PTRT 2470: Petroleum Data Management III

Facilities

Chapter 5:
Gas Processing
Gas Dehydrator
Gas Compressor
Sweetening
LNG
Gas Dehydration and Processing
Dehydration by Adsorption
Dehydration by Absorption
Removal of acid gases
 Natural Gas
Natural gas is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, with a minor amount of
inorganic compounds. It is an essential resource. It is invisible and odorless.
Natural gas, as it exists underground, is not exactly the same as the natural gas
that comes through the pipelines to our homes and businesses. Natural gas, as
we use it, is almost entirely methane. However, when we find natural gas
underground, it comes associated with a variety of other trace compounds and
gases, as well as oil and water, which must be removed. Natural gas transported
through pipelines must meet purity specifications to be allowed in, so most
natural gas processing occurs near the well.
 The base of natural gas is methane (CH4), the simplest hydrocarbon (organic compound
consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms). Normally, it also includes heavier
hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), and some non-
hydrocarbon admixtures.
 Natural gas can exist in the form of gas fields in formations of some rocks, as gas caps
(above crude oil), and in dissolved or crystalline forms.
 Typical unpleasant smell is added to natural gas deliberately and is called “odorization”.
Sulfur compounds are usually used as odorants, i.e. substances with unpleasant smells.
Gas leaks can be easily identified exactly due to the odorization.
 The heating value of natural gas usually varies from 700 Btu/scf to 1,600 Btu/scf
Natural Gas Classification
Classification by Formation Location
The natural gases can be classified as conventional natural gas, gas in tight sands,
gas in tight shales, coal-bed methane, gas in geopressured reservoirs, and gas in
gas hydrates.
Conventional natural gas is associated or nonassociated gas or condensates

Gases in tight sands are found in many areas that contain formations generally
having permeability of 0.001 to 1 millidarcy (md). The largest portion of the gas
resource is found in the Green River Basin of Wyoming, the Piceance Basin of
Colorado, and the Unita Basin of Utah
Gases in tight shales are found in the eastern United States (Kentucky, Ohio,
Virginia, and West Virginia). Of these, eastern Kentucky and western West
Virginia are considered the most important.

Coal-bed methane is the methane gas in minable coal beds with depths less
than 3,000 ft. Although the estimated size of the resource base seems
significant, the recovery of this type of gas may be limited owing to practical
constraints
Geopressured reservoirs are found in many parts of the world – trapped fluid
under clays the pressure and temperature of which exceed those normally
anticipated at reservoir. located predominantly both onshore and offshore in a
band along the Gulf of Mexico; In length, the band extends from Florida to Texas;
in width, it extends from about 100 miles inland to the edge of the continental
shelf
Gas hydrates, discovered in 1810, are snow-like solids in which each water
molecule forms hydrogen bonds with the four nearest water molecules to
build a crystalline lattice structure that traps gas molecules in its cavities. Gas
hydrate is a highly concentrated form of natural gas

Classification by Content
The natural gas is characterized in several ways dependent on the content of these
components:
• Wet gas is raw gas with a methane content of less than 85%
• Dry gas is raw or treated natural gas that contains less than 15 liters of
condensate per 1000 sm3. (0.1 gallon per 1000 scf).
• Sour gas is raw gas with a content of more than 5.7 mg hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
per scm (0.25 grains per 100 scf), this is about 4 ppm.
• Acid gas has a high content of acidic gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or H2S.
Pipeline natural gas specification is typically less than 2% CO2. Acid gas fields
with up to 90% CO2 exist, but the normal range for sour raw gas is 20-40%.
• Condensates are a mixture of hydrocarbons and other components. These are
normally gaseous from the well but condense out as liquid during the
production process. This is a refinery and petrochemical feedstock. Raw gas is
processed into various products or fractions: Natural Gas in its marketable
form has been processed for a specific composition of hydrocarbons, sour and
acid components etc. and energy content. Content is typically 90% methane,
with 10% other light alkanes.
 Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) is a processed purified product consisting of
ethane, propane, butane or some higher alkanes separately, or in a blend. It is
primarily a raw material for petrochemical industry. Natural gas, as sold to the
consumer, is mainly methane. Gas wells (and the gas on top of oil wells)
contain 5% to 20% of gases and 'gasified liquids' that are not methane. These
'other' hydrocarbons in the natural gas (methane) stream (called NGL) are
either-
(1) gaseous hydrocarbons that can be relatively easily turned into a liquid
with application of moderate pressure or freezing , or
(2) liquid at normal temperatures and pressures (known as natural gas
condensate, or 'natural gasoline')
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) refers to propane or butane or a mixture of
these that has been compressed to liquid at room temperature (200 to 900
kPa depending on composition). LPG is filled in bottles for consumer domestic
use as fuel, and is also used as aerosol propellant (in spray cans) and
refrigerant (e.g. in air conditioners). Energy to volume ratio is 74% of gasoline.
 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is natural gas that is refrigerated and liquefied at
below -162 °C, for storage and transport. It is stored at close to atmospheric
pressure, typically less than 125 kPa. As a liquid, LNG takes up 1/600 of the
volume of the gas at room temperature. Energy to volume ratio is 66% of
gasoline. After transport and storage it is reheated/vaporized and compressed
for pipeline transport.
 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is natural gas that is compressed at 2-2,2 MPa
to less than 1% of volume at atmospheric pressure. Unlike higher alkanes,
methane cannot be kept liquid by high pressure at normal ambient
temperatures because of a low critical temperature. CNG is used as a less
costly alternative to LNG for lower capacity and medium distance transport.
Methane for vehicle fuel is also stored as CNG. Energy to volume ratio is
typically 25% of gasoline.
Sales gas specifications
The exact sales gas specification is specified by pipeline operators and
distributors. Typical standard sales gas requirements are for the following
parameters:
 Volume is measured in standard cubic meters (scm) defined as 1 m3 at 0ºC
and 101.325 kPa or standard cubic feet (scf) as 1 ft3 at 60 °F and 14.73 psia
 Calorific value specifies the total amount of energy per unit generated during
combustion of the gas. The value is used to calculate the amount of energy
delivered. Several values are listed:
⁻ Gross calorific value or gross heat of combustion: is the heat released
when a specific quantity of fuel in mixture with air is ignited and the end
products have returned to the initial temperature, normally 25ºC. EU
specifications are typically 38.8 MJ (10.8 kWh) ±5% per scm. In the US
1030 BTU ±5% per scf.
⁻ Net calorific value or net heat of combustion: is the net heat generated
when the water vapor in the gas does not condense (water forms during
combustion) and can be 10% lower.
 Wobbe index measures the heating effect that a burner is exposed to during
combustion. A higher value means a greater thermal load on the burner.
Different gases with the same Wobbe index will impose the same load on the
burner. An excessively high value is a safety hazard as it can lead to burner
overheating and to excess production of carbon monoxide during combustion.
Calorific value and Wobbe index can be adjusted by blending gas from different
sources as well as by addition or removal of nitrogen (N2)
 Methane Number is a value similar to octane value for gasoline, and is
important when the gas is used for internal combustion engines (as CNG).
 Hydrogen Sulfide and Overall Sulfur Content both hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and
total sulfur must be reduced. H2S is toxic as well as corrosive for the pipeline as
it forms sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and should be kept as low as possible. Typical
maximum values are 5 mg per scm. of H2S and total sulfur at 10 mg per scm.
 Mercury should be kept below 0.001 ppb (parts-per-billion) which is its
detectable limit. The goal is to limit emissions and to prevent damage to
equipment and pipelines by mercury amalgamation which would make
aluminum and other metals brittle.
 Dew point is a temperature below which some of the hydrocarbons in the gas
might condense at pipeline pressure, forming liquid slugs which could damage
the pipeline. The gas must also be clear of all water vapor to prevent the
formation of methane hydrates within the gas processing plant or within the
sales gas transmission pipeline.
 Particles and other substances: must be free of particulate solids and all liquids
to prevent erosion, corrosion or other damage to the pipeline and satisfy limits
on carbon dioxide, nitrogen, mercaptans etc.
 Additives: when the natural gas is intended for domestic use,
Tetrahydrothiophene (THT) is added so that the otherwise odorless natural gas
can be detected in the event of a gas leak. The sulfurous smelling substance
added is equal to a sulfur content of 4-7 mg per scm.
Calorific Value of Natural Gas
1 standard cubic feet (scf) of natural gas generates 700 Btu to 1,600 Btu of
heat, depending upon gas composition.

