried out in a systematized way, giving design
tables as published in (2), (3). From such tables, the maximum steel tempe­
rature T during a complete compartment fire can be determined directly
as a function of the fictitious fire load density qf, the fictitious open­
ing factor (A \Zh~/A ),, the F /V ratio and the resultant emis s ivi ty ε . The
values are connected to gas temperature characteristics according to Fig. 2.

Similarly, for a fire exposed, insulated steel structure, a simplified

energy balance equation gives the following formula for a direct determina­
tion of the steel temperature­time curve Τ ­ t (Fig. 7)

nT (T ( [5.3]
s ­ <l/, + d./X.)pc V t­ V " °C)
1 1 β ps s

with the additional quantities

A. ­ interior jacket surface area of insulation per unit length (m),
d. » thickness of insulation (m),
λ. « thermal conductivity of insulating material (W­m · C ).

—Π

Figure 7: Fire exposed, insulated steel structure. T t » gas temperature with­

in fire compartment, T 8 ­ steel temperature at time t

Eq. [5.3] presupposes that the steel temperature T is uniformly dis­

tributed over the cross section of the structure at any time t, that the
temperature gradient is linear and the heating contribution negligible for
the insulation, and that the heat transfer is one­dimensional.

­288­
 Computations, originating from Eqs. [5.2] and [5.3], provide a system­
atized design basis for a practical fire design. Such a design basis is pub­
lished in (2), (3) in the form of tables, giving the maximum steel tempera­
ture Τ during a complete compartment fire for varying values of the
fictitious fire load density q­, the fictitious opening factor (Αν/ΓΓ/Α ) , ,
the structural parameter A./V , and the insulation parameter d./λ.. The
values are connected to gas temperature characteristics according to Fig. 2.

For a specific insulating material, systematized design diagrams or

tables can be computed very accurately with regard to the temperature de­
pendence of the thermal properties of the steel as well as the insulating
material. The influence of an initial moisture content and of a disinte­
gration of the insulating material can be considered, too. Practically, such
a determination can be carried out over a numerical data processing by com­
puters on the basis of a finite difference or a finite element method. A
great number of design tables, computed according to such an accurate pro­
cedure, are presented in (2).

6. LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF STEEL STRUCTURES AT FIRE EXPOSURE

By applying the design tables, referred to in the previous chapter,
the maximum steel temperature Τ can be determined comparatively quick­
ly for an uninsulated or insulated steel structure, exposed to a compart­
ment fire with gas temperature­time characteristics according to Fig. 2.
The corresponding design load­bearing capacity of the structure then is
obtained by design diagrams of the type exemplified in Fig. 8 and 9 (2),
(3).

Fig. 8 and 9 give the design load bearing capacity (Μ ,Ρ ,q ) of

fire exposed beams of constant I cross section at different types of load­
ing and support conditions, as a function of the steel beam temperature T .
The design curves in Fig. 8 apply to a slow rate of heating ­ assumed to be
I* C­min , followed by a cooling with a rate of 1.33 C­min ­ and Fig. 9
gives the correction Δβ of the load bearing capacity coefficient 6 due to
a more rapid rate of heating. In the formulae for the load bearing capacity
σ 'yield stress of steel material at room temperature (MPa), L ■ span of
8
. 3
beam (m), W ­ elastic modulus of beam cross section (m ) .

The design curves in Fig. 8 and 9 have been determined on the basis of

­289­
 © ®
Θ ιι ι ιι ιι i m q
O-—5) tUl U!L·
1— t 1 „8o.W ,*<>!.*
Mcr = ßo s W

ω ©
© ΙΟ.Ί11.Ι.1ΤΠΊ
airrrnxDq
Ι­ ..'_....ι rr L­­.1
12 ot W
ο« L!

'«■Ρ i■■ ί­

ο ΙϋΟ 200 300 (00

Figure 8: Coefficient β for determination of critical load (Μ,.Γ, P c r , q c r ) for fire exposed beams of I cross sec­
tion at different types of loading and support conditions, as a function of the steel beam temperature T s . The
curves have been calculated for a slow rate of heating of 4 0 C ­ m i n _ 1 and a subsequent cooling, assumed to be one
third of the rate of heating ( 2 ) , (3)
 0= 100°C min·'

c= 20°C minr1

¿50 500

Figure 9: Increase Δβ of coefficient Β, determined according to Fig. 8, for

a rate of heating a 2 4°C­min~', as a function of the steel beam tempera­
ture T s (2), (3)

the deformation curve of the fire exposed beams calculated by an analytical

model, presented in (7), which takes into account the softly rounded shape
of the stress­strain curve of steel at elevated temperatures as well as the
influence of creep strain, noticeable at temperatures in excess of about
450°C.

For a structural fire design of columns, unrestrained or partly re­

strained to a longitudinal expansion during the fire exposure, reference is
made to (2).

7. CONCLUDING REMA RKS

Compared with the conventional fire engineering design, based on clas­
sification and results of standard fire resistance tests, the presented
analytical design procedure has a more logical structure, based on well­de­
fined functional requirements and performance criteria. Of the ensuing ad­
vantages, the following are seen to be the main ones:

1. More consistent safety levels.

2. Better economy. The cost of structural fire protection is, as a rule,
hard to itemize and the cost­saving consequences have been quantified
only in a few cases. Rough estimates indicate that while the cost for
conventional structural fire protection may exceed 30 per cent of the
cost for the steel frame material, the corresponding percentage may be as
low as 10 with the design procedure based on analytical modelling, see

­291­
 Fig. 10. This figure is based on the assumption that the advantages are
fully exploited of integrating the design of the structural steel fire
protection into the overall design process (inner and outer walls are
used as fire protection whenever possible, concrete floor slabs are
placed on the lower flange of the girders, inherently providing a small­
er area to insulate, etc).

Finally, it is recognized that the design system presented is not homo­

geneous due to a varying level of the present basis of knowledge for the
different design steps. Naturally, this can be put forward as a criticism
of the system. However, such a remark is not essential. Instead, this fact
ought to be used as an important guide on how to systematize a future re­
search work for enabling a successive improvement of the system.

Fire protection according to Fire protection according to

conventional standard design integrated, rational design
method method

Figure 10: Costs for fire protection

REFERENCES
(1) National Swedish Board of Physical Planning and Building, "Brandtek­
nisk dimensionering (Fire Engineering Design). Comments on SBN (Swe­
dish Building Code)", No. 1976:1.
(2) Pettersson, 0., Magnusson, S.E., and Thor, J., "Fire Engineering De­
sign of Steel Structures", Swedish Institute of Steel Construction,
Publication No. 50, Stockholm, 1976 (Swedish edition 1974).
(3) Pettersson, 0., and ödeen, Κ., "Brandteknisk dimensionering av bygg­
nadskonstruktioner ­ principer, underlag, exempel (Fire Engineering
Design of Building Structures ­ Principles, Design Basis, Examples)",
Liber förlag, Stockholm, 1978.
(4) Magnusson, S.E., and Pettersson, 0., "Rational Design Methodology for

­292­
 Fire Exposed Load Bearing Structures", Fire Safety Journal 3, 1980/81.
(5) Pettersson, 0., "Reliability Based Design of Fire Exposed Concrete
Structures", Contemporary European Concrete Research, Stockholm 1981.
(6) CIB W14, "A Conceptual Approach Towards o Probability Based Design
Guide on Structural Fire Safety". Report of CIB W14 Workshop "Struc-
tural Fire Safety", Fire Safety Journal 6, 1983.
(7) Thor, J., "Deformations and Critical Loads of Steel Beams Under Fire
Exposure Conditions", National Swedish Building Research, Document
D16:1973, Stockholm.

-293-
 A PROBABILITY BASED
FIRE SAFETY CONCEPT

M. KERSKEN-BRADLEY, Dr.-Ing.
Institut für Bautechnik, Berlin

Summary
A probability based safety concept provides the framework for
the model code/design guide on structural fire design which is
under preparation in the CIB. It has been successfully applied
to a standard for the assessment of industrial buildings in
the Federal Republic of Germany (Vornorm DIN 18230, 1982). The
following contribution briefly outlines the main components of
the safety concept and identifies those features which are of
special interest for steel constructions.

-294-
1. INTRODUCTION

The traditional procedure in structural fire design is based

on a classification system:
- On the one hand a required time of fire resistance in terms
of a standard fire exposure is stipulated in building regula-
tions or codes - usually expressed as required fire resistance
classes in multiples of 30 minutes.

- On the other hand structural elements are graded by deter-

mining their fire resistance time in standard test conditions
- which is usually expressed by reference to fire resistance
classes in mupltiples of 30 minutes.
This classification system is very convenient, especially if
well-prepared catalogues of graded structural members are
available. It may provide a reasonable design for buildings and
occupancies for which sufficient experience concerning the fire
risk has been gained and for types of construction which are
not very sensitive to rough grading criteria. But the design
may become questionable from an economic or safety point of
view in cases where the heat exposure, the structural response,
the associated uncertainties and fire risks differ substantial-
ly from the average situation covered by the regulations. More-
over, types of construction which are sensitive to rough
grading criteria suffer disadvantages in competition with other
building materials (clearly steel and timber vs. concrete)which
in many cases may not be the actual intention of the regulatory
body with respect to their fire safety objectives. However, in
the specification of the required fire resistance physical as-
pects, safety considerations and reserviceability aspects are
lumped together and thus provide no guidance as to the actually
intended level of safety. This may give rise to difficulties in
the assessment of particular projects and may likewise impede
any attempt to harmonize principles and rules in fire design.

