FN 121 THU Prof.

Cabigas
Alaba, Jaimie Study Guide 1
Malubay, Francesca Raphaella Q. 1st Reading & Cellular Nutrition

Reading: The Nutritional Basis of the Fetal Origins of Adult Disease by JE Harding
Introduction: The reading proposes that nutrition is a 1. Most obvious influence of placenta is its
primary programming stimulus in the growth and capacity to transport nutrients from maternal
development of a fetus, and its susceptibility to adult to fetal circulation
diseases. It tackles the long standing issue of nature 2. Placenta plays a key role in metabolism of key
vs. nurture, with a particular emphasis on the latter. nutrients
3. Placental metabolism contributes greatly to
A. Why Nutrition? fetal and maternal nutrition
- There are 3 main evidences that were cited in 4. Placenta competes with fetus for available
support of the argument, namely: nutrients
1. Alteration of maternal nutrition during 5. Placenta produces hormones
pregnancy in animals (i.e. protein proportion
of pregnant rats) have shown that there is a
correlation with the offspring’s size at birth
and permanent changes in its physiology also
seen in human studies.
2. Dutch Hunger Winter - pseudo experiment
Figure 1. The Fetal Supply Line
that tested pregnant women subjected to Factors along the fetal supply line which can mediate the
severe famine and concluded that maternal differences between maternal nutrition and fetal nutrition
nutrition can influence both size at birth and
disease susceptibility of offspring. - Unlike in pregnant sheep, maternal undernutrition
3. Experiments that conducted crossbreeding and leads to relatively smaller changes in fetal glucose
embryo transplants concluded that the uterine supply in human pregnancy
environment of the mother has a greater - ​Maternal fasting may lead to varying effects on fetal
influence on the fetus’ size at birth than nutrition
parental genotype.
C. Distinguishing birthweight from fetal
B. Distinguishing Fetal from Maternal growth
Nutrition - Initial studies that linked birthweight to possible
- The distinction between maternal nutrition and fetal disease risk prompted later studies to focus on certain
nutrition must be cleared body proportions to test this association
1. Maternal nutrition and fetal nutrition - term - Researches now hypothesize that fetal nutrition as a
used to describe the net supply of metabolic programming stimulus affects fetal growth rather than
substrates to the fetus birthweight
2. Mammalian fetus - grows at the end of long - Distinction between fetal growth and birthweight is
‘supply line’ that links maternal diet at one difficult to make in human pregnancy but readily seen
end with fetal tissue uptake at the other in animals
3. Fetal nutrition comes from studies in sheep for - Experiments done on pregnant sheep showed that
their large size, long gestation and relative fetal weight doesn’t reflect the direct causal
ease of surgical manipulation relationship between fetal nutrition, fetal growth and
4. Fetal diet in late gestation of the mammalian altered physiology, which is also similar the human
fetus is consistent in different species condition
- Placenta is essential in the fetal supply line