Power generated = efficiency x power produced PG  Pp

. Pp
PG
Gas flow rate (scf/h) q  H = heating value (Btu/scf)
H H
Example Problem 1
Natural gas from the Schleicher County, Texas, Straw Reef has a heating value of
1,598 Btu/scf. If this gas is combusted to generate power of 1,000 kW, what is the
required gas flow rate in Mscf/day? Assume that the overall efficiency is 50
percent (1 kW= 1,903 Btu/h)
. 24 PG
Gas flow rate (scf/d) q
H
. (1903)(1000)(24)
q  57.16Mscf / day
0.5(1598)
Class Exercise
1. Natural gas from the Morgan County, Colorado, D-Sand, has a heating value
of 1,228 Btu/scf. If this gas is combusted to drive a gas turbine for a gas
compressor of 1,000 hp, what is the required gas flow rate in MMscf/day?
Assume that the overall efficiency is 30% (1 hp = 2,544 Btu/h).
2. Natural gas from the William County, North Dakota, Red River formation, has
a heating value of 1,032 Btu/scf. If this gas is used to generate electricity at a
rate of 1 MMscf/day, how many watts of electricity would the generator
produce if the overall efficiency is 50% (1 hp = 746 W)?

3. Natural gas with a heating value of 1,400 Btu/scf is used to generate 2000 kW
of electricity at a rate of 0.292 MMscf/day. What is the overall efficiency?
(1 kW = 3412 Btu/h)?
 Natural Gas Dehydration
The term dehydration means removal of water vapor. All natural gas
downstream from the separators still contains water vapor to some degree.
Water vapor is probably the most common undesirable impurity found in
untreated natural gas. The main reason for removing water vapor from natural
gas is that water vapor becomes liquid water under low temperature and/or
high-pressure conditions. Specifically, water content can affect long-distance
transmission of natural gas due to the following facts:
• Liquid water and natural gas can form hydrates that may plug the pipeline
and other equipment.
• Natural gas containing CO2 and/or H2S is corrosive when liquid water is
present.
• Liquid water in a natural gas pipeline potentially causes slugging flow
conditions resulting in lower flow efficiency of the pipeline.
• Water content decreases the heating value of natural gas being transported.
 Dehydration Systems
Dehydration systems used in the natural gas industry fall into four categories
in principle:
(a) direct cooling
(b) compression followed by cooling
(c) adsorption
(d) absorption

Dehydration in the first two methods does not result in sufficiently low water
contents to permit injection into a pipeline. Further dehydration by
absorption or adsorption is often required.
 Natural Gas Water Content
Water vapor content of natural gas can
be determined from tables and chart
at any temperature and pressure
Example 1
Estimate water content of a natural
gas at a pressure of 3,000 psia and
temperature of 150 F.
From Table 8.1 at 3000 psia:
140 (x1) 150 (x) 160 (x2)
85 (y1) y 130 (y2)

(150  140)(130  85)

y  85 
(160  140)
y = 107 lbm/MMcf
Dehydration by Cooling
The ability of natural gas to contain water vapor decreases as the temperature
is lowered at constant pressure. During the cooling process, the excess water in
the vapor state becomes liquid and is removed from the system.
Gas compressors can be used partially as dehydrators. Because the saturation
water content of gases decreases at higher pressure, some water is condensed
and removed from gas at compressor stations by the compressor discharge
coolers.

Dehydration by Adsorption
Adsorption is defined as the ability of a substance to hold gases or liquids on its
surface. In adsorption dehydration, the water vapor from the gas is
concentrated and held at the surface of the solid desiccant by forces caused by
residual valiancy. Solid desiccants have very large surface areas per unit weight
to take advantage of these surface forces. The most common solid adsorbents
used today are silica, alumina, and certain silicates known as molecular sieves.
Dehydration plants can remove practically all water from natural gas using solid
desiccants. Because of their great drying ability, solid desiccants are employed
where higher efficiencies are required.
Under normal operating
conditions, the usable life of a
desiccant ranges from one to
four years. Solid desiccants
become less effective in normal
use due to loss of effective
surface area as they age.
Abnormally fast degradation
occurs through blockage of the
small pores and capillary
openings from lubricating oils,
amines, glycols, corrosion
inhibitors, and other
contaminants, which cannot be
removed during the regeneration
cycle. Hydrogen sulfide can also
damage the desiccant and
reduce its capacity.
Advantages of solid-desiccant dehydration
The advantages of solid-desiccant dehydration include:
 lower dew point, essentially dry gas (water content less than 1.0 Ib/MMcf) can
be produced
 higher contact temperatures can be tolerated with some adsorbents
 higher tolerance to sudden load changes, especially on startup
 quick startup after a shutdown
 high adaptability for recovery of certain liquid hydrocarbons in addition to
dehydration functions

Disadvantages of solid-desiccant dehydration

Operating problems with the solid-desiccant dehydration include:
 space adsorbents degenerate with use and require replacement
 dehydrating tower must be regenerated and cooled for operation before
another tower approaches exhaustion. The maximum allowable time on
dehydration gradually shortens because desiccant loses capacity with use
Dehydration by Absorption
One of the most common methods for removing the water from produced
gas is glycol.
There are four glycols that are used in removing water vapor from natural gas or
in depressing the hydrate formation temperature. Ethylene glycol (EG) is not
used in a conventional glycol dehydrator. The main use of EG in the dehydration
of natural gas is in depressing the hydrate temperature in refrigeration units. Of
the other three glycols, triethylene glycol (TEG) is the most commonly used
glycol for dehydration of natural gas because of the advantages relative to
diethylene glycol (DEG):
• TEG is more easily regenerated to a higher degree of purity
• Vapor losses are lower
• Operating costs are lower
Properties of Glycol

OH OH
H C C H

H H
Glycol Dehydration Plant

For more about Glycol dehydration, read the article at:

http://petrowiki.org/Dehydration_with_glycol
 Schematic of a standard TEG Dehydration Plant

Videos: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upye7ivFbKk
The feeding-in gas must be
cleaned to remove all liquid
water and hydrocarbons, wax,
sand, drilling muds, and other
impurities. These substances can
cause severe foaming, flooding,
higher glycol losses, poor
efficiency, and increased
maintenance in the dehydration
tower or absorber. These
impurities can be removed using
an efficient scrubber, separator,
or even a filter separator for very
contaminated gases.