A probability based safety concept may be considered as a

useful aid to cope with these difficulties without necessarily
complicating the design procedure. Generally, probabilistic
concepts are intended for deriving design rules for practical

-295-
application, thus the designer does not have to be concerned
about the détails of probabilistic modelling. But as for the
application of any design rules, some background knowledge on
the implication and limits of the rules employed should be
available. Alternatively, a direct probabilistic analysis on
the basis of such a concept may be attempted for the assessment
of the (structural) fire risk of a particular project, but this
approach will definitely be confined to exceptional cases.
Since this safety concept has been introduced in various
publications (e.g. (1) to (4)) and will also be issued as a
CIB Model Code (Design Guide) in the near future, this contri-
bution only identifies the main components and emphasizes those
features of the concept which are of special interest for steel
constructions.

2. COMPONENTS OF A PROBABILITY BASED SAFETY CONCEPT

2.1 Specification of Objectives

A clear specification of the general fire safety objectives

is a prerequisite for the development of a consistent safety
concept. The objectives generally comprise the limitation of
- life risk
- neighbouring property risk
and may also include a limitation of the
- directly exposed property risk
(building and/or contents).

Whilst the public concern with regard to the first and sec-
ond objective is straightforward, the competence for the third
objective - in particular as concerns the protection of build-
ings of no special cultural/societal significance - is usually
not clearly established and thus gives rise to problems.

2.2 Measures for Fire Risk Control

An important feature of the safety concept is that the vari-

ous measures for fire risk control are considered with regard
to their risk-reducing contribution. They include

-296-
. reducing the frequency of fire occurrence
. control of fire (smoke and flames) at an initial stage
. ensuring a safe evacuation of people
. providing for safe and efficient operation conditions for
fire brigades
. preventing fire spread beyond a certain area
. avoiding structural failure or limiting structural damage.
Structural fire design ­ to which this concept refers ­ is only
concerned with the dimensioning and detailing of structures and
their individual members. These provisions will merely contrib­
ute to the prevention of fire spread through structural barri­
ers and to the avoidance or limitation of structural failure or
damage. It is important to note that design only refers to
fires which fail to be controlled at an initial stage and which
are severe enough to cause structural damage.

2.3 Levels of Structural Fire Safety

­ Reliability Requirements ­

The level of structural fire safety (structural reliability)

to be provided by design should be governed by
i. the possible hazards (consequences) in the case of fire ­
depending on the type of building, the location and
occupancy of the building and fire compartment
ii. the risk­reducing contribution of dimensioning and detail­
ing the structure
iii. the estimated frequency of severe fires ­ depending on
the occupancy and size of the fire compartment
iv. the possibly reduced frequency of severe fires due to
special measures of fire risk control as are detecting
and alarm devices,sprinkler systems, plant fire brigades.

A useful presentation of reliability requirements is by ref­

erence to failure probabilities with regard to the attainment
of specified limit states (cf. 2 . 5 ) . Items i. and ii. can be
quantified by tolerable failure probabilities Ρ(fail), applying
to a specified reference period. Ρ (fail) will generally range
from 10 to 10 depending on the number of people endangered

­297­
by structural failure and possibly on economic losses due to
failure. A ny numerical value for Ρ (fail), however, requires
checking on a national basis ­ presumably by calibration to
generally acknowledged fire design solutions.

Items iii. and iv. refer to the probability of occurrence of

severe fires which can be modelled as
Ρ(severe fire) = Ρ (fire) · Ρ(severe fire Ifire) (1)

wherein the various terms are briefly discussed in sec. 2.7.

The failure probability decisive for design is the corre­

sponding probability conditioned by the occurrence of a severe
fire
Ρ(fail¡severe fire) = Ρ(fail)/P(severe fire) (2)

Egu. (2) consistently reflects the fact that, if the fire hazard
and/or the risk reducing contribution of dimensioning is con­
sidered low and/or the occurrence of severe fires is sufficient­
ly rare, then a fairly low level of structural reliability to
be provided by design will suffice. It follows that in various
cases structural requirements with regard to member design may
even be dispensible.

2.4 Structural Requirements and Criteria

A consistent safety concept calls for requirements which are

formulated in a functional manner, i.e. by reference to the ex­
pected performance of structures in the case of fire. Thus,
structures and structural members may be required to adequately
­ sustain all relevant actions
­ perform as fire barriers
during the relevant fire exposure. In addition
­ further limitations on structural damage
after fire exposure may be stipulated ­ depending on the objec­
tives.
For the purpose of design verification the requirements are
expressed in terms of limit states, e.g. limit states with
respect to
­ the load bearing capacity

­298­
 (strength, stability, ductility)
- the separating function
(thermal insulation and integrity)
possibly supplemented by limit states with respect to
- reserviceability or repairability
using appropriate models for describing the heat exposure and
the structural response. The issue of adequately fulfilling the
requirements is followed by designing for specified levels of
reliability (cf. 2.3).

Design may refer to the entire fire process or only to a

limited part of it. Moreover, design may refer
- either to conditions specific for a given project and fire
compartment (individual assessment)
- or to conditions representative for certain types of build-
ings and occupancy of fire compartments.

2.5 Models - Limit State Condition

A limit state is generally expressed as a function of vari-

ablesX, denoted as basic variables
g ( X r X 2 , ..., X n ) = 0 (3)

In fire design the following variables are taken into account,

either implicitly or explicitly- depending on the method of
assessment:
- within the heat exposure model:
. fire load density and
. combustion behaviour of the fire load
. geometrical parameters and
. ventilation characteristics and
. thermal properties of the fire compartment
- within the structural response model
. geometrical parameters of the structure and
. the structural system
. thermal and mechanical properties of the structural compo-
nents
. loads.

-299-
 The variables ­ in particular within the heat exposure
model ­ may be definea to describe the conditions specific for
a particular fire compartment or representative for certain
types of fire compartments.
Egu. (3) can be expressed in the time domain, e.g. in terms
of the fire resistance time t­ = t,(X) and the equivalent time
of fire exposure tfi = t (X) (cf.(1, 2, 4))
tf ­ te = 0 (4a)

or in the temperature domain, e.g. in terms of a critical or

ultimate temperature T = Τ (X) and a resulting maximum temper­
ature due to the relevant fire process Τ = max|T(t, X)

Τ ­ Τ = 0 (4b)

or in the mechanical strength domain in terms of the minimum

resistance capacity during the relevant fire process
R = min JR(t, X)I and the corresponding action effects S = S(Χ)
R ­ S = 0 (4c)

The relevant domain depends on the assessment method employed

which in turn is governed by the need or option to include ex­
perimental models or not. For the current available assessment
methods reference is made to previous contributions to this
conference (e.g. (5), (6)).

2.6 Evaluation of Failure Probabilities

The failure probability introduced in sec. 2.3 is defined as
the probability that a specified limit state is exceeded during
the relevant fire process. For evaluating this probability the
basic variables are explicitly treated as random variables by
describing them in terms of distribution functions (type of
function and distribution parameters) possibly by reference to
stochastic processes. The probability to be calculated is

P(fail|severe fire) = P(g(X) * 0) (5)

and can be evaluated e.g. by first­order­reliability­methods
(7), introducing the so­called safety index B. For particular
limit state conditions and types of distribution functions

­300­
evaluation of the probability of equ. (5) requires only few
elementary steps of calculation.
Since generally the data base for the various variables is
more than modest, specification of the distribution functions
requires assistance by engineering judgement. Moreover, the
models for describing limit state conditions in fire exposure
are associated with considerable uncertainties, even if fairly
sophisticated models are employed. These uncertainties may be
considered by increasing the total variance of the state func­
tion (e.g. by increased coefficients of variation of the basic
variables) ­ if not taken into account in the specification/
calibration of the tolerable failure probability.

It is emphasized that an evaluation of failure probabilities

in only required for assisting decisions on safety factors
within code or standard committees and is not intended as an
aid for practical dimensioning ­ apart from very exceptional
cases where a probabilistic analysis may be considered neces­
sary or worthwhile.

For the purpose of deriving safety factors, the resistance

capacity in the limit state condition is determined such that
the failure probability according to equ. (5) meets the toler­
able probability identified by equ. (2). This design solution
thus corresponds to a specific set of design values for the
basic variables considered. Repeating the procedure for various
applications (e.g. different structural components, modes of
loading, etc.) may render different sets of design values. It
is then the task of the code or standard committee to specify
characteristic (nominal) values and appropriate safety factors
for a certain domain of application.

2.7 Models ­ Fire Frequency

Modelling the fire frequency within a fire compartment com­

prises models describing
­ the probability of fire occurrence, Ρ(fire), referring to
fires of arbitrary extent
­ the probability that a(n) (initial) fire may develop into a

­301­
 fire severe enough to cause structural damage,
Ρ(severe fire I fire).

The first probability primarily depends on the occupancy and

size of the fire compartment. As concerns the size effect,
theoretical modelling suggests a proportional increase of fire
occurrences with increasing area which according to (8, 9)
holds for office buildings, but may be too conservative for
other occupancies. In (9) both terms of the probability,
p(fire) = ρ · f(A) (6a)

i.e. not only the probability ρ per unit floor area but also
the functional dependency on the floor area f(A) are found to
be different for different occupancies. Further investigations,
in particular for non­industrial occupancies, may be necessary
to support the presently available data base.