References: Harding, J. E. (2001). The nutritional basis of the fetal origins of adult disease​. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30,
15-23
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- Body proportions, therefore, would be a better
measure since birthweight isn’t enough to reflect fetal
growth. But there is little research on this and many
common simplistic assumptions, namely:
1. Body proportions provide info about the
timing of nutritional differences that affect and
limit fetal growth
a. small baby in weight, length and head
circumference: nutrient limitation in
early pregnancy ; small baby but long
and thin: nutrient limitation in late
pregnancy
b. Fetuses exposed to undernutrition from
early or mid pregnancy show thinness
but not those in late pregnancy
2. Nutrient limitation at certain period of
development greatly affects organ growth at
that stage
a. Some experiments done on pregnant
sheep have inconclusive results to
prove this assumption
b. There is a need for more research to
determine this relationship in human
infants
D. Timing and balance of nutrients
- Balance of macro and micronutrients received by the
fetus and the timing of changes in their supply is
Cellular Nutrition
Definitions:
● Anatomy- science of body structures
● Physiology- science of body functions
6 levels of structural organization
1. Chemical - deals with atoms and molecules
2. Cellular - deals with cells
References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
likely important in determining the development of
the fetus
- Placental size and blood pressure of adult offspring
varies based on protein and carbohydrate levels in
women’s diets
- Folate availability may be critical in fetal and
placental growth, and adult disease risk
E. Multigenerational effects
- The debate on whether genetics plays a role in the
link between size at birth and later disease risk is still
ongoing
- Nutritional influences may also affect more than one
generation. Thus, certain characteristics may be
inherited without genetic mechanisms
Synthesis: The paper has cited multiple evidences to
support the claim that nutrition is a central
programming stimulus. Further research must still be
done to distinguish maternal nutrition with fetal
nutrition for they have different implications for
birthweight, fetal growth, and susceptibility to adult
diseases. But one important conclusion drawn by the
author in the paper is that fetal nutrition is key to fetal
growth and future disease risk.
3. Tissue:
Cells + other materials = tissues that
perform different functions.
4 Types of tissues:
● Epithelial - body surfaces, hollow
cavities
● Connective - cartilages, bones,
collagen
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 ● Muscular - skeletal muscles tissue B. Internal (ex. Dehydration from not drinking
cardiac muscle tissue enough water)
● Nervous​ - aka nerve cells C. Psychological (ex. Stress from school or
4. Organ- composed of two or more types of work)
tissues that perform different functions Feedback Systems
5. System - collection of related organs - Regulation mechanism of the body
6. Organismal/Organism - Consist of all - Parts:
systems working together to sustain life ● Receptor - monitors changes
Basic Life Processes ● Control center - evaluates input from
1. Metabolism receptors
Catabolism (breaking down) + Anabolism ● Effector - produces response
(building up) - 2 types:
2. Responsiveness ● Positive​ - reinforces change
- Response to internal/external factors Ex. Blood loss > heart cells weaken
3. Movement > less pressure to pump blood > less
4. Growth oxygen transported by blood > cells
-Increase in size weaken further > more blood loss
5. Differentiation ● Negative​ - reverses change
- unspecialized>>>specialized Ex. Slight dehydration >
6. Reproduction hypothalamus sends signals of thirst
Homeostasis > induces person to drink water >
- Maintenance of relatively stable conditions dehydration is relieved
of the body Homeostatic Imbalances
- May be disrupted ➔ Disorder - abnormality of structure/function
- Interaction of all the systems ➔ Disease - illness characterized by
Important aspect >>>> maintaining body fluids signs/symptoms.
(volume and composition) *Sign - can be observed/ measured
*Symptom - not apparent to observer
Body fluids Basic Anatomical Terminology
- Dilute, water solutions Body Positions:
- Contain O, nutrients and diff. ions

Disruptions come from: Regional Names:

A. External​ (ex. Falling down > getting a cut) ● Head (Cephalic): Skull and face
● Neck (Cervical): supports head

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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 ● Trunk: Chest, abdomen and pelvis ● Positron Emission Tomography (PET): used
Thoracis & Abdominal to study physiology of body structures (like
● Upper limb: Shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, brain/heart)
wrist and hand Cell
● Lower limb: Buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, foot ● Basic, living, structural, and functional units
and groin. of the body
Directional Terms: ● All cells arise from preexisting cells through
● Anterior (Front) cell division
● Posterior (Back) ● Cell Biology or Cytology - scientific study
of cellular structure and function
Planes
- Imaginary flat surface that passes through Three main parts of the cell
body 1. Plasma Membrane
Kinds: ● a selective barrier that regulates the flow of
● Frontal materials into and out of the cell
● Midsagittal ● plays a key role in cell communication and
● Parasagittal their external environment
● Transverse 2. Cytoplasm
● Oblique ● Contains cellular contents between plasma
Sections membrane and nucleus
- View according to plane (ex. cross-section) ● Two compartments:
Body Cavities ○ Cytosol
- Spaces that enclose internal organs ■ Fluid or intracellular fluid
Cranial surrounding cytoplasm
- Houses brain ■ Composed of water,
Thoracic dissolved solutes, suspended
● Pleural - pleura & lung particles
● Pericardial - pericardium & heart ○ Organelles
● Mediastinum - from first rib to diaphragm ■ Little organs
Abdominopelvic 3. Nucleus
● Abdominal - peritoneum, spleen and most of ● Large organelle containing cell’s DNA
GI track ● Chromosome
● Pelvic - urinary bladder, part of LI and ○ A single molecule of DNA
reproductive organs containing thousands of hereditary
Medical Imaging units called genes
- Techniques and procedures used to create
images of body Metabolism and Nutrition
- Important to diagnose abnormal activity
Examples: Metabolic Reactions
● Radiography: simple, inexpensive and quick Catabolism- complex >> simple organic molecules
● Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): for Anabolism - example: protein synthesis
differentiating between normal/abnormal
tissues Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
● Computed Tomography (CT): more detailed - Pairs catabolic rxns w/ anabolic rxns
than MRI
● Ultrasound scanning: safe, noninvasive,
painless

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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 ● Glycolysis (glucose → 2 pyruvic acid; 2
ATP)
● Krebs cycle (produces: 3 CO2, 4 NADH, 4
H+, 1 FADH2 and 1 ATP)

Energy Transfer
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- Basically Chem 16 definitions
Oxidation: - electrons
Reduction: + electrons
** Oxidation is usually exergonic (releases energy)
Exactly why compounds with more oxygen like
GLUCOSE​ give a lot of energy!!