Dew point depression of 40 oF to 140 oF can be achieved at a gas pressure ranging

from 25 psig to 2500 psig and gas temperature between 40 oF and 160 oF. The dew
point depression obtained depends on the equilibrium dew point temperature for a
given TEG concentration and contact temperature.
Increased glycol viscosity may cause problems at lower contact temperature. Thus,
heating of the natural gas may be desirable. Very hot gas streams are often cooled
prior to dehydration to prevent vaporization of TEG.
1 The feeding-in gas stream first enters the unit through an inlet gas scrubber to remove
liquid accumulations. A two-phase inlet scrubber is normally required. If there is any
liquid water in the gas stream, a three-phase inlet scrubber can be used to discharge the
distillate and water from the vessel separately. A mist eliminator is normally in the
scrubber to remove any entrained liquid particles from the gas stream leaving the top of
the scrubber.
2 The wet gas is then introduced to the bottom of the glycol-gas contactor and allowed to
flow upward through the trays, while glycol flows down through the column. The gas
contacts the glycol on each tray and the glycol absorbs the water vapor from the gas
steam.
3 The gas then flows down through a vertical glycol cooler, usually fabricated in the form
of a concentric pipe heat exchanger, where the outlet dry gas aids in cooling the hot
regenerated glycol before it enters the contactor. The dry gas then leaves the unit from
the bottom of the glycol cooler.
4 The dry glycol enters the top of the glycol-gas contactor from the glycol cooler and is
injected onto the top tray. The glycol flows across each tray and down through a
downcomer pipe onto the next tray. The bottom tray downcomer is fitted with a seal pot
to hold a liquid seal on the trays.
5 The wet glycol, which has now absorbed the water vapor from the gas stream, leaves
the bottom of the glycol-gas contactor column, passes through a high-pressure glycol
filter, which removes any foreign solid particles that may have been picked up from the
gas stream, and enters the power side of the glycol pump.
6 In the glycol pump the wet high-pressure glycol from the contactor column pumps the dry
regenerated glycol into the column. The wet glycol stream flows from the glycol pump to the
inlet of the flash separator. The low-pressure flash separator allows for the release of the
entrained solution gas, which must be used with the wet glycol to pump the dry glycol into
the contactor.
7 The gas separated in the flash separator leaves the top of the flash separator vessel and
can be used to supplement the fuel gas required for the reboiler. Any excess vent gas is
discharged through a backpressure valve. The flash separator is equipped with a liquid level
control and diaphragm motor valve that discharges the wet glycol stream through a heat
exchange coil in the surge tank to preheat the wet glycol stream. If the wet glycol stream
absorbs any liquid hydrocarbons in the contactor, it may be desirable to use a three-phase
flash separator to separate the glycol from the liquid hydrocarbons before the stream enters
the reboiler. Any liquid hydrocarbons present in the reboiler can cause undue glycol losses
from the stripping still. The wet glycol stream leaves the heat exchange coil in the surge tank
and enters the stripping still mounted on top of the reboiler at the feed point in the still. The
stripping still is packed with a ceramic intalox saddle-type packing, and the glycol flows
downward through the column and enters the reboiler. The wet glycol passing downward
through the still is contacted by hot rising glycol and water vapors passing upward through
the column. The water vapors released in the reboiler and stripped from the glycol in the
stripping still pass upward through the still column through an atmospheric reflux condenser
that provides a partial reflux for the column. The water vapor then leaves the top of the
stripping still column and is released to the atmosphere.
Advantages of Glycol Dehydration
Glycol dehydrators have several advantages including:
 low initial-equipment cost
 low-pressure drop across absorption towers
 makeup requirements may be added readily
 recharging of towers presents no problems
 the plant may be used satisfactorily in the presence of materials that would
cause fouling of some solid adsorbents

Disadvantages of Glycol Dehydration

Glycol dehydrators present several operating problems including:
 Suspended matter, such as dirt, scale, and iron oxide, may contaminate glycol
solutions.
 Overheating of solution may produce both low and high boiling decomposition
products.
 The resultant sludge may collect on heating surfaces, causing some loss in
efficiency, or, in severe cases, complete flow stoppage.
 When both oxygen and hydrogen sulfide are present, corrosion may become a
problem because of the formation of acid material in the glycol solution.
Disadvantages of Glycol Dehydration contd
 Liquids such as water, light hydrocarbons, or lubrication oils, in inlet gas may require
installation of an efficient separator ahead of the absorber. Highly mineralized water
entering the system with inlet gas may, over long periods, crystallize and fill the
reboiler with solid salts.
 Foaming of solution may occur with a resultant carry-over of liquid; the addition of a
small quantity of antifoam compound usually remedies this problem.
 Some leakage around the packing glands of pumps may be permitted because
excessive tightening of packing may result in the scouring of rods. This leakage is
collected and periodically returned to the system.
 Highly concentrated glycol solutions tend to become viscous at low temperatures and,
therefore, are hard to pump. Glycol lines may solidify completely at low temperatures
when the plant is not operating. In cold weather, continuous circulation of part of the
solution through the heater may be advisable. This practice can also prevent freezing
in water coolers.
 To start a plant, all absorber trays must be filled with glycol before good contact of gas
and liquid can be expected. This may also become a problem at low-circulation rates
because weep holes on trays may drain solution as rapidly as it is introduced.
 Sudden surges should be avoided in starting and shutting down a plant. Otherwise,
large carry-over losses of solution may occur.
Glycol Dehydrator Design
Dehydrators with TEG in trays or packed-column contactors can be sized from
standard models by using the following information:
 gas flow rate
 specific gravity of gas
 operating pressure
 Maximum working pressure of contact
 gas inlet temperature
 outlet gas water content required
One of the following two design criteria can be employed:
 Glycol to water ratio (GWR). A value of 2 to 6 gal TEG/lbm H2O removed is
adequate for most glycol dehydration requirements. Very often 2.5 to 4 gal
TEG/lbm H2O is used for field dehydrators.
 Lean TEG concentration from reconcentrator. Most glycol reconcentrators can
output 99.0 to 99.9% lean TEG. A value of 99.5% lean TEG is utilized in most
designs.
Inlet scrubber
Contactor
Contactor is designed for size (minimum diameter and height), gas capacity, rate of
water removed, and number of trays (if it is trayed-type)
If the gas is not standard or the operating temperature is different from the
standard temperature, a correction should first be made as follows:

The rate of water removed is:

Both Cwi and Cwo can be determined from Table 8-1 based on operating pressure
and the inlet and outlet temperatures
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ULu3DTmIkV0
Contactor
Example Problem
Design a trayed-type glycol contactor for a field installation to meet the following
requirements:
Gas flow rate: 12 MMscfd
Gas specific gravity: 0.75
Operating line pressure: 900 psig
Maximum working pressure of contactor: 1,440 psig
Gas inlet temperature: Tin = 90 oF
Outlet gas water content: Cwo = 6 Ib H2O/MMscf
Design criteria: GWR = 3 gal TEG/lbm H2O with 99.5% TEG
Solution
Table 8-3 and Table 8-4 give Ct = 1.01 and Cg = 0.97
The gas capacity of contactor is calculated with: = 12.25 MMscf/d
Table 8-7 gives contactor diameter: 30 in
Table 8-1 gives water content of inlet gas: Cwi = 52.25 lbm/MMscf
The required water content of outlet gas (6) determines the dew point temperature
of the outlet gas through Table 8-1: Tout = 24 oF
Therefore, the dew point depression (Tin-Tout) is Dtd = 90 - 24 = 66 oF
Glycol Water Ratio (GWR) = 3 gal TEG/lbm of water
Therefore, number of trays = 4.29  5 (from Table 8-9 or Figure 8-7)

= (52.25-6)(12.25)/24 = 23.61 lbm/h

Class Exercise
Design a glycol contactor for a field dehydration installation to meet the following
requirements. Consider both trayed type and packed type contactors.
Gas flow rate: 10 MMscfd
Gas specific gravity: 0.65
Operating line pressure: 1,000 psig
Maximum working pressure of contactor: 1,440 psig
Gas inlet temperature: 90 oF
Outlet gas water content: 7 Ib H2O/MMscf
Design criteria: GWR = 3 gal TEG/lbm H2O with 99.5% TEG
Calculate:
1. The diameter of contactor
2. The water content of the inlet gas
3. The rate of water removal
4. The number of trays or height of packing
Compression and Cooling
 Introduction
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure
on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. Compressors are used for
gases while pumps are used for liquids. As gases are compressible, the compressor
also reduces the volume of a gas.
Portable compressors were first utilized in the late 1880s in the mining industry to
drill in-mine pneumatic percussion boreholes. Deep petroleum and natural wells
were drilled utilizing portable air compressors in the 1920s. With the advent of
natural gas and its use as a fuel, the necessity arose of transporting natural gas
from the gas well to the ultimate consumer. A compressor was unnecessary as
long as the pressure at the gas well could force the gas through the pipeline to its
destination. Compressors became essential because gas transmission pipelines
extended great distances from the gas field.
Uses of compressor
Compressors used in the oil and gas industry are divided into six groups according to
their intended service. These are:
 Flash gas compressors
 Gas lift compressors
 Reinjection compressors
 Booster compressors
 Vapor-recovery compressors
 Casinghead compressors

Flash gas compressors

Flash gas compressors are used in oil handling facilities to compress gas that is
“flashed” from a hydrocarbon liquid when the liquid flows from a higher pressure to
a lower pressure separator. Flash gas compressors typically handle low flow rates
and produce high compression ratios.
Gas lift compressors
Gas lift compressors are frequently used in oil handling facilities where compression
of formation gases and gas lift gas is required. Gas lift compressor duty is frequently
of low to medium throughput with high compression ratios. Many gas lift
compressors are installed on offshore facilities.