The probability that, given an initial fire, a severe fire

may develop, is for simplicity (and in accordance with the pre­
vailing model assumption for the heat exposure) also referred
to as flash­over­probability. In the first instance this prob­
ability depends on the physical conditions in the fire compart­
ment (type and distribution of fire loads, size of fire com­
partment, ventilation conditions); these influences, however,
are not yet sufficiently assessable to allow practical conclu­
sions. In addition, this probability is governed by the effi­
ciency of fire fighting at an early stage, which in turn de­
pends e.g. on the presence of detecting and alarm devices,
sprinkler systems and on the possible employment of special
plant fire brigades. A fairly extensive data base is available
for sprinkler systems indicating a reduced flash­over­probabil­
ity up to two orders of magnitude (evaluated in terms of a
successful or not successful operation of the system (10)).
The data base with regard to the other measures is rather poor
and assessment is basically by extrapolation from the sprinkler
efficiency. Up to a certain extent the simultaneous employment
of various measures can be considered by
Ρ(severe fire fire) = p. · p_ ■ p, ... (6b)

­302­
wherein the various probabilities p, describe the reduced
flash­over­probability on behalf of measure i. However, due to
a certain dependency among the effectiveness of the various
measures, there are some limitations to egu. (6b). In (1 to 4)
numerical values for the different probability terms are sug­
gested based on available data and supplemented by judgement.
As more information becomes available, these figures may be up­
dated.

Concluding, the probability for a severe fire ­ governing

the reliability to be provided by design via equ. (2) ­ can be
assessed by
ρ (severe fire) = ρ · f (A) · p. · p_ · ρ, ... (7)

2.8 Practical Application

Practical application is facilitated by the specification of

(partial) safety factors ¡for the method of assessment and
limit state considered. For convenience, safety factors may be
established for an average level of reliability, i.e. average
safety requirements and average frequency of fire. Adaption to
different levels of reliability can be considered by differen­
tiation factors Τ

tn = r n1 ■ ί η2 (β)
wherein 0 n1 adapts safety factors to levels of reliability
differing from average in view of a safety differentiation and
ţ__ adapts safety factors to levels of reliability
differing from average in view of different fire frequencies.
(As an example: a reduced frequency of two orders of magnitude
­ 10~ 2 ­ results in T n 2 * 0.6.)
The German Standard (Vornorm) DIN 18230 applying to the
assessment of industrial buildings is an example for a prac­
tical application of the safety concept. It uses the equivalent
time of fire exposure (t ) as an improved assessment measure
for fire compartments with regard to the fire resistance time
of the structure to be provided. In this interpretation t is
applied independent of the type of material and construction

­303­
and for all limit states. It results In the simple design rule:
requ. t f = t e · ţ ■ ·ζη
with t = c · w · q­

wherein g. : fire load density in |MJ/m{|

c : conversion factor accounting for the
thermal properties of the fire compartment
enclosure
w : ventilation factor
tf : fire resistance which may be determined by
testing, by analytical evaluation ­ or by
reference to catalogues
Y : safety factor accounting for average
reliability requirements
ţ" : differentiation factor accounting for different
safety classes and active protection measures.

3. EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION

Since steel constructions are rather sensitive to rough

grading criteria, the benefit of a differentiated assessment is
straightforward. However, it has to be clearly stated that at
present it is difficult to pursue such an assessment within the
framework of the existing building codes and regulations in the
majority of countries. An important assessment calls for modi­
fied structural fire safety requirements ­ comparable to re­
quirements with respect to other accidental hazards (earth­
quake, impact).

The most interesting feature of the safety concept is pre­

sumably the possibility for a reduced fire resistance in view
of operational or active measures for fire risk control. Pre­
suming that the need for a certain fire resistance clearly re­
sults from fire safety objectives of public concern, the antic­
ipated trade­off has to be guided by some limitations:
1. The long­term efficiency and reliability of active
protection measures has to be ensured, in principle by
adequate maintenance and inspection of alarm and detecting

­304­
 devices, sprinkler systems and of equipment and force of
private fire brigades.
2. An economic evaluation should consider building and
installation costs including maintenance, inspection and
operation costs throughout the intended service life of the
structure - but also the expected reduction of losses due
to a timely fire control.
3. The possibly increased risk if fire occurs in conjunction
with or as a consequence of other hazards (explosions, war-
fare, earthquake) has to be acknowledged and accepted.
4. Some agreement with the public fire brigades as to the
extent of " their assignment if, nevertheless, a severe fire
occurs, may be necessary.
5. It may be sensible to exclude particular fire barriers
from trade-off (applying an occupancy-independent design
concept).
The other important aspect for steel construction is that
the safety concept - in its limit state formulation - allows
for calculation models as well as experimental models. Thus,
for assessment methods referring to the notion of a fire
resistance time, this property may be determined analytically
(cf. the European Recommendations) or by testing (cf. ISO 834)
- including possible reference to catalogues. By physical and
statistical considerations compatibility between either proce-
dure with regard to the level of structural reliability can
easily be established.

4. REFERENCES

(1) Bub, H. et al., Grundlagen zur Festlegung von Sicher-

heitsanforderungen im baulichen Brandschutz, Beuth Verlag
Berlin-Köln, 1979 (new edition in preparation)

(2) Bub, H., Hosser, D., Kersken-Bradley, M., Schneider, U.

Eine Auslegungssystematik fUr den baulichen Brandschutz,
Braba Heft 4, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1982

-305-
(3) Kersken-Bradley, M. A Safety Concept for Structural
Fire Design, vfdb. Proceedings of the 6th International
Fire Protection Seminar, Karlsruhe, 1982

(4) A Conceptual Approach towards a Probability Based Design

Guide on Structural Fire Safety, CIB W14 Workshop
"Structural Fire Safety", Fire Safety Journal, Elsevier
Sequoia S.A., 1983
(5) Witteveen, J. Trends in Design Methods for Structural
Fire Safety - Session I (1.2)

(6) Pettersson, 0. Requirements of Fire Resistance based

on Actual Fires - Session IV (4.3)
(7) Rackwitz, R., FieBler B. Structural Reliability under
Combined Random Sequences , Comp. & Structures 9, 1978,
pp. 484-494

(8) Wiggs, R. BOMA International Office Building Fire Survey,

Skyscraper Management, 58 (6), 1973

(9) Rutstein, R., Clarke, M. The Probability of Fire in

Different Sectors of Industry, Fire Surveyor (Feb.),
1979, pp. 20-23

(10) Verband der Sachversicherer, Jahresbericht 1979/80,

Abteilung Schadenverhütung und Technik.

-306-
 REPORT ON SESSION III : FUTURE PROSPECTS

Chairman : P. BORCHGRAEVE
Reporter : L. TWILT

From the illustrations given by Mr. Jeanes, it follows that there is an

excellent agreement between experimental data and calculation results
for beams and slabs. Speaker asks whether the computation model also
allows to assess, in an operational way, the instability phenomena, such
as buckling of columns or frame instability. The question is asked,
because the structural instability under fire conditions, for example
influenced by axial restraint, is a matter of discussion in some
European countries at the moment.

D.C. Jeanes
(réf.: response to Mr. Twilt)

The computer model, does not recognize the actual performance of

columns. It only recognizes the effect of columns as far as they
influence the performance of the floor system assembly at the point of
contact. There are certain economic reasons for this limitation. The
requirements to protect the floor sytem assembly are by far dominant.
Columns ineventably are to be covered up for esthetic reasons etc. The
additional efforts to arrive at the required fire resistance are there-
fore - with regard to the situation in the US - not significant.
As far as extrapolating or perhaps extending the used element model con-
tained in the FASBUS programme is concerned, there is however the possi-
bility to use it as a tool for assessing the stability of columns. The
most direct way is the use of the knowledge of the displacement of the
assembly at the place of column location and using that displacement for
a separate analysis to determine instability of the column. If one wants
to look at the column specificly, this can be evaluated in a somewhat
approximate way, using the beam element, applying an axial load to that
element and defining the temperature profile accross the element. It is
noted, however, that the beam element is speciflcly designed to model
beams with gravity loads and assumes laterally fixed conditions. One
could use it then, with that consideration in mind, to analyse stability
over the weak axis.

J. Kruppa, CTICM, France

(réf.: general remark regarding presentation by Dr. Kersken-Bradley)

Speaker stresses the importance of the approach presented by Dr.

Kersken-Bradley. The approach is of vital interest for consulting
offices which are dealing with the whole range of metalic constructions,
since it is much closer to reality than the structural fire safety
concepts commonly used today.

-307-
W. Klingeeh, University of Wuppertal, BDR
(réf.: general remark on practical impact congress)

Speaker refers to the information presented in the course of the

congress which, as he sees it, clearly indicates the significant
progress made during the last years trying to increase the safety levels
and, at the same time, ensuring economic constructions. Speaker would
like to hear whether insurance will accept the new instruments which are
put foreward and asks whether it can therefore be expected to see some
changes in the fire insurance premium.