Phosphorylation
- Addition of energy to a molecule via
phosphate group
3 Mechanisms: ● Electron transport chain (makes 26/28 ATP
1. Substrate-level phosphorylation (ADP + P) and 6 H2O) ** found at appendix
2. Oxidative Phosphorylation (ETC)
3. Photophosphorylation (happens only in Glucose conversions:
plants) ● Glucose → glycogen (Glycogen-ESIS; for
storage; by insulin)
Carbohydrate Metabolism ● Glycogen → glucose (Glycogen-OLYSIS;
During digestion: happens bet. meals; by glucagon and
Polysaccharides/Disaccharides → mostly glucose, epinephrine)
fructose/galactose (converted to glucose) ● Noncarbohydrate → glucose
↓↓↓↓↓ (Gluconeogenesis; by cortisol and glucagon)
Glucose
● oxidized for ATP Lipid Metabolism
● for synthesizing amino acids, glycogen and
triglycerides Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins
↓↓↓↓↓ - Because most lipids are hydrophobic, they
Moves via facilitated diffusion must be combined with proteins to be
↓↓↓↓↓ water-soluble (called lipoproteins)
Becomes glucose 6-phosphate - Outer shell= apoproteins
Kinds:
Cellular respiration includes: ● Chylomicrons (transport ingested lipids to
adipose tissue)

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
5
 ● Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs): - Beta oxidation: first stage in fatty acid
contain endogenous lipids; lose catabolism occuring in mitochondria
triglycerides>> LDL - Ketogenesis: formation of acetoacetic acid,
● Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs): carry beta-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone also
most of the cholesterol and distribute to collectively called ketone bodies
other parts; may deposit on arteries (BAD - Ketone Bodies: leave hepatocytes and enter
CHOLE) blood
● High-density lipoprotein (HDLs): removes
excess cholesterol to liver (GOOD CHOLE) Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis
Sources and Significance of Blood Cholesterol - Synthesis of lipids from glucose or amino
● Fatty food w/o cholesterol can still raise acids stimulated by insulin
blood cholesterol! - Occurs in excessive consumption of calories
By: more than what is needed to satisfy ATP
- High intake > reabsorption of needs
cholesterol-containing bile back to - Two pathways of using glucose to form
blood lipids:
- Hepatocytes use some of broken 1. Glucose → glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate →
down saturated fats to make glycerol
cholesterol 2. Glucose → glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate → acetyl
The Fate of Lipids CoA → fatty acids
● Can be oxidized for ATP synthesis
● Stored for later use
● They make up plasma membranes, Protein Metabolism
thromboplastin (for blood clotting),etc. - They are not stored for future use :o
● There are 2 fatty acids that the body cannot - Excess are converted into
make (need to be ingested): glucose/triglycerides (oof bilbil)
- Linoleic acid
- Linolenic acid Fate of proteins
**found in veg. oil/leafy veggies Protein​→​amino acid​→rearranged ​into other
proteins​ with several functions
Triglyceride Storage
- Adipose tissue: removes triglycerides until Protein Catabolism
they are needed ● Worn out cell proteins → amino acid →
- Stored Triglycerides constitute 98% of recycled
body’s energy reserves and are easier to ● Amino acid (to be used for ATP
store than glycogen due to their hydrophobic synthesis)→ deamination (NH2 removed)
nature → produces toxic NH3 → liver turns NH3
- Continually released from storage → to urea → peed out of body!!
released into blood → redeposited in other
adipose tissue cells Protein Anabolism
- Carried out in the ribosomes, directed by
DNA/RNA
- Because the body can’t make 8 amino acids
Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis and insufficiently make 2, they need to be
- Lipolysis: splitting of glycerol and fatty consumed! (bye vegetarianism plans!)
acids
- Lipases: enzymes catalyzed in lipolysis Key Molecules at Metabolic Crossroads