Reinjection compressors
The reinjection of natural gas is employed to increase or to maintain oil production.
Reinjection compressors can be required to deliver gas at discharge pressures in
excess of 10,000 psi. Reinjection compressors also are used for underground storage
of natural gas. Compressors, applied to these services, have large compression
ratios, high power requirements, and low volume flow rates.

Casinghead compressors
Casinghead compressors are usually used with electric submersible pumps and rod
pumps where formation gas is required to be separated downhole and then
transported through the annulus. Often the compressor discharge is routed to either
a booster or flash gas compressor or to a low-pressure gathering system. Like vapor
recovery compressors, casinghead compressors operate with low suction pressures,
high compression ratios, and low gas throughput rates.
Booster compressors
Gas transmission through pipelines results in pressure drop because of friction
losses. Booster compressors are used to restore the pressure drop from these losses.
Selection of these compressors involves evaluating the economic trade-off of
distance between pipeline boosting stations and life-cycle cost of each compressor
station. Booster compressors also are used in fields that are experiencing pressure
decline. Most centrifugal pipeline booster compressors are gas turbine driven,
although the use of variable-speed motor drives is becoming more prevalent. Low-
speed integral gas engine reciprocating compressors also are used for gas
transmission applications. Booster compressors typically are designed for high
throughput rates and low compression ratio. Many booster applications can be
configured in a single-stage centrifugal compressor.

Vapor recovery compressors

Vapor recovery compressors are used to gather gas from tanks and other low-
pressure equipment in the facility. Often the gas from a vapor recovery compressor is
routed to a flash gas, gas lift, or booster compressor for further compression. Low
suction pressures, high compression ratios, and low gas throughput rates
characterize these compressors.
Classification and types of compressor
Compressors are classified into two major categories:
 Positive displacement compressors
 Dynamic or kinetic compressors
Positive displacement compressors
Positive-displacement gas compressors work by forcing gas into a chamber whose
volume is decreased to compress the gas. Piston-type compressors use this principle
by pumping gas into a gas chamber through the use of the constant motion of pistons
Positive displacement compressors are further divided into:
 Reciprocating
 Rotary types

Reciprocating compressors are most commonly used

in the natural gas industry. They are built for
practically all pressures and volumetric capacities.

6-cylinder Reciprocating
Dynamic or kinetic compressors
Dynamic compressors are continuous-flow machines in which a rapidly rotating
element accelerates the gas as it passes through the element, converting the
velocity head into pressure, partially in the rotating element and partially in
stationary diffusers or blades. Dynamic compressors are further divided into:
 Centrifugal
 Axial-flow
 Mixed-flow types
Compressor Stations
Compressor stations are facilities located along a natural gas pipeline which
compress the gas to a specified pressure, thereby allowing it to continue
traveling along the pipeline to the intended recipient. When natural gas does not
have sufficient potential energy to flow, a compressor station is needed.
Compressor stations enable the natural gas itself to travel through the pipelines
which is crucial to the natural gas transport system. They also allow the gas to be
rerouted into storage areas during periods of low demand. In addition,
compressor stations are often accompanied by PIG launchers and PIG receivers
which are vital for the maintenance and efficiency of the pipeline. They even
include many safety features allowing the pipeline and station to function safely.
The total number of compressor station facilities required to move product
varies depending on the region and conditions. Generally compressor stations
are located about every 40-70 miles along the pipeline.
Depending on the particular compressor station, its size, sophistication, and
other factors, it may or may not be staffed with live, on-site personnel. Many
modern compressor stations can be completely monitored and operated
remotely.
Compressor Station Facilities
Compressor Unit – The compressor unit is the piece of equipment which
actually compresses the gas. Some compressor stations may have multiple
compressor units depending on the needs of the pipeline. The compressor unit
is a large engine which typically works in one of three ways:
 Turbines with Centrifugal Compressors – This type of compressor is powered
by a turbine to turn a centrifugal compressor and is powered by natural gas
from the pipeline itself.
 Electric Motors with Centrifugal Compressors – This type of compressor also
utilizes centrifugal compressors to compress the gas; however, instead of
being powered by a natural gas fueled turbine, they instead rely on high
voltage electric motors.
 Reciprocating Engine with Reciprocating Compressor – This type of
compressor uses large piston engines to crank reciprocating pistons located
within cylindrical cases on the side of the unit. These reciprocating pistons
compress the gas. These engines are also fueled by natural gas.

Filters and Scrubbers – Another component of compressor stations are filters

and scrubbers which remove water, hydrocarbons, and other impurities from
the natural gas.
Gas Cooling Systems – When the natural gas is compressed its temperature
rises. This is usually offset by having the gas travel through cooling systems
which return it to temperatures that will not damage the pipeline.
Mufflers – Mufflers are typically present to help reduce the noise level at
compressor stations. These are especially important if the compressor station is
located near residential or other inhabited areas.

PIG launchers and PIG receivers which are vital for the maintenance and
efficiency of the pipeline.
Safety features allowing the pipeline and station to function safely.

Operating Pressure of the Pipeline

There is a wide variation in the pressure within a given section of pipeline
compared to other pipelines in other areas. The typical pressure may range
anywhere from 200 psi (pounds per square inch) to 1,500 psi. This wide variation
is also due to the type of area in which the pipeline is operating, its elevation,
and the diameter of the pipeline. Because of the change in the environment,
compressor stations may compress natural gas at different levels. Supply and
demand can also be a factor at times in the level of compression required for the
flow of the natural gas.
Design considerations
Compressor stations can be designed so that they can be started, stopped and
controlled by operators at a remote location, i.e., the next station or the main
office. They can also be automatic where the compressor units can be started
and stopped by pressure-sensitive devices.

One such design would be three stations as a unit. The center station would be
a manned engine type with unmanned gas turbine stations on either side of it
to be controlled and maintained by the center station.

There are at least two environmental problems with compressor stations –

noise and exhaust emissions. Noise can be controlled with mufflers. Exhaust
emissions can be chemically controlled with wet scrubbers, but they are
expensive. These problems should be solved at the time the compressors are
purchased. Remote and unmanned stations should have an automatic fire
control system with alarm to the nearest manned station.
Types of Compressor Stations
Five types of compressor stations are generally utilized in the natural gas
production industry:
 Field gas-gathering stations to gather gas from wells in which pressure is
insufficient to produce at a desired rate of flow into a transmission or
distribution system. These stations generally handle suction pressures from
below atmospheric pressure to 750 psig and volumes from a few thousand to
many million cubic feet per day.
 Relay or main line stations to boost pressure in transmission lines. They
compress generally large volumes of gas at a pressure range between 200
and 1,300 psig.
 Repressuring or recycling stations to provide gas pressures as high as 6,000
psig for processing or secondary oil recovery projects.
 Storage field stations to compress trunk line gas for injection into storage
wells at pressures up to 4,000 psig.
 Distribution plant stations to pump gas from holder supply to medium- or
high-pressure distribution lines at about 20 to 100 psig, or pump into bottle
storage up to 2,500 psig.
Compression theory
Both positive displacement and dynamic compressors are governed by a few basic
principles derived from the laws of thermodynamics. This section defines
terminology and discusses the operating principles essential for understanding
compressor design, operation, and maintenance.