Mr. Kersken-Bradley, Inst, für Bautechnik, BRD

(réf.: intervention by Prof. Klingsch)

Although not a representative of an insurance company, speaker briefly

comments on the intervention by Prof. Klingsch, by noting that insurance
risk is only to a certain extent made up by the structural risk. If, for
example, from a point of view of structural fire safety a fairly high
factor for sprinklers can be introduced, insurance companies on the
other hand may argue that sprinklers also cause damage, especially to
the contents of a building. So, as far as the insurance of contents is
concerned, the advantage of a sprinkler may not be quite as large as it
is for the structural reliability. However, this only will be a question
of having different factors. The basic approach, in speakers opinion,
should be the same.

J.P. Favre, Gebäudeversicherung des Kantons Bern, Switzerland

(réf.: intervention by Prof. Klingsch)

Speaker is of the opinion that the probabilistic approach, presented by

Dr. Kersken-Bradley is a correct approach and is bound to eventually
being used for the calculation of the premium and the risk. Be points
out however that this opinion does not necessarily hold for the whole
range of insurance, since speakers professional interest is limited to
building insurance, within a monopolitic company. As far as the competi-
tion amongst insurance companies is concerned, it is very difficult to
link directly between the risk certain buildings pose and a consensus
between buildings cathegories. A short term solution, which would allow
to take into account the new approach (with a better assessment of the
risk and thus also of the level of the premium), is therefore, at the
moment, very difficult to envisage. Such a solution will take at least,
say, 10 years. On the other hand, it is noted that in certain kantons in
Switzerland a system of risk assessment is used which is basicly not too
far from the one presented by Dr. Kersken-Bradley. This situation how-
ever is typical for Switzerland and by no means representative for
Europe.

-308-
Unindentifled speaker
(réf.: intervention by Mr. Favre)

Speaker is of the opinion that one has to look at the insurance

companies as suppliers and that therefore their conditions ought to be
discussed step by step. It is important, in this context, to stop the
racism, racism which is often shown when insurance companies are
confronted with steel constructions. A rational method for risk assess-
ment would be of vital importance in such a discussion.

A. Lickes, Offizier Kommandant Feuerwehr Stadt Luxembourg

(réf.: presentation by Dr. Kersken-Bradley)

Speaker regrets that the stand point of the fire brigade is poorly
represented during this conference and advises that, at forth coming
congresses of this type, fire brigade officials are invited to give
their point of view as a speaker.
Further to the probabilistic approach presented by Dr. Kersken-Bradley,
it is noted that, in the opinion of the speaker, this cannot be
accepted. It is not only a question of insurance policy, it covers also
the safety of the people, which is to be guaranteed by the fire brigade.
In speakers opinion emphasis should be on prevention. This means, for
example, that reduction of fire resistance, when a sprinkler or an alarm
system is installated, is not accepted. There should be a certain safety
level with respect to fire resistance, lrrispective of the other applied
fire safety measures, which are to be considered as additional. An
exception to this rule might be the use of fire (smoke) ventilation.
Speaker is prepared to give his point of view in writing and to communi-
cate this to the organizers of this conference.

Mr. Kerken-Bradley, Int. für Bautechnik, BRD

(réf.: intervention by Mr. Lickes)

In response to the remarks by Mr. Lickes, speaker draws the attention to

the following:

- DIN 18230, which provides a probabilistic approach similar to the one

presented this afternoon, is prepared in close cooperation with the
various parties involved, amongst which also the fire brigade.

- Risk analysis has become a common approach now-a-days, the main

feature being that not only the hazard or the maximum possible outcome
is decisive, but also the probability that is associated to this
event. Both aspects are equally relevant.

- Approaches of the kind, presented ealier by the speaker, may Indeed

require a revision of the present fire brigade rules or regulations,
which in some countries require that the fire brigade should go into a
building regardless what the state of the building still is. Trade off
between passive and active fire prevention measures would have, of
course, an Impact on the way of fire fighting in the future.

-309-
J. Roret, Syndicat de la Construction Métallique, France
(réf.: intervention by Mr. Lickes)

The statement is made that, so far, no cases are known in which people
died as a direct result of the collapse of a steel structure in fire.

M. Law, Ove Arup Partnership, UK

(réf.: intervention by Mr. Lickes)

The risk analysis, described by Dr. Kersken-Bradley, is Just a way of

helping to make the best decision we can, e.g. on the way we tackle
safety in buildings, the way we spend our money, and the return we get
for it. The fire brigades themselves do not have unlimited resources.
How do they decide how many firemen they send to the fire, what type of
hoses they need, etc., etc. Anyway, they have to make decisions and they
have to say what is reasonable under given circumstances. And that is
what the approach, described by Dr. Kersken-Bradley intends to be: a way
of trying to measure what we are doing.

J. Kruppa, CTICM, France

(réf.: intervention by Mr. Lickes)

It is stated by the speaker that the aim of a probabilistic analysis is

not to have less safety than we have got so far. On the contrary, we
want to make sure that we have a sufficient and - perhaps - a more
balanced degree of safety.

-310-
CLOSING SESSION

Conference conclusions

-311-
 CONFERENCE CONCLUSIONS.

P. BORCHGRAEVE.
Director, Belge—Luxembourg Steel Information Centre, Brussels
Chairman of the Programme Committee.

Ladies and Gentlemen, It is my duty, as president of

the programme committee for this international conference,
to make a preliminary rapid resume of the proceedings.

I would like first of all to stress that the organisation

and success of such a conference depends on the active
collaboration of a number of organisations and individuals,
who have provided their ability and dynamism, and also
their capacity to take initiatives, their capacity to
understand and listen, their good sense and their capacity
to lead.

The planning, preparation and organisation of this conference

were made possible by the joint efforts of several parties:

l.The Commission of the European Communities,

-via the division in charge of ECSC-Steel technical research,

under the auspices of the General Direction XII "Science,
research and Development":

-via the Scientific and Technical Communication Division

under General Direction XIII "Market of Information and
Innovation";

-via the Luxembourg services charged with the material

organisation of the conference.

2. The European convention for Metallic Construction,

and in particular its Technical Committee No. 3, charged
with the problem of fire safety.

-312-
3. The Steel Information Centres of the countries of
the Community, metallurgical organisations of their countries
authorised to provide information on and to promote the
use of ferrous products.

The similarity of objectives of all these parties and

the complementary nature of their respective vocations
have found their dynamic expression in the Programme
committee.

You will allow me also to thank those responsible for

services in the Commission in Brusselis and Luxembourg
who have been charged with the organisation, and the
people who have assisted them, such as the members of
the Programme Committee in charge of the design and.,
continuityof the programme.

It is also appropriate to thank the experts from the

USA, Sweden and Switzerland for their reports on developments
and knowledge in their own countries.

Our gratitude is also expressed to the various speakers,

to the session Chairmen and to you, Ladies and Gentlemen,
who, by your interest and participation in discussions,
have demonstrated your interest and your acceptance of
the theme of the conference. Finally, our interpreters
have enabled us to break the language barrier and improve
our comprehension.

The objectives of the conference were two-fold:

1) To demonstrate that the present state of knowledge

of the fire behaviour of steel structures is such that
it is possible to offer safety levels quite comparable
with those attainable in more traditional buildings:

-313-
2) to encourage objective progress in the fire safety
of steel structures by the use of models and other methods
of calculation.

I think it may be said that the tone of these two days

was such that they could encourage a better dialogue,
a better mutual understanding and that they will be a
basis for a common approach and positive collaboration
between all parties concerned.

The last lä years have seen a phase certainly indispensible-

of deepening knowledge concerning the phenomna of fire
in relation to steel. You will have appreciated that
we have now reached a new stage which could prove more
decisive.
Three types of observation may be made:

1) First observation:
The information required for the rational design of a
structure from the fire safety aspect cannot be provided
alone by the results of standardised tests on which codes
and regulations are still based.

The analytical prediction of thermal response, structural

behaviour and fire risks becomes even more necessary.
We have seen that the practical evaluation of fire resistance
of steel structures can now be determined by simple calculations
based on well established engineering principles.
This type of more realistic analysis contributes to a
more economical design and thus to a better competitivity
of steel structures and mixed reinforced concrete structures.
Recourse to the computer gives an eminently practical
and useful dimension to the design of fire resistant
steel structures.

In this way, it is possible to determine on site the

likely effects of a fire.

-314-
The designers, preventive organisations and insurers
have therefore now at their disposal -and this must be
stressed- new methods of approach that are dynamic and
viable and provide quite simple solutions to complex
problems

2. Second observation:

Very serious enquiries have been made in the Scandinavian

countries concerning the financial consequences of fires.
I recall that such investigations are not at present
in progress in France or the Netherlands.

The results show that the propagation of fire and the

losses due to fire depend on other things besides the
fire resistance of the supporting structure. A multitude
of different parameters, often in correlation with each
other, have an effect. These include, for example, the
type of activity and type of building, the active safety
measures etc.,... It has been possible to demonstrate
that there is no difference in fire losses between steel
structures and concrete buildings.

It is therefore desirable that insurance companies should

take note of the new information available. The consideration
of fresh criteria, in place of the presumptions previously
used, should give them the means of establishing a tariff
rating that is not discriminatory.

3. Third observation.

The results of the major and continuous efforts made

to study the phenomena, to improve and complete the knowledge
via research, tests and experiments of all kinds, enquiries,
application of developments and innovations- these results,
I say, must be brought to the attention of all the organisations
concerned.