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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3 MOST IMPORTANT MOLECULES ● Amino acids enter body cells for synthesis
● Glucose 6-phosphate of proteins
- Glycogen synthesis​ (after eating) 4. Catabolism of Few Dietary Lipids
- Release of glucose into blood​ (after ● Small portion of dietary lipids catabolized
being dephosphorylated) ● Most dietary lipids are stored in adipose
- Nucleic acid synthesis​ (precursor to tissue
ribose 5-phosphate>> making RNA) 5. Glycogenesis
- Glycolysis​ (is converted to pyruvic ● Nutrient store
acid) ● Excess nutrients → taken up by liver and
skeletal muscle → glycogen
● Pyruvic acid (when there is a lack of 6. Lipogenesis
oxygen) ● Nutrient store
- Lactic acid production​ (happens ● Excess glucose/amino acids → fatty acids
during intense workout) (for synthesis of triglycerides)
- Alanine production​ (alanine is an ● Adipocytes also convert glucose to
amino acid!) triglycerides for storage
- Gluconeogenesis​ (pyruvic→ ● 40% absorbed glucose : triglycerides ; 10%
oxaloacetic acid→glucose absorbed glucose : glycogen
6-phosphate) 7. Transport of Triglycerides from Liver to Adipose
Tissue
● Acetyl coenzyme-A ● Hepatocytes package triglycerides and fatty
- Conversion into acetyl co-A​ (when ↓ acids into very low-density lipoproteins
ATP but ↑ oxygen) (VLDLs) that carry lipids to adipose tissue
- Entry into Krebs cycle​ (1st step into for storage
generating ATP)
- Lipid synthesis​ (excess carbs → fat
BUT humans cannot use fatty acids
to make glucose hence VISCERAL
FAT lol)

Metabolic Adaptations
Absorptive State Reactions
- nutrients enter bloodstream and glucose
becomes readily available for ATP
production
1. Catabolism of Glucose
● ATP is produced through catabolizing
glucose through cellular respiration
● Glucose is primary source of energy in
absorptive state
2. Catabolism of Amino Acids Regulation of Metabolism during the Absorptive
● Amino acids enter hepatocytes (liver cells) State
and are broken down to keto acids - Release of insulin hormone
● Keto acids enter Krebs cycle for ATP - Insulin → increases enzyme activity for
production or synthesize glucose or fatty anabolism while decreasing enzyme activity
acids for catabolism → promotes glucose and
3. Protein Synthesis amino acid entry into cells → stimulates

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
7
 conversion of glucose to glycogen and ● Breakdown of proteins to amino acids in
synthesis of triglycerides and proteins skeletal muscle and other tissues →
- Glucose enters body cells through glucose converted to glucose → released into blood
transporter (GLUT) molecules 5. Gluconeogenesis
- High level insulin → insertion of GLUT4 ● Formation of new glucose from
that increases rate of facilitated diffusion noncarbohydrate sources
*Glucose sparing
- body cells switching to other fuels besides
glucose as main source of energy
- More glucose for brain and red blood cells
6. Catabolism of Fatty Acids
● Fatty acids from lipolysis can’t form glucose
because acetyl CoA can’t be readily
converted to pyruvic acid
● Most cells: catabolize fatty acids → feed
into Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA → produce
energy through electron transport chain
(ETC)
7. Catabolism of Lactic Acid
● Lactic acid → aerobic production of energy
8. Catabolism of Amino Acids
Postabsorptive State Reactions ● Hepatocytes: amino acids breakdown →
- Absorption is complete energy
- Blood sugar levels start to fall due to exit in 9. Catabolism of Ketone bodies
the blood and entry in body cells ● Hepatocytes: fatty acids → ketone bodies
- Blood glucose concentration is maintained
at normal level due to breakdown of nutrient Regulation of Metabolism during the
stores and formation of new glucose Postabsorptive State
1. Glycogenolysis in the Liver - Release of anti-insulin hormones
● Major source of blood glucose - Counter effects of insulin released in
● 4-hour supply of glucose absorptive state
● Release of glucose into blood - Anti-insulin → blood sugar levels decrease
2. Glycogenolysis in Muscle → decrease in insulin → pancreatic alpha
● Glucose formed → catabolized to provide cells release glucagon
ATP for muscle contraction - Glucagon targets liver tissue → increase in
● Glycogen → Glucose 6-phosphate → glucose because of gluconeogenesis and
Glycolysis glycogenolysis
● Anaerobic conditions: pyruvic acid → lactic
acid → released into blood → liver takes up
lactic acid → glucose → released into blood
3. Lipolysis
● Adipose Tissue: triglycerides → fatty acids
and glycerol → released into blood → liver
takes up glycerol → glucose → released into
blood
4. Protein Catabolism