Compressor selection
Proper selection of the compressor type and number of stages can be accomplished
only after considering a number of factors. (For the purposes of this chapter,
discussion is limited to centrifugal vs. reciprocating compressors.) Basic information
needed for the proper selection includes:
 Volume and mass flow of gas to be compressed
 Suction pressure, Discharge pressure, Suction temperature
 Gas specific gravity, Available types of drivers
Compression ratio
Compression ratio, Rc, is simply the absolute discharge pressure divided by the
absolute suction pressure. Temperature ratio increases with pressure ratio.
Temperature limits related to the mechanical design of compressors often will
dictate the maximum pressure ratio that can be achieved in a stage of compression.
In a design, if required overall compression ratio is greater than 6, then
compression stages are needed.
 Isentropic (adiabatic) compression
An adiabatic process is one in which no heat is added or removed from the system.
Adiabatic compression is expressed by

where k = Cp/Cv = ratio of specific heats, dimensionless.

Although compressors are designed to remove as much heat as possible, some heat
gain is inevitable. Nevertheless, the adiabatic compression cycle is rather closely
approached by most positive displacement compressors and is generally the base
to which they are referred.
When inlet temperature is known, the discharge temperature can be determined
from the relationship

Adiabatic efficiency is defined as the ratio of work output for an ideal isentropic
compression process to the work input to develop the required head. For a given
compressor operating point, the actual or predicted isentropic efficiency is

S=suction, d=discharge
Polytropic compression
A polytropic process is one in which changes in gas characteristics during
compression are considered. Dynamic compressors generally follow the polytropic
cycle as defined by the formula

where n = polytropic exponent.

The polytropic exponent n is experimentally determined for a given type of machine

and may be lower or higher than the adiabatic exponent k. Because the value of n
changes during the compression process, an average value is used.

When inlet and discharge pressures and temperatures are known, the polytropic
exponent can be determined from the relationship

The efficiency of the polytropic compression process is given by

Power requirement
The total power requirement of a compressor for a given duty is the sum of the gas
power and the friction power. The gas power is directly proportional to head and
mass flow and inversely proportional to efficiency. Mechanical losses in the bearings
and, to a lesser extent, in the seals are the primary source of friction power.
For centrifugal compressors, the gas power can be calculated as
HP = gas power, horsepower
m = mass flow rate, lbm/min
H = compressor head, ft-lbf/lbm

By considering mechanical efficiency, hm of compressor drivers, the brake

horsepower, BHP is given by

Example
Natural gas is compressed by a reciprocating compressor from 60 F suction
temperature and a compression ratio of 2. Calculate the discharge temperature
assuming z is constant and k=1.3

T2 = 610 R = 150 F
Stage compression
Number of stages of compression
Using the specified overall pressure ratio and suction temperature (and an assumed
efficiency), the discharge temperature for compression of gas with a known k value
in a single stage can be estimated by
ηp = assumed polytropic efficiency,
≈ 0.72 to 0.85 for centrifugal compressors
≈ 1.00 for reciprocating compressors.

If the single-stage discharge temperature is too high (typical limit is 300 to 350 °F), it is
necessary to configure the compression equipment in more than one stage. Calculating
the compression ratio per stage does the evaluation of a multistage design.

Pressure Ratio
It is the ratio of the discharge pressure to the inlet pressure; in practice, pressure
ratio seldom exceeds 4
Intercooling
Where large pressure ratios are needed, splitting the compression duty into one or
more stages with intercooling between stages can be the most energy efficient
arrangement. The energy savings must be compared with the capital and
maintenance investment necessary to provide the cooling. In addition to the
thermodynamic benefit, intercooled compression systems result in lower discharge
temperatures, which reduce the need for special compressor materials.

2-Stage compression arrangement

As gas is compressed by turbo, it heats up, not because of the heat of the
turbocharger, but because as the air is pressurized, the air molecules are forced
closer together and that results in an increase in energy. This energy manifests itself
as heat. The function of an intercooler is to remove that heat from the intake
charge.
A well rounded design is one that removes heat efficiently, without creating a
pressure drop that negates the gains from doing so. The main factors that come
into play here are heat transfer area, internal flow area and internal volume. Heat
transfer area is the total area of all of the fin packs and plates in the core. Internal
Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is a unit where heat is transferred from a hot stream to a cold
stream through a solid barrier (wall). Most chemical reactions are faster at higher
temperatures and heat exchangers are frequently used to provide the heat
necessary to increase the temperature of the reaction. Other everyday life example
of heat exchangers:
• Radiator in a car
• Home heating and air conditioning system
• Refrigeration system – cooling a can of soda
• Gas compressor intercooler
To heat or cool a stream flowing from an item of equipment to another; a stream
may be a liquid, a gas, or a multiphase mixture.

Types of Heat Exchangers

In heat exchangers, a large contact area is desired for good heat transfer.

Shell and Tube A common heat exchanger is the shell and tube type where one part
of the process flows through a tube and the other part around the shell. The shell
and tube heat exchangers are one of the most popular types of exchanger due to the
flexibility the designer has to allow for a wide range of pressures and temperatures.
There are two main principles for Tube Shell
contacting streams in the shell and Stream Out Stream In
tube type: co-current flow and Baffle
countercurrent flow. The
countercurrent flow (shown in the
figure) is used in both heat transfer
and mass transfer applications such as
in distillation, absorption, and
extraction processes. The heat is
transferred to incoming stream from Tubes Shell
the shell across the tube wall. The shell Shell Tube
and tube exchanger consists of four Stream Out Stream In
major parts:
U-tube exchangers. This is the cheapest of all removable bundle designs, but is
generally slightly more expensive than a fixed tubesheet design at low pressures.
However, it permits unlimited thermal expansion, allows the bundle to be removed
to clean the outside of the tubes, has the tightest bundle to shell clearances and is
the simplest design. A disadvantage of the U-tube design is that it cannot normally
have pure counterflow and they are limited to even numbers of tube passes.
Design Options of Heat Exchangers
Tubes may range in diameter from 12.7 mm (0.5 in) to 50.8 mm (2 in),
but 19.05 mm (0.75 in) and 25.4 mm (1 in) are the most common
sizes. The tubes are laid out in triangular or square patterns in the
tube sheets. The square layouts are required where it is necessary to
get at the tube surface for mechanical cleaning. The triangular
arrangement allows more tubes in a given space. The tube pitch is the
shortest center-to-center distance between tubes. The tube spacing is
given by the tube pitch/tube diameter ratio, which is normally 1.25 or
1.33. Since a square layout is used for cleaning purposes, a minimum
gap of 6.35 mm (0.25 in) is allowed between tubes