-315-
To be sure, our Steel Information Centres, the National
organisations for metal construction, The European Convention
for metal structures and the ECSC itself, by its considerable
financial support of research and development and to-day
by the organisation of this conference, all these lead
to a dissemination of knowledge by their information
and promotion programmes. Their work is important.
The impact of it is not, however, always proportional
to the investment. It is therefore necessary, in this
context, to recall two major principles:

a) The information should be concise, clear and orderly

and presented in an understandable language. There
is no place for scientific jargon. The reader looks
primarily for a guiding clue, a simple working tool.

b) The information cannot be divorced from technico-economic

aspects, the evident base for choice criteria used by
decision makers and planners.

The steel information centres are directly called to

this specific but important task. In this context,
they plan to prepare jointly, in the case of the Promotion
Committee meeting under the auspices of EUROFER, a small
brochure designed to provide this guiding clue not only
to practical people but also to private and public decision
makers and to investors, often betrayed by siren songs
and smoke screens (without intending any play on w o r d s ) .

The ECSC, in its role as catalyst that M. Tent mentioned

in his introductory address, could usefully bring its
blessing and its power to bear on this project, which
seems to us to be of high priority.

Ladies and Gentlemen, M. Tent mentioned that steel construction

in general(i.e. steel used not only in the structure
but also in secondary operations and finishing) represents
on average about 12.5% of total steel utilisation in
the European Community.

-316-
It is the determination of the steel and construction
industries of our countries to gamble on the future in
regard to the improvement and development of their products
and activities in steel construction.

In the difficult circumstances of which you are aware,

these two industries not only manage their problems but
also project the base of their revival in the case of
a greater satisfaction of the requirements of users.
The fire safety of steel structures plays an important role
in this strategy.

Your participation in this conference has been yery stimulating

to the organisers. When safety of people and property
is involved, the same preoccupation is common to us all.
We hope that this international meeting will have enabled
us to make some progress together in this direction.

-317-
 LIST OF PA R T I C I PA N T S

AARNOUDSE, A. ARNAULT, P.
Staal­ & Betonkonstrukteur Directeur
Dow Chemical Nederland B.V. CTICM
Postbus 48 Station d'essais
NL ­ 4530 AA TERNEUZEN 20, rue Jean Jaurès
F ­ 92807 PUTEA UX
ABBADO, G.
Architetto AUREAU,
INSO S.p.A. P.P. (France)
Via F. Matteucci, 2 c/o CTICM
I ­ 50127 FIRENZE 20, rue Jean Jaurès
F ­ 92807 PUTEAUX
ADAM, L. BAEHRE, R.
Ingénieur Professor
Trade Arbed Belgium S.A . Lehrstuhl für Stahl
74, rue de Trêves und Leichtmetallbau
Β ­ 1040 BRUXELLES Universität Karlsruhe
Kaiserstr. 12
D ­ 7500 KARLSRUHE 1
ADOLPHS, W.
Dipl.­Ing. BARTLE, P.
Thyssen AG Superintending Civil Engineer
Ingenieurabteilung Department of Environment
Kaiser Wilhelm Strasse 100 Room B 146
D ­ 4100 DUISBURG 11 Romney House
GB ­ LONDON SUI
ANCILLOTTI, P. BARTELS, D.
Comandante Vigili del Fuoco Civiel Ingenieur
Via Messina 37 Hoogovens Groep B.V.
I ­ MILANO NB CVT. 2H.13 Postbus 10.000
• NL ­ 1970 CA IJMUIDEN
ANDERBERG, Y. BATS, J.O.
Lund Institute of Technology T.H. Eindhoven
Div. of Building Fire Safety Den Dolech 2
& Technology NL ­ 5612 AZ EINDHOVEN
P.O. Box 725 BAUER, E.M.
S ­ 220 07 LUND Geschäftsführer des
Oesterrei chi sehen Stahlbauverb andes
ANDERSEN, N. Larochegasse 28
Dantest A ­ 1130 WIEN
Amager Boulevard 108 BAUMANN, H.J.
DK ­ 2300 KØBENHAVN S Dipl.­Ing. ΕΤΗ
Meto­Bau A G.
APPLEYARD, R. CH ­ 5303 WUERENLINGEN
Directeur général
Commission des Communautés BECKER, W.
européennes ­ D.G. Marché de Dipl .­Ing./Bauingenieur
l'information et innovation BASF A ktiengesellschaft
200, rue de l a Loi Aweta Brandschutztechnik
B ­ 1049 BRUXELLES D ­ 6700 LUDWIGSHAFEN/RHEIN

­319­
BEHETS, J.F. BICHEL, F.
Conseiller Directeur
Centre belgo­luxembourgeois Constructions Métalliques
d'Information de l'Acier (CBLIA ) Bichei Sari
47, rue Montoyer Zone I n d u s t r i e l l e Bredewé
B ­ 1040 BRUXELLES L ­ 1250 SENNINGERBERG
BIJL, C. L. BIRSCHEIDT, H.
ir. Ingénieur
Staalcentrum Nederland Service d'Incendie
Saturns plein 45 Ministère de l ' I n t é r i e u r
NL ­ ROTTERDA M 62, rue Principale
L ­ 7450 LINTGEN
BELTRAMI, M.
Ingegnere BOCK, H.
Fiat Engineering SpA Assistent der Geschäftsführung
Via Belfiore 23 Greschbach Industrie GmbH & Co
I ­ 10125 TORINO Postfach 43 Ol 80
BENNETTS, I. D ­ 7500 KARLSRUHE 41
Research engineer
BOGAERT, W.
BHP Melbourne
Inspecteur­Generaal
Research Laboratories
P.O. Box 264, Clayton Ministerie van Openbare
Australia ­ VICTORIA 3168, MELBOURNE Werken
Wetstraat 155 (Residence Pal ace)
BERENBAK, J . B ­ 1040 BRUSSEL
C i v i l Eng.
Techn. Univ. Delft BONGARD, W.
Hollandia Kloos N.V. Dr.­Ing. Geschäftsführer
Mariënwaard 37 Deutscher Stahlbau­Verband DSTV
NL ­ 2904 SE CA P. A .D. YSSEL Ebertplatz 1
D ­ 5000 KOELN 1
BERGMANN, V.
Dipl.­Ing. BORCHGRAEVE, P.
Deutscher Stahlbau­Verband DSTV Directeur
Ebertplatz 1 Centre belgo­luxembourgeois
D ­ 5000 KOELN 1 d'Information de l'Acier (CBLIA )
47, rue Montoyer
BERNARD, A. B ­ 1040 BRUXELLES
Ingénieur
BORDIN, Α.
ARB ED
255, route d'Arlon Chef du Bureau d'Etudes
L ­ 1150 LUXEMBOURG C.F.E.M.
6, boulevard Henri S e l l i e r
BERTRAND, J. F ­ 92150 SURESNES
Ingénieur Civil des Constructions
Université de Liège BOUCHART, L.
Institut du génie Civil Chef des travaux
6, quai Banning Paul Wurth S.A .
B ­ 4000 LIEGE 32, rue d'A lsace
L ­ 1122 LUXEMBOURG
BESSON, F.
Ingénieur BOUE', P.
Syndicat de l a Construction Prof. D r . ­ I n g .
Métallique de France Bauing. (Stahlbau)
20, rue Jean­Jaurès L e o ­ T o l s t o i ­ S t r . 19
F ­ 92807 PUTEA UX D ­ 6100 DA RMSTA DT 13

­320­
BOUILLETTE, J.­P. CHIESA, C.
Ingénieur Centro Italiano Sviluppo Impieghi
O.T.U.A. Acciaio ­ CISIA
5 b i s , rue de Madrid Piazza Vel asea 8
F ­ 75008 PA RIS I ­ 20122 MILA NO
BOUVY, I . CLAEYS, R.
D i p l . Ingénieur Burgel i j k Ingenieur
Trade A rbed S.A . R i j k s u n i v e r s i t e i t Gent, Laboratorium
Abteilung technische Beratung ­ DA T S voor A anwending der Brandstoffen
I, av. des Terres Rouges en Warmteoverdracht
L ­ 4330 ESCH­SUR­A LZETTE 4 1 , Sint­Pietersnieuwstraat
Β ­ 9000 GENT
BRAAS, J.
Ingénieur en Chef COLBRIDGE, G.B.
Paul Wurth S.A. Constrado
32, rue d'A lsace NLA Tower, 12 Addiscombe Road
L ­ 1122 LUXEMBOURG GB ­ CROYDON CR9 3JH
CONZEMIUS, J.­P.
BRAGARD, A. Architecte
Ingénieur en Chef ARBED S.A .
Centre de Recherches Métallurgiques Ave de la Liberté
Abbaye du Val Benoît L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG
II, rue Ernest Solvay
Β ­ 4000 LIEGE COOKE, G. M.E.
Chartered Civil Engineer
BRESCIANI, Fire Research Station of the
Secrétariat d'Etat a Building Research Establishment
l'Environnement ­ c/o CTICM Melrose A venue
20, rue Jean Jaurès GB ­ BOREHAMWOOD, Herts.
F ­ 92807 PUTEA UX
CORDA, F.
BREUER, M. Commission des Communautés
Inspecteur européennes, D.G. Science,
Luxcontrol asbl recherche et développement
B.P. 28 200, rue de la Loi
L ­ 1050 DOMMELDA NGE Β ­ 1049 BRUXELLES
CULER, L.
BRYL, S. Ingénieur­Conseil et Président
Geilinger Zentrale Forschung Fire­Control A SBL
und Entwicklung AG 46, av. des V i l l a s
CH ­ 8401 WINTERTHUR Β ­ 1060 BRUXELLES
OAHM, V.
CARPENA, A .
Officier­commandant adj.
Secrétaire général ·
Service d'Incendie de l a
CECM­ECCS­EKS
V i l l e de Luxembourg
326,av. Louise, Bte 52
50, route d'A rlon
Β ­ 1050 BRUXELLES
L ­ 1140 LUXEMBOURG
CAVELIUS, F. DANKERT, H.J.
Ingénieur/CTICM Dipl.­Ing.
Station d'Essais au Feu Deutscher Stahlbau­Verband DSTV
Domaine de l'IRSID Ebertplatz 1
F ­ 57210 MA IZIERES­LES­METZ D ­ 5000 KOELN 1