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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 ● Higher metabolic rate = higher rate of heat
produced
● Factors affecting metabolic rate:
1. Hormones
● Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): measured
under basal conditions and increases as
blood levels of thyroid hormones rise
● Calorigenic effect: influence of thyroid
hormones on BMR
2. Exercise
● Metabolic rate increases
3. Nervous System
● Release of Norepinephrine and epinephrine
Metabolism during Fasting and Starvation during exercise or stressful situations which
● Fasting - going without food for many hours increase metabolic rate
or a few days 4. Body Temperature
● Starvation - weeks or months of food ● Higher body temperature = higher metabolic
deprivation or inadequate food intake rate
● Humans can survive 2 months without food 5. Ingestion of Food
provided they drink enough water ● Raises metabolic rate due to energy costs of
● Amount of adipose tissue determines digesting, absorbing and storing nutrients
survival without food ● Food-induced thermogenesis
● Nervous tissues and RBCs still use glucose 6. Age
during fasting and starvation ● Metabolic rate of child = x2 of an adult’s
● Fatty acids and ketone acids are highly 7. Other factors
utilized for ATP production ● Sex, climate, sleep, malnutrition

Energy Balance Total Metabolic Rate

Energy Balance
- Precise matching of energy intake (in food)
to energy expenditure over time
Food Calories
● Calorie (cal): amount of energy in the form
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of water 1 deg C.
● Kilocalories or Calorie (Cal): more often
used and computed by multiplying number
of grams of that component by its energy
content
● Higher caloric content = greater amount of
energy released
Metabolic Rate
● Overall rate at which metabolic reactions
use energy
- Total energy expenditure by body per unit
time
- Affected by:
1. Basal Metabolic Rate (60%)
2. Physical Activity (30-35%)
3. Food-induced Thermogenesis (5-10%)
Regulation of Food Intake
● Satiety: feeling of fullness accompanied by
lack of desire to eat
● Arcuate Nucleus and Paraventricular
Nucleus: hypothalamic areas involved in
regulation of food intake
● Neuropeptide Y: released by Arcuate
Nucleus and Paraventricular Nucleus when
leptin and insulin are low to increase food
intake
● Melanocortin: inhibit food intake

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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 ● Ghrelin: produced by endocrine cells to ● Increased levels of thyroid hormones =
increase appetite increase metabolic rate = increase in body
● Emotion Eating: eating in response to temperature
emotional drives
Nutrition
Regulation of Body Temperature ● Nutrients: water, carbohydrates, lipids,
● Core temperature: in body structures deep to proteins, minerals, and vitamins.
the skin and subcutaneous layer ● MyPlate: a guideline for healthy eating that
● Shell Temperature: near body surface highlights proportionality, variety,
● Too high or too low core temperatures can moderation and nutrient density. Kind of
result in death like the Pinggang Pinoy

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

1. Conduction 1. Anorexia Nervosa
● Heat exchange between molecules in direct ● Chronic disorder
contact ● Self-induced weight loss, negative
2. Convection perception of body image, and psychological
● Movement of air or water between areas of changes that result from nutritional
different temperatures depletion
3. Radiation 2. Fever
● Infrared rays between warmer object and ● Increase in core temperature caused by a
cooler one without physical contact resetting of hypothalamic thermostat
4. Evaporation ● Commonly caused by viral or bacterial
● Liquid → vapor infections and bacterial toxins
*Insensible Water Loss - unawareness of water loss ● Pyrogen: fever-producing substance
in the body ● Antipyretics: agents that relieve or reduce
fever
Hypothalamic Thermostat ● Chill: shivering that occurs due to skin
● Preoptic area: where a group of neurons, remaining cold despite core temperature
considered the control center that functions rising
as body’s thermostat, is located ● Crisis: skin becomes warm, and sweating
● Heat-losing center and heat-promoting starts to occur
center 3. Obesity
● ● Body weight >20% above standard due to
Thermoregulation excessive accumulation of adipose tissue
1. Vasoconstriction
● Decreases flow of warm blood and transfer Synthesis
of heat from internal organs to skin During the introduction, the cell is defined
2. Release of Epinephrine and Norepinephrine as the smallest functional unit of an organism.
● Increase cellular metabolism → increasing Simultaneous reactions keep the cell alive and
heat production functional. If there is a dysfunction inside the cell,
3. Shivering we can expect it to affect the tissues which would
● Resulting contraction in the antagonist then affect the organs and so on until we see its
stretches muscles spindles in the agonist, effect to the organism. Since the study of nutrition
developing a repetitive stretch flex cycle is putting emphasis on prevention instead of cure,
● Greatly increases rate of heat production maintaining the ideal state of the cell is of
4. Release of Thyroid Hormones

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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importance because it is the root of any disorder or
disease.

Appendix

Photo from: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition​. Wiley.

References: ​Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. (2017). ​Principles of anatomy and physiology 15th Edition.​ John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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