Thermal Design
The thermal design of a shell and tube exchanger is an iterative process which is
normally carried out using computer programs from organizations such as the Heat
transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS) or Heat Transfer Research Incorporated
(HTRI). However, it is important that the engineer understands the logic behind the
calculation. In order to calculate the heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops,
initial decisions must be made on the sides the fluids are allocated, the front and
rear header type, shell type, baffle type, tube diameter and tube layout. The tube
length, shell diameter, baffle pitch and number of tube passes are also selected and
these are normally the main items that are altered during each iteration in order to
maximize the overall heat transfer within specified allowable pressure drops.
The main steps in the calculation are given below:
1. Calculate the shell-side flow distribution
2. Calculate the shell-side heat transfer coefficient
3. Calculate tube-side heat transfer coefficient
4. Calculate tube-side pressure drop
5. Calculate wall resistance and overall heat transfer coefficient
6. Calculate mean temperature difference
7. Calculate area required
8. Compare area required with area of assumed geometry and allowed tubeside and
shellside pressure drop with calculated values.
9. Adjust assumed geometry and repeat calculations until Area required is achieved
within the allowable pressure drops.
The cooling curves for the counter current and co-current flows are shown below. A
corollary drawn from the second law of thermodynamics is that heat can only be
transferred from a hotter body to a colder body. For heat exchangers design, this
means that the higher cooling curve and the lower one cannot intercept. When this
condition is satisfied, the pairing of a heating and cooling curve is said to be feasible.
 Temperature
Th,in Th,in
DT1 hot
hot DT1 Th,out
Tc,out DT2
Th,out Tc,out
DT2 cold
cold Tc,in Tc,in

c,in c,out
h,in Countercurrent flow
h,out h,in h,out
Co-current flow

c,in
c,out
The rate of heat transfer is proportional to:
i) the temperature difference between the hot streams and the incoming streams
ii) the total surface area of the tubes
The heat transfer from a hot to a cold side is expressed as:
Q = UADT DT = Th – Tc = change in temperature
U = heat transfer coefficient (note: it is not internal energy)
A = surface area of the heat transfer
For countercurrent flow, DT1 = Th,in – Tc,out; DT2 = Th,out – Tc,in
For co-current flow, DT1 = Th,in – Tc,in; DT2 = Th,out – Tc,out

In the general case, DT varies with position in the heat exchanger. The maximum
heat that can be transferred occurs when the heating and cooling curves either
(a) intercept or (b) become tangent (flatten out) within the exchanger. There are 2
values of DT. The correct mean value of DT is expressed as (logarithm mean
temperature difference):

The heat transfer

Q = UADTlmF (F=1 for ideal cases)

The energy balance should help to calculate all the temperature variables
Assuming steady state flow

On cold side On hot side

Hc,out – Hc,in = Q Hh,out – Hh,in = -Q
Q = mc cp,c (Tc,out – Tc,in) Q = mh cp,h (Th,in – Th,out)
cp,c = specific heat capacity of cold stream cp,h = specific heat capacity of hot stream
Q = heat supplied by the hot side Q = heat supplied to the cold side
Example 1: Heat loss through window
Indoor air with constant temperature of 23 C exchanges heat through a glass
window with outside air at constant temperature of -2 C. The heat transfer
coefficient is 3 W/m2K and the surface area of the window is 4 m2. Calculate the
heat loss through the window.
Q = UA (Th – Tc) = 3(4)(23 - -2) = 300 W

Example 2: Countercurrent flow heat exchanger

A hot stream with mass flow of 1 kg/s, heat capacity of 4 kJ/kg K, and inlet
temperature of 360 K is to be cooled to 330 K by heat exchange with a cold stream of
mass flow of 2 kg/s, heat capacity of 3 kJ/kg K, and an inlet temperature of 320 K.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 500 W/m2. Calculate the area of the heat
exchanger when ideal countercurrent flow is assumed.

mh = 1 kg/s mh = 1 kg/s
Th,in = 360 K Th,out = 330 K
hot Q
cp,h = 4 kJ/kgK cp,h = 4 kJ/kgK
mc = 2 kg/s mc = 2 kg/s
cold
Tc,out Th,in = 320 K
cp,c = 3 kJ/kgK cp,c = 3 kJ/kgK
First we have to find Q and Tc,out
On the hot side,
Q = mh cp,h (Th,in – Th,out) = 1(4)(360-330) = 120 kW
On the cold side,
Q = mc cp,c (Tc,out – Tc,in)
120 = 2(3)( Tc,out – 320) => Tc,out = 340 K

For countercurrent flow,

DT1 = Th,in – Tc,out = 360 – 340 = 20
DT2 = Th,out – Tc,in = 330 – 320 = 10

DTlm = (20 – 10)/ln2 = 14.4 K

The heat transfer

Q = UADTlmF (F=1 for ideal cases)
120000 = 500(A)(14.4)
A = 16.6 m2
Heat Removed by Intercoolers

DH = mcp(T2-T1)
For natural gas, cp = 0.56 Btu/lbmoF, cv = 0.44 Btu/lbmoF, k =1.27

Mass flow rate = rQ

By law of conservation of mass, mass flowrate is constant across compressors
but volume flowrate changes
Density at any section can be calculated from
p
r  2.7
zT
 Example
In a 4 stage compressor, the suction pressure at the first and third stage are
100 psi and 900 psi. Intercoolers cool the gas back to 60 F. Calculate stages 1
and 2 discharge volume flowrate and the amount of heat removed by each
intercooler per day for a gas flowrate of 900 Mscf/d at stage 1 inlet. Gas
specific gravity is 0.65 and suction temperature is 60 F. k=1.3.
P1s=100 P1d=300 P2s=300 P2d=900 P3s=900 P3d=2700

1 2 3

T1s=60 T1d=210 T2s=60 T2d=210 T3s=60 T3d=210

Rc = √(900/100) = 3
P1s=100, P1d=300
100, 60 (130)
300, 210 (2500)
300, 60 (47)
900, 210 (1925)
T1d = 670 R = 210 F 900, 60 (19)
From Brill-Beggs,
P2d=900, T2d=210, z2d = 0.9405
P1s=100 psi, T1s=60 F, z1s = 0.9844
P3d=2700, T3d=210, z3d = 0.8825
P1d=300 psi, T1d=210 F, z1d = 0.9796
P4d=8100, T4d=210, z4d = 1.2369
p 2.7 *100 * 0.65
r 1s  2.7   0.3428 lbm/ft3
zT 0.9844 * 520
m1s = rQ = 0.3428*900000 = 308563.6 lbm/d
m1d = m2d = m3d = m1s = 308563.6 lbm/d

r1d = 2.7x300x0.65/0.9796/670 = 0.80219

Q1d = m1d/r1d = 308563.6/0.80219 = 384,654 scf/d
r2d = 2.7x900x0.65/0.9405/670 = 2.5066
Q2d = m2d/r2d = 308563.6/0.80219 = 123,100 scf/d
r3d = 2.7x2700x0.65/0.8825/670 = 8.014
Q3d = m3d/r3d = 308563.6/8.014 = 38,503 scf/d
r4d = 2.7x8100x0.65/1.2369/670 = 17.1535
Q4d = m4d/r4d = 308563.6/8.014 = 17,988 scf/d
 Introduction
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure
on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. Compressors are used for
gases while pumps are used for liquids. As gases are compressible, the compressor
also reduces the volume of a gas.
Portable compressors were first utilized in the late 1880s in the mining industry to
drill in-mine pneumatic percussion boreholes. Deep petroleum and natural wells
were drilled utilizing portable air compressors in the 1920s. With the advent of
natural gas and its use as a fuel, the necessity arose of transporting natural gas
from the gas well to the ultimate consumer. A compressor was unnecessary as
long as the pressure at the gas well could force the gas through the pipeline to its
destination. Compressors became essential because gas transmission pipelines
extended great distances from the gas field.
Uses of compressor
Compressors used in the oil and gas industry are divided into six groups according to
their intended service. These are:
 Flash gas compressors
 Gas lift compressors
 Reinjection compressors
 Booster compressors
 Vapor-recovery compressors
 Casinghead compressors

Flash gas compressors

Flash gas compressors are used in oil handling facilities to compress gas that is
“flashed” from a hydrocarbon liquid when the liquid flows from a higher pressure to
a lower pressure separator. Flash gas compressors typically handle low flow rates
and produce high compression ratios.
 Removal of Acid Gases
The H2S and CO2 in natural gas wellstreams are called acid gases because they form
acids or acidic solutions in the presence of water. They have no heating value but
cause problems to systems and the environment. H2S is a toxic, poisonous gas and
cannot be tolerated in gases that may be used for domestic fuels. H2S in the
presence of water is extremely corrosive and can cause premature failure of valves,
pipeline, and pressure vessels. It can also cause catalyst poisoning in refinery vessels
and requires expensive precautionary measures. Most pipeline specifications limit
H2S content to 0.25 g/100 ft3 of gas (about 4 ppm)
Carbon dioxide is not as bad as H2S and its removal is not always required. Removal
of CO2 may be required in gas going to cryogenic plants to prevent CO2 solidification.
Carbon dioxide is also corrosive in the presence of water. Most treating processes
that remove H2S will also remove CO2. Therefore, the volume of CO2 in the
wellstream is added to the volume of H2S to arrive at the total acid-gas volume to
be removed.
The term sour gas refers to the gas containing H2S in amounts above the acceptable
industry limits. A sweet gas is a non-H2S-bearing gas or gas that has been sweetened
by treating. Some processes used for removing acid gases from natural gas are
briefly described below.
Sour gas sweetening
Sour natural gas compositions can vary over a wide concentration of H2S and CO2
and a wide concentration of hydrocarbon components. If the H2S content exceeds
the sales gas specification limit, the excess H2S must be separated from the sour gas.
The removal of H2S from sour gas is called “sweetening.”
The selected process must be cost effective in meeting the various specifications and
requirements.
Sweetening solvents
The desirable characteristics of a sweetening solvent are:
 Required removal of H2S and other sulfur compounds must be achieved.
 Pickup of hydrocarbons must be low.
 Solvent vapor pressure must be low to minimize solvent losses.
 Reactions between solvent and acid gases must be reversible to prevent solvent
degradation.
 Solvent must be thermally stable.
 Removal of degradation products must be simple.
 The acid gas pickup per unit of solvent circulated must be high.
 Heat requirement for solvent regeneration or stripping must be low.
 The solvent should be noncorrosive.
 The solvent should not foam in the contactor or still.
 Selective removal of acid gases is desirable.
 The solvent should be cheap and readily available.
Unfortunately, there is no one solvent that has all the desirable characteristics. This
makes it necessary to select the solvent that is best suited for treating the particular
sour gas mixture from the various solvents that are available. The sour natural gas
mixtures vary in H2S and CO2 content and ratio
Main sweetening solvents
Operating problems
The main problems that can be encountered in the operation of sour gas treating facilities
using chemical solvents are as follows:
1. Failure to meet H2S specification for sales gas: treated gas that does not meet the H2S
specifications is not admitted into the sales-gas transmission lines. Difficulty in meeting
the sweet gas specification may be the result of poor contact between the gas and the
solvent, which may in turn be caused by foaming or mechanical problems in the
contacting equipment
2. Solution foaming in the contactor or regenerator: occurs when gas is mechanically
entrained in liquid as bubble. The best way to reduce the propensity for foaming is to
ensure that the sour gas entering the contactor is clean, free of condensed liquids, and
that the solution is cleaned up by mechanical and carbon filtration
3. Corrosion in pipes and vessels: corrosion is common in most amine plants; it is
necessary to control the corrosion rate by the addition of corrosion inhibitor and by
use of stainless steel in certain pieces of process equipment. As compared with
CO2 and H2S mixtures, corrosion rates in amine systems, especially MEA systems,
generally increase with:
 increasing temperature, increasing amine concentration, increasing mole loadings,
pure acid gas
4. Solvent losses: solvent losses in gas treating systems can occur because of vaporization,
entrainment, degradation, mechanical losses. Solvents used in gas treating, like any
other liquids, have a vapor pressure that increases with temperature.
Iron-Sponge Sweetening
The iron-sponge sweetening process is a batch process with the sponge being a
hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3) supported on wood shavings. The reaction produces
ferric sulfide (Fe2S3) and water.

Fe2O3 + H2S  Fe2S3 + H2O Balance the equation

The ferric oxide is present in a hydrated form. The reaction does not proceed
without the water of hydration. The reaction requires the temperature be below
approximately 120 oF or a supplemental water spray.
Regeneration of the bed is sometimes accomplished by the addition of air
continuously or by batch addition. The regeneration reaction is

Fe2S3 + O2  Fe2O3 + S Balance the equation

The number of regeneration steps is limited due to the sulfur remaining in the
bed. Eventually the beds have to be replaced.
Alkanolamine Sweetening
Alkanoalamine includes monoethanoalamine (MEA), diethanoalamine (DEA), and
triethanoalamine (TEA). They are used to remove acid gases (H2S and CO2) from
other gases and are particularly adapted for obtaining the low acid gas residuals
that are usually specified by pipelines. MEA was the earliest amine used for
sweetening sour gas. It is a stronger base than DEA and also has a higher vapor
pressure than DEA; therefore, vapor losses are higher than for DEA.
The alkanolamine process is not selective and must be designed for total acid-gas
removal, even though CO2 removal may not be required.
Typical reactions of acid gas with MEA are absorbing and regenerating.
Absorbing reactions are:
MEA + H2S  MEA[H+] + HS-
MEA + H2O + CO2  MEA[H+] + HCO3- 1930 kJ/kg of CO2
Glycol/Amine Process
The glycol/amine process uses a solution composed of 10% to 30% weight MEA, 45% to
85% glycol, and 5% to 25% water for the simultaneous removal of water vapor, H2S, and
CO2 from gas streams.
The advantage of the process is that the combination dehydration and sweetening unit
results in lower equipment cost than would be required with the standard MEA unit
followed by a separate glycol/amine glycol dehydrator.
The main disadvantages of the glycol/amine process include increased vaporization losses
of MEA due to high regeneration temperatures, corrosion problems in the operating units,
and limited applications for achieving low dew points.

Sulfinol Process
The sulfinol process uses a mixture of solvents allowing it to behave as both a chemical
and physical solvent process. The solvent is composed of sulfolane, diisopropanolamine
(DIPA), and water. The sulfolane acts as the physical solvent, while DIPA acts as the
chemical solvent. The main advantages of sulfinol are low solvent circulation rates; smaller
equipment and lower plant cost; low heat capacity of the solvent; low utility costs; low
degradation rates; low corrosion rates; low foaming tendency; high effectiveness for
removal of carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, and mercaptans; low vaporization losses of
the solvent; low heat-exchanger fouling tendency; and nonexpansion of the solvent when
it freezes. Some of the disadvantages of sulfinol include absorption of heavy hydrocarbons
and aromatics, and expense.
Hot potassium carbonate (K2CO3) (Hot Pot)
The potassium carbonate process was developed for removing CO2 from
manufactured gas. It reacts with both acid gases. Because the contacting of the
sour gas occurs at very high temperatures, such as 195 to 230°F in this process, it is
sometimes referred to as the “hot pot” process. It requires lower heat input for
regeneration and is therefore somewhat less costly to operate than some amine
processes. Also, no heat exchanger is required in the regeneration equipment. The
process has difficulty in meeting the H2S specification of the treated gas if the
H2S/CO2 ratio is not extremely small. This process is significant for treating gas with
a large concentration of CO2. The chemistry of the process can be enhanced by the
addition of various catalysts, and this has resulted in the process being referred to
by various trade names.
 Natural Gas Liquids
The term 'Natural gas liquids' includes both the 'condensed' gaseous liquids
captured at natural gas plants, and the 'normally liquid' lease condensate, often
removed right at the wellhead.
The gaseous liquids are usually made up of both:
(i) lighter hydrocarbons, predominantly ethane, and propane, and
(ii) heavier hydrocarbons, such as pentane and heavier (condensates).
Ethane, propane, normal butane, isobutane and (as the product is commonly
called in the U.S.), natural gasoline are all found in natural gas, but are liquid
hydrocarbon molecules suspended within gas. This is equally true for lease
condensates, hence the classification of lease condensates as NGLs in
international markets.

Market Definitions
NGLs are liquid hydrocarbons suspended as particles in gas, under conditions
of subterranean pressure and temperature. As noted above, in the U.S. the
term NGL is usually reserved for these products produced through some form
of processing (natural gas processing plants or refineries), while in
international markets it also includes field or lease condensates.
 Y-Grade, also called mixed NGLs or ‘raw make’ is an unfractionated blend of
the various purity products (see definition below) that make up the NGL
product family. A Y-grade stream is typically produced by a natural gas
processing plant and transported by pipeline to a central fractionation
facility to be split into purity products.
 NGL Purity Products – As this term is used in the U.S., the five purity NGL
products are ethane (C2), propane (C3), normal butane (NC4), isobutane
(IC4) and natural gasoline (C5+). The numbers indicate how many carbon
atoms are contained in each NGL molecule. While butane and isobutane
both have four carbon atoms, they differ somewhat in molecular structure.
As a general rule, when at least 90% of the NGL stream has only one type of
product, this NGL, whether ethane or butane, is defined as a purity product.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas, or LPG, is a subset of the NGL family. In the U.S.
the term includes propane, normal butane and isobutane and is often
associated with refinery production and demand for these products. The
term is also used to refer to the international trade for propane and butanes.
 Pentane+ or C5+ designations include the products that we also call
condensates.
Heavier NGLs: In the US market, the term Heavy NGLs refers to natural gasoline
and butane/isobutane, but this definition is not universal and certainly can be
misleading. The only “heavy” NGL that can be separated, stored and
transported without special containment is condensate (natural gasoline), a
point which we will detail further below. The term Heavy NGLs is rarely used in
foreign NGL markets, and when it is occasionally used, it refers solely to
condensate.
Ethane/Propane Mix: In the US market, ethane and propane are sometimes
sold as a mixed stream for use as a petrochemical feedstock. The most
common is called E/P Mix, consisting of 80% ethane/20% propane. In some
cases the buyers want a custom blend that differs in the proportion of these
two NGLs. E/P Mix is sold in European NGL markets and is the basis of Mideast
Gulf ethylene cracker feedstock supply, but is virtually unknown in Asia.
Note that most NGLs originate from gas production, whether associated with
crude or solely on its own non-associated gas production. When NGLs are
contained within a gas stream, it is said that they are in “vapor phase”.

All natural gas contains some NGLs. Sometimes there are enough NGLs to be
recovered economically, sometimes not. Sometimes NGLs must be removed
(whether economic or not) for the ‘residue’ natural gas to meet BTU and other
specifications for the take-away natural gas pipeline or LNG liquefaction facility.
Regardless, for natural gas produced at the wellhead to be sold and
transported in pipeline systems, various impurities like sulfur and water must
be removed. When required by downstream specifications, or economically
advantageous or both, the NGLs are separated from the gas in a natural gas
processing plant. The mixed stream or Y-grade NGLs are then transported to a
fractionator for separation into purity products. That fractionator may be at the
processing plant location, but in the U.S. is usually some distance away. As
discussed on many occasions in RBN blogs, by far the largest NGL fractionation
center in the U.S. is at Mont Belvieu, Texas.
Processing Natural Gas Liquids
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
The smaller molecules such as ethane, ethylene, propane, butane, butylene,
isobutane, and isobutylene can be retrieved from the natural gas stream and
converted into liquids at the natural gas processing plants by methods such as
freezing and pressurizing. For example, the second smallest molecule, propane,
can be turned into a liquid at -42oC.

The liquefied gases may be mixed together and taken to a specialist plant for
fractionation, where the individual products are split out and sold separately.
Ethane is an important feedstock in the chemical industry, making, amongst
other things, ethylene. Propane is used in home heating and cooking. Butane is
used as a gasoline additive as an oxygenate to reduce pollution.

If not sold separately, the fractionates can be mixed together to form 'liquefied
petroleum gases', or LPG. This blend has to remain pressurized to be liquid. This
gas can be held in relatively thin walled bottles, so is sold worldwide for both
domestic cooking as 'bottled gas' and as a transport fuel.
Some heavier hydrocarbons with more hydrogen atoms, such as hexane and
heptane, can also be recovered from the fractionation of the gas stream. They
can be used to 'make' gasoline, but have to be blended with other liquid
hydrocarbons from distillation of crude oil in order to be useful. These heavier
gaseous natural gas liquids cannot be counted as 'oil equivalent' by themselves
- they depend on crude oil to become useful.

Natural Gasoline
The heavier hydrocarbons that are liquid at normal temperatures are often
called 'lease condensate', 'natural gas condensate', 'natural gasoline', or
'casinghead gasoline'.
A typical 'natural gas liquids' breakdown would be about 83% gaseous liquids,
and 17% natural gasoline (it varies, and can be as much as 22%).
The production of plant condensate, a.k.a. natural gasoline, is increasing along with the
yield of all other products from natural gas processing plants. Clearly this is an
opportunity for new market development, and the business community is hard at work
coming up with concepts, projects and proposals to use all of this material in the U.S. and
in export markets. But there is a problem. Condensate markets in different geographies
seem to have little in common with each other. One term can have several meanings.
One meaning can be ascribed to several terms.
 Liquefied Natural Gas
As concern over environmental problems grows worldwide, there is increasing
demand for natural gas as an energy source with a smaller environmental impact
(lower CO2 emissions) than oil or coal. With this growth in demand, LNG plants are
receiving much attention. Plant production capacity, which was initially about 1
million tons/year, has reached 7.8 million tons/year, and the capacities of the
various process gas compressors used in the plant are also increasing. At the same
time, there is also growing interest in the development of small and mid-sized LNG
plants as a means of making effective use of unused gas fields.

At an LNG plant, the liquid components (condensate) are removed from the natural
gas that was produced from the gas field. The natural gas then passes through acid
gas (hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide) removal equipment, mercury removal
equipment, dehydration equipment, and NGL removal equipment, and is then
liquefied by liquefaction equipment where its volume is reduced by a factor of 600.
Afterwards, the natural gas is stored in an LNG tank. Recently, in addition to the
conventional "On-shore" LNG Plant, new technologies have created Floating LNG
(F-LNG) which allows for offshore liquefaction.
Various process gas compressors and drive equipment are used in these gas
processing and liquefaction processes.
Production of LNG
Cooling natural gas to about -260°F at normal pressure results in the
condensation of the gas into liquid form, known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
LNG can be very useful, particularly for the transportation of natural gas, since
LNG takes up about one six hundredth the volume of gaseous natural gas.
While LNG is reasonably costly to produce, advances in technology are
reducing the costs associated with the liquification and regasification of LNG.
Because it is easy to transport, LNG can serve to make economical those
stranded natural gas deposits for which the construction of pipelines is
uneconomical.
LNG, when vaporized to gaseous form, will only burn in concentrations of
between 5 and 15 percent mixed with air. In addition, LNG, or any vapor
associated with LNG, will not explode in an unconfined environment. Thus, in
the unlikely event of an LNG spill, the natural gas has little chance of igniting
an explosion. Liquification also has the advantage of removing oxygen, carbon
dioxide, sulfur, and water from the natural gas, resulting in LNG that is almost
pure methane.
Transportation of LNG
LNG is typically transported by specialized tanker with insulated walls, and is
kept in liquid form by autorefrigeration, a process in which the LNG is kept at its
boiling point, so that any heat additions are countered by the energy lost from
LNG vapor that is vented out of storage and used to power the vessel.
LNG that is imported to the United States comes via
ocean tanker. The U.S. gets a majority of its LNG
from Trinidad and Tobago, Qatar, and Algeria, and
also receives shipments from Nigeria, Oman,
Australia, Indonesia, and the United Arab Emirates.
LNG Equipment