-321-
DAUBENFELD, J. DOTREPPE, J.C.
Dipl. Ing. Maître de recherches
Ing.­Büro Université de Liège
116, rue Emile Metz Institut du Génie Civil
L ­ 2149 LUXEMBOURG 6, quai Banning
Β ­ 4000 LIEGE
DE MACEDO, J.­F.
Ingénieur DRION, A .^
Β Plus Développement Attaché technique
122, ch. de Sourmiou Service d'Incendie
F ­ 13009 MA RSEILLE 4, rue de la Tannerie
Β ­ 4890 MALMEDY
DE MARTINO, G.
Ingegnere DUFRANE, G.
Nuova Italsider Commission des Communautés
Via Corsica 4 européennes
I ­ 16128 GENOVA Secretar. Comité. Cons. CECA
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
DE VRIES L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG
W.A.C.
Dutch Steel Centre DURAND, Y.
Del kant 7 Ingénieur Civil
NL ­ 5311 GA MEREN Faculté Polytechnique de Mons
9, rue de Houdain
DEBACKER, Ph. Β ­ 7000 MONS
E.Α. Ingenieur
Ministerie van Openbare Werken DUTAILLY, L.
Regie der Gebouwen Commission des Communautés
Wetstraat 155 européennes ­ D.G. Emploi,
Β ­ 1040 BRUSSEL affaires sociales et éducation
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
DEL PLA TO, S. L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG
Architetto
Centro Comune di DUV AL, J.R.
Ricerca delle C E . Responsable des Services Généraux
Divisione Infrastrutture Solmer
Casella Postale 1 F ­ 13776 FOS SUR MER CEDEX
I ­ 21020 ISPRA
ELLER, H.
DESCUDE', M. Dipl.­Ing.
Conseiller Industriel Deutscher Stahlbau­Verb and DSTV
49, rue des Batignolles Ebertplatz 1
F ­ 75017 PA RIS D ­ 5000 KOELN 1
DEWALS, R. ERMAN, E.
Ingenieur Architekt
Acomal N.V. Klaus Schuwirth & Eroi Erman
Hanswijkvaart, 10 Rathenaustr. 12
Β ­ 2800 MECHELEN D ­ 3000 HANNOVER 1
DINNEQUIN, P. ESMEYER, H.
Ingenieur TP Chef de Sécurité
Etablissement Public Commission des Communautés européennes
Pare Villette Direction Générale "Personnel et
211, avenue Jean Jaurès Administration
F ­ 75019 PARIS L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG

­322­
EVANS, P. FRANSSEN, J.M.
Commission des Communautés Ingénieur C i v i l
européennes ­ D.G. Science, Fonds national de
recherche et développement la Recherche Scientifique
200, rue de la Loi 6 , quai Banning
Β ­ 1049 BRUXELLES Β ­ 4000 LIEGE
EVENEPOEL, H. FRUITET, L.
Hoofdingenieur ­ directeur OTUA
Ministerie van Openbare Werken 5bis rue de Madrid
Regie der Gebouwen F ­ 75008 PA RIS
Wetstraat 155
Β ­ 1040 BRUSSEL FUNHOFF, A.
FAVRE, J.P. Beton ­ Staalkonstrukteur
Dipl. Bau.Ing Eth/Sia Bouwer Woningtoezicht Eindhoven
Gebäudeversicherung des Tromplaan 122
Kantons Bern NL ­ 6004 ER WEERT
Viktoriaplatz 25 GALLINA, G.
CH ­ 13000 BERN 25 Postfach Ricercatore
FENTON, R. ICITE CNR
Consulting Engineer Via Lombardia 49
Roughton and Fenton I ­ 20098 S. GIULIANO (MI)
51 Broad Street GAVRAY, J.­P.
UK ­ BRISTOL BSl 2EJ, Avon Ingénieur­architecte
FERRON, J. Architecture & Vie
Commission des Communautés 42, rue des Houblonnières
européennes ­ D.G. Science, Β ­ 4020 LIEGE
recherche et développement GERINGER, U.
200, rue de la Loi Président du Comité
Β ­ 1049 BRUXELLES
Exécutif de la Convention
FIOC, Européenne de la Construction
Ministère de l'Industrie Métallique
c/o CTICM GERINGER STA HLBA U
20, rue Jean Jaurès Postfach 988
F ­ 92807 PUTEAUX Cedex CH ­ 8401 WINTERTHUR
FLAMENT, J . P . GELBMANN, Α.
Chef du service Sous­Trait ance Geschäftsführer
C.F.E.M. SYSTEM­Stahlbau
6, boulevard Henri Sellier Ganglgutstr. 84
F ­ 92150 SURESNES A ­ 4060 TRA UN
FOURNEAU, X. GELUK, J.J.
Journaliste Civiel Ingenieur
Confédération nationale NACO B.V., Netherlands
de la Construction Airport Consultants
34­42, rue du Lombard Jan Van Nassaustraat 115
Β ­ 1000 BRUXELLES NL ­ 2596 BS DEN HA A G
FRANCK, N. GIBB, J.M.
Directeur A djoint Commission des Communautés
Association des Compagnies européennes ­ D.G. Marché
d'Assurances de l'information et innovation
14, rue des Foyers Bâtiment Jean Monnet
L ­ 1537 LUXEMBOURG L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG

­323­
GIODINGS, T.W. HASS, R.
Engineer ­ Akad. Rat
British Steel Corporation TU Braunschweig ­ Institut für
Tubes Division Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz
Technical Centre Beethovenstr. 52
GB ­ CORBY, Northants NN7 IUA D ­ 3300 BRA UNSCHWEIG

GLADISCHEFSKI, H. HELDENSTEIN, J.
Dipl.­Ing. Ing. Conseil, Expert
Beratungsstelle für Bureau d'Etudes Heldenstein
Stahlverwendung 3, rue du Fort Reinsheim
Kasernenstr. 36 L ­ 2419 LUXEMBOURG
D ­ 4000 DUESSELDORF 1
HEVERS, H.
GLESENER, J. Directeur
Ingénieur dipi Evers Staalconstr. Hillegom B.V.
Schroeder & Associés Horst ten Daal laan 5
Ingénieurs­conseils NL ­ 2181 GP HILLEGOM
8, rue des Girondins
L ­ 1626 LUXEMBOURG HILZENSAUER, V.
Chemiker
GOLAY, A. Isovolta
Executive Director Osterr. Isolierstoffwerke
International A ssociation for No rd land str. 1
Bridge and Structural Engineering A ­ 3300 A MSTETTEN
ΕΤΗ ­ Hönggerberg
CH ­ 8093 ZUERICH HOENIG, 0.
Dr.­Ing.
GOSSELIN, J. Beratender Ing. für
Secrétaire général Wärme­Energietechnik
Centre belgo­luxembourgeois Höhenblick 24
d'Information de l'A cier D ­ 3300 BRA UNSCHWEIG
47, rue Montoyer
B ­ 1040 BRUXELLES HOFFEND, F.
Dipl.­Ing.
GRIMAULT, J.P. TU Braunschweig ­ Institut für
Ingénieur Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz
COMETUBE Beethovenstr. 52
5, rue Maurice Ravel D ­ 3300 BRA UNSCHWEIG
F ­ 92300 LEVA LLOIS
HOFMANN, A.
GRUMBACH, M. Ingénieur
Ingénieur Centre Commun de Recherche
IRSID des Communautés européennes
185, rue Président Roosevelt Casella Postale 1
F ­ 78105 ST­GERMAIN­EN­LAYE CEDEX I ­ 21020 ISPRA (Va)

HAMMER, H. HOKARI, M.
Dipl.­Ing. Structual engineer
Verband der Sachversicherer e.V. Nippon Steel Corporation
Ri eh 1er Str. 36 6­3 Otemachi 2­Chome Chiyoda­ku
D ­ 5000 KOELN 1 Japan ­ TOKYO 100

­324­
HOLENWEG, H.R. JANSS, J.
Dipl .­Ing. ΕΤΗ Ingénieur
Beratender Ingenieur C.R.I.F.
Wettsteinstrasse 75 6, quai Banning
CH ­ 8332 RUSSIKON B ­ 4000 LIEGE
HOLLERICH, J. JERABEK, H.
Ingénieur Techn. Angestellter, Dipl.­Ing.
Bâtiments publics Voest­Alpine Hebag
28, rue Jean l'A veugle Oberiaaerstrasse 294
L ­ LUXEMBOURG A ­ 1232 WIEN
JOHNSON, K.
HOMMEL, C.
Research Investigator
Sous­chef de service
Arbed S.A . British Steel
Division de Differdange Swinden Laboratories
L ­ DIFFERDA NGE Moorgate
GB ­ ROTHERHA M,· South Yorks
HONGISTO, R.T.
JONES, T.
Product Manager
Partek Finland Commission des Communautés
SF ­ 08680 MUIJA LA européennes ­ D.G. Marché
de l'information et innovation
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
HOURLAY, P.
L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG
Ingénieur
Ministère de l ' I n t é r i e u r
9 , quai de l a Batte
JUNCKER, J.P.
B ­ 4000 LIEGE Chef de service adjoint
Arbed S.A .
HUBER, R. Division de Differdange
Responsable Se.Promotion L ­ DIFFERDANGE
Sacilor KAN ERVA , J .
Cedex 34 Assistant Manager
F ­ 92072 PARIS LA DEFENSE Rautaruukki Oy
P.O. Box 217
HULPIAUX, W. SF ­ 90101 OULU
Verzekeringsfirma
Gerling­Konzern Belgie N.V. KERSKEN­BRADLEY, M.
270­272, Tervurenlaan, bus 19 Dr.­Ing.
B ­ 1150 BRUSSEL I n s t i t u t für Bautechnik
Reichpietschufer 72­76
HUNDT, W. D ­ 1000 BERLIN 30
Dipl .­Ing.
Klöckner­Werke AG KLINGSCH, W.
Mannstaedt­Werke Bergische Universität Wuppertal
Louis­Mannstaedt­Str. 76 Pauluskirchstr. 7
D ­ 5210 TROISDORF D ­ 5600 WUPPERTAL 2
INHA, T. KNEIPE, L.
M.Sc. O f f i c i e r Sapeur­Pompiers
Tampere University Service d'Incendie
of Technology Agglomération de Bruxelles
P.O. Box 527 1 1 , ave de 1'Héliport
SF ­ 33101 TAMPERE B ­ 1000 BRUXELLES

­325­
 LEHMANN, R.
KRAUSE, R. Dipl.­Ing.
Dr.­Ing.'/Abteilungslelt Forschungs­ und
G + H Montage Materialprüfungsanstalt
Westendstr. 17 Baden­Württemberg
D ­ 6700 LU/HAFEN Otto­Graf­Institut
KRUPPA, J. Pfaffenwal dring 4
Centre Technique Industrial de la D ­ 7000 STUTTGA RT 80
Construction Métallique
20, rue Jean Jaurès LEJEUNE, S.
F ­ 92807 PUTEAUX CEDEX Directeur
KUHN, H. Université Libre de Bruxelles
Dipl. Baving. Eth 50, av. F.D. Roosevelt, Bte 182
Vereinigung Β ­ 1050 BRUXELLES
Kantonaler Feuerversicherungen
Bundesgasse 20 LICKESj J.P.
CH ­ 3001 BERN Ingénieur technicien
LACHER, G. Arbed Recherches
Prof. Dr.­Ing. 66, rue de Luxembourg
Universität Hannover L ­ 4002 ESCH­SUR­A LZETTE
Institut für Stahlbau LICKES, A.
Callinstr. 32 Offi zi er­Kommand ant
D ­ 3000 HANNOVER 1 Feuerwehr Stadt Luxemburg
LAFFINEUR, R. Arlonerstrasse 52
Conseiller L ­ 1140 LUXEMBURG
NEUF ­ Périodique Bimestriel
d'Architecture LINSTER, R.
84A, rue du Merlo, bte 1 Commission des Communautés
Β ­ 1180 BRUXELLES européennes ­ D.G. Personnel
LATHAM, D.J. et A dministration
Principal Investigator Β Ρ 1907
British Steel Corporation L ­ 2 9 2 0 LUXEMBOURG
Sheffield Laboratories
Swinden House MAEKELAEINEN, P.
GB ­ Moorgate, ROTHERHAM S60 3AR Dr. Techn.
The A cademy of Finland c/o
LAW, M. Helsinki University of Technology
Technical Director Rakentajanaukio 4
Ove Arup Partnership SF ­ 02150 ESPOO 15
13 Fitzroy street
GB ­ LONDON WIP 6BQ MAEKELBERG, S.
Ingénieur Civil
LEFEVRE, P. Ministère de l'Intérieur
Directeur général Ponts & Chaussées 1 , Leuvense weg
Ministère des Travaux Publics Β ­ 1000 BRUSSEL
Résidence Palace
155, rue de la Loi
Β ­ 1040 BRUXELLES MAUER, G.
LEGROS, M.
Ingénieur dipi.
Oficier pompier
Schroeder & Associés
Service Régional d'Incendie
Ingénieurs­conseiIs
77, rue de Homvent
8, rue des Girondins
Β ­ 4500 LIEGE (Jupille)
L ­ 1626 LUXEMBOURG

­326­
MELCHIORRE, Α. NIEMIMAA, R.
Ingegnere Dipl.­Ing.
CISIA ­ Centro Italiano Ins.tsto Reino Niemimaa
Sviluppo Impieghi A cciaio Mustikkatie 15
Piazza Vel asea 8 SF ­ 03100 NUMMELA
I ­ 20122 MILANO
MERCEREAU, C. OOMS, A.
Assemblée Pieni ère des Directeur
Sociétés d'Assurances I.R.D. Constructiewerkplaats en
11, rue Pillet­Will Machinefabriek Bailey Ν.V.
F ­ 75009 PA RIS Lekdijk 266 a
NL ­ 2957 ZG NIEUW LEKKERLA ND
MESKENS, J.
Architekt­Professor ØSTBY, Α.
Hoger St. Lukasinstituut
Paleizenstraat 70 Overingeniør
Β ­ 1030 BRUSSEL Statens brannninspeksjon
Postboks 498 Sentrum
MOECHER, P. Ν ­ OSLO 1
Ingénieur technicien
Bureau d'Etudes PASSEROTTI, C.
Secotechnique Progettista
2, rue des Sapins ITALIMPIANTI
L ­ 2513 SENNINGERBERG Div. Impianti Industrie Leggere
Viale Liegi 33
MOSER, K.M. I ­ 00198 ROMA
Geschäftsführer
Brandverhütungsstelle für Oö
Staatlich autor. Prüfanstalt
PECHÓN, P.
Petzoldstrasse 45
Président du CIDECT
A ­ 4020 LINZ
Comité Intern, pour le Develop, et
MOTTA, Α. l'Etude de la Construction Tubulaire
5, rue Maurice Ravel
Ricercatore F ­ 92300 LEVA LLOIS­PERRET
CNR ­ ICITE
Via Lombardia 49
I ­ 20098 S. GIULIANO MILA NESE POUPLOT,
Ministère de l'Urbanisme et
MOUTY, J. du Logement ­ c/o CTICM
Directeur Technique 20, rue Jean Jaurès
Cometube F ­ 92807 PUTEAUX
5, rue Maurice Ravel
F ­ 92300 LEVA LLOIS PRADER, H.
Ing. Geschäftsführer
MULLER, Tiroler Landesstelle für
Commandant Brandverhütung
BSP (France) Wilhelm­Greil­Strasse 12/11
c/o CTICM A ­ 6020 INNSBRUCK (A )
20, rue Jean Jaurès
F ­ 92807 PUTEA UX
PRUEFER, H.
NERAD, L. Commission des Communautés
Stahlbauingenieur européennes ­ D.G. Science,
VOEST­ALPINE AG recherche et développement
Floragasse 7 200, rue de la Loi
A ­ 1040 WIEN B ­ 1049 BRUXELLES

­327­
QUAST, U. RORET, J.
Professor ' Premier Vice Président
Technische Universität Braunschweig Syndicat de la Construction
Beethovenstr. 52 Métallique de France
D ­ 3300 BRA UNSCHWEIG 20, rue Jean­Jaurès
F ­ 92807 PUTEAUX
RAHIER, J. ROTONDO', P.P.
Ingénieur Commission des Communautés
Service Régional d'Incendie
européennes ­ D.G. Marché de
56, rue Laiwisse
l'Information et Innovation
Β ­ 4571 St A NDRE
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG
RAUTAKORPI, E.
Dipl.­Ing. ROUX,
Insinööritoimlsto Te­Em Oy
Kauppakatu 7A 12
Comité Européen des Assurances
SF ­ 33200 TA MPERE
11, rue Pillet­Will
F ­ 75009 PARIS
REMACLE, Η. RUBERT, A.
Ing. PPL CH SV Dr.­Ing.
Institut National Fored. Krupp GmbH
du Logement Krupp Forschungsinstitut
10, Boulevard St Lazare Münchener Str. 100
Β ­ 1030 BRUXELES D ­ 4300 ESSEN

REUTER, C. RUTISHAUSER, E.
Ingénieur principal Architekt HTL
Arbed S.A. Gebäudeversicherung Kt. Zürich
Division de Differdange Abteilung Feuerpolizei
L ­ DIFFERDANGE Kurvenstr. 31
CH ­ 8090 ZUERICH
RINDORF, K.
SAARIKOSKI, H.
Civil engineer
Civil engineer
Odense Teknikum
Niels Bohrs Alle 1 Finnish Centre for Radiation
DK ­ 5230 ODENSE M and Nuclear Safety
PL 268
SF ­ 00101 HELSINKI 10
ROBINSON, J.
Macket Development Manager SANDBERG, P.
British Steel Corporation
Managing Director
B.S.C. Section
The Finnish Constructional
P.O. Box 24, Steel House
Steelwork A ssociation
GB ­ REDCAR, Cleveland TS10 5QW
P.L. 623
ROBUSTELLI, L. SF ­ 00101 HELSINKI 10
Ingenieur SANDMAN, T.
SETIEM Civil Engineer
44, rue de Cronstadt Swedish Institute of
F ­ 75015 PA RIS Steel Construction
Drottning Kristinas Väg 48
RONDAL, J. S ­ 11428 STOCKHOLM
Chargé de cours
Université de Liège SBARRA, J.
Institut du Génie Civil Chef de service adjoint
6, quai Banning Arbed S.A.
Β ­ 4000 LIEGE Division de Differdange
L ­ DIFFERDANGE

­328­
 SIPONEN, 0.
SCHECH, H. Dipl.­Ing.
Architekt BdB Insinööritoimisto
Thyssen Edelstahlwerke AG Ossi Siponen Ky
Bereich Neubau Köydenpunojankatu 10B
Oberschlesienstrasse 16 SF ­ 00180 HELSINKI 18
D ­ 4150 KREFELD
SMITH, C.I.
SCHEIDWEILER, G.­ Fire Engineering Consultant
Inspecteur Ian Smith (Consultancy) LTD
Ministère de l'Intérieur Cleveland House,
Service d'incendie 34 Borouhbridge Road
4, rue Kleischter GB ­ NORTHALLERTON,
L ­ 8078 BERTRA NGE North Yorkshire DL7 8BE
SCHLEICH, J.B. SMITHER,
Ingénieur diplômé Government Scientist
Biotechnology Unit­ Laboratory
Arbed Recherches of the Government
66, rue de Luxembourg Cornwall House, Stamford Street
L ­ 4002 ESCH­SUR­A LZETTE UK ­ LONDON SEI 9NQ
SCHORDERET, E. STEFFENS, J.G.
Dipl.­Ing. Eth Chef du Service Incendie
Zschokke ­ Hartmann AG Service d'Incendie Malmedy
CH ­ 5200 BRUGG 31, place A lbert I
Β ­ 4890 MALMEDY
SCHROEDER, P. STEFFENS, J.A.
Ing. dipi. ­ Directeur technique Directeur ­ Gérant
Schroeder & Associés S.A. Travhydro
Ingénieurs­conseils Division Socotube
8, rue des Girondins 9, av. du Progrès
L ­ 1626 LUXEMBOURG Β ­ 4430 ALLEUR (A ns)
SCHUWIRTH, K. STRIER, 0.
Architekt Geschäftsführer
Architekten Schuwirth & Erman Ott Mo 11 er GmbH
Rathenaustrasse 12 Dornbacherstrasse 115/6
D ­ 3000 HANNOVER 1 A ­ 1170 WIEN
TANNINEN, T.
SERPILLO, D. Civil Engineer
Ingegnere The Finnish Construction
Nuova Italsider S.p.A . Steel Work A ssociation
Via Corsica, 4 P.O. Box 623
I ­ 16128 GENOVA SF ­ 00101 HELSINKI 10
SIMON, N. TASIC, S.
Assurances "Le Foyer" Dipl. Ing.
6, rue A. Borchette Institut za metalne konstrukcije
L ­ LUXEMBOURG Mencingerjeva 7
YU ­ LJUBLJA NA
SIOKOLA, W. TENT, H.
Univ.­Assistent Commission des Communautés
Universität Wien européennes ­ D.G. Science,
Inst, für Stahlbau recherche et développement
Karlsplatz 13 200, rue de la Loi
A ­ 1040 WIEN Β ­ 1049 BRUXELLES

­329­
TEPHANY, H. VAN DEN EYNDE, G.
Ministère de l'Intérieur et de la Verzekeringsfirma
Décentralisation / Direction de Gerling­Konzern België Ν.V.
la Sécurité Civile 270­272, Tervurenlaan, bus 19
20, rue Jean Jaurès B ­ 1150 BRUSSEL
F ­ 92807 PUTEA UX VERKEYN, A .
Inspecteur­Generaal van
THOR, J . Bruggen en Wegen
Stal byggnadsinstitutet Min. Openbare Werken
Drottning Kristinas väg 48 Vossenlaan 28
S ­ 11428 STOCKHOLM B ­ 1980 TERVUREN

TINCANI, M. VERWAAL, J.
Capo Pompieri Bouwkundige
CCR ­ ISPRA PUEM N.V.
Via E. Fermi, 54 Postbus 110
I ­ 21020 ISPRA (VA RESE) NL ­ 3500 AC UTRECHT
VIGNOLI, G.
TODINI, G. Ingegnere
Commission des Communautés TENSOTECI SrL
européennes ­ O.G. Emploi, Via Volta 16
affaires sociales et éducation I ­ 20093 C0L0GN0 MONZESE MILA NO
Bâtiment Jean Monnet
L ­ 2920 LUXEMBOURG VISEU, J.
Ingénieur civil, Directeur
TOURNAYE, J. Siderurgia Nacional E.P.
Ingénieur Rua Braamcamp, 7
Baudin­Chateauneuf Ρ ­ 1297 LISBOA Codex
B.P. 19 WAESPE, W.
F ­ 45110 CHA TEA UNEUF/Loire Architekt
BVD­Brand­Verhütungs ­ Dienst
Nüschelerstr. 45
TOVAR DE LEMOS, A.
Professor CH ­ 8001 ZUERICH
Istituto Superior Técnico
CMEST WAHL, L.
CTICM
Av. Rovisco Pais 20, rue Jean Jaurès
Ρ ­ 1096 LISBOA Cedex F ­ 92310 PUTEA UX

TWILT, L. WALKER, H.B.

IBBC­TNO Constrado
Postbus 49 Addiscombe Road 12
NL ­ 2600 A A DELFT GB ­ CROYDON CR9 3JH

VALLERA. WALLIN, L.
Ingénieur­Conseil Swedish Institute of
52­54, rue du Docteur Blanche Steel Construction
Drottning Kristinas väg 48
F ­ 75016 PA RIS S ­ 114 28 STOCKHOLM
VAN BOCXLA ER, L. WARDEN 1ER, J.
Reporter Sen. Leet.
Weekblad "Het Bouwbedrijf" Delft Univ. of Technology
Lombardstraat 34­42 Stevinweg 1
B ­ 1000 BRUSSEL NL ­ 2628 CN DELFT

­330­
WEBER, F·.
Technicien
Lobjois & Weber S.A .
Bureau de Constructions Métalliques
Passage de Montriond 4
CH ­ 1006 LA USA NNE
WEBER, L.
Ingénieur diplomé
Trade ARBED
L ­ OUDELANGE
WISNIESWSKY, G.K.
Geschäftsführer
Studiengesellschaft für
Anwendungstechnik von
Eisen und Stahl E.V.
Kasernenstrasse 36
0 ­ 4000 DUESSELDORF
WITTE, H.
Dr.­Ing.
Instruct­Ingenieur ­ GmbH
Liebenaustr. IIA
D ­ 6200 WIESBADEN
WITTEVEEN, J.
Professor
TNO Institut für Baumaterialien
und Stahlkonstruktion
Postbus 49
NL ­ DELFT
WUERKER, K.G.
Dipl.­Ing.
Mannesmann Röhrenwerke
Postfach 1104
D ­ 4000 DUESSELDORF 1
WUPPERMANN, G.T.
Dr.­Ing.
Theodor Wuppermann GmbH
Friedrichstr. 38
D ­ 5090 LEVERKUSEN 1
WYSS, U.
Dipl.­Ing.
Schweizerische Zentralstelle
für Stahlbau
Seefeldstr. 25
CH ­ 8034 ZUERICH
ZUCKA, J.
Conseiller
Centre bel go­luxembourgeois
d'Information de l'A cier
47, rue Montoyer
Β ­ 1040 BRUXELLES

­331­
European Communities — Commission

EUR 10116 — Fire­safe steel construction: practical design

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

1985 — V, 331 pp., 163 fig., 16 tab., 24 ph. — 16.2 χ 22.9 cm

Technical steel research series

DE, EN, FR

ISBN 92­825­5718­9

Catalogue number: CD­NC­85­082­EN­C

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg:

ECU 26.58 BFR 1200 IRL 19.10 UKL 15.20 USD 21

Over the last few years, considerable progress has been achieved in the development of
design methods for the study of the fire safety of buildings.

This rational or analytical approach (fire engineering) now provides a more and more oper­
ational means for assessing the behaviour of steel structures exposed to fire.

These favourable developments have their basis in a large number of international research
projects to which cooperation at a European level has made considerable contribution.

The Conference provided information on the methods and recommendations which en­
able a practical and reliable approach to be made to the design and construction of the buil­
dings with fire­resistant steel structures and to the search for solutions which can meet
economic, architectural and safety requirements.

It was mainly of interest to architects, engineers, construction and consultant, legislative

bodies, firemen, insurance underwriters and investors.